In the 21st century, life has become extremely stressful, which why stress management serves as an area of intense interest for contemporary researchers. The source of the issue lies in several aspects, such as the increasing pace of life, interpersonal relations, and competitive workplace environment. Accordingly, people search for means of alleviating the pressure through an array of approaches, such as counseling or mediation. At the same time, while other types of intervention have received wide recognition, the importance of humor in the discussed context is often disregarded, despite its evident positive effect. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the importance of humor as one of the leading stress management strategies.
Alternative Means of Stress Management
Stress relief has become the subject of multiple studies in a variety of areas. The primary objective of contemporary researchers consists of two steps. First of all, it is necessary to identify the main sources of stress in todays environment and classify them accordingly. Once the threats are determined, the next goal is to mitigate their negative effect. In other words, it does not suffice to know the sources of stress, as the crucial point of such research is to provide effective means of coping with the problem. Bansal (2018) refers to the workplace conditions as the main factor causing stress in modern society. It comes from the demanding nature of ones position, as well as tasks, relationships with colleagues, and excessive workload (Bansal, 2018). In addition, Bansal (2018) states that a large portion of stress is caused by change, which can be extrapolated to all areas of human activity. Indeed, fear of the unknown entails, particularly stressful situations, which may have a detrimental effect on ones mental condition, ultimately translating into physical health problems (Kalaivani & Rajkumar, 2017). Consequently, corporate studies have been paying increased attention to stress management techniques.
The range of proposed solutions to the issue of stress is broad and encompasses a variety of approaches. First, Bansal (2018) proposes structural changes, aiming directly at the source of the problem. The list includes such means as redesigning positions within an organization and establishing a clearer understanding of the roles expectations on behalf of the management. In addition, Bansal (2018) mentions several techniques, which can be used at a personal level. People are encouraged to seek professional counseling, which may be expensive for some individuals. Next, relaxation techniques, such as meditation and breathing exercises, are referred to as effective interventions. Finally, Bansal (2018) suggests that support groups of family members and friends can help the person overcome the negative effect of stress. Overall, the proposed list does not directly mention humor as one of the possible solutions. Nevertheless, the importance of it cannot be disregarded in the modern environment.
Workplace-related Stress and Leader Humor
As mentioned earlier, competitiveness and difficulties of todays corporate environment account for a considerable amount of stress, which an average person experiences on a daily basis. Challenging tasks and tense relationships with co-workers may create an unfavorable atmosphere within an organization. As a result, the stress accumulates, eventually leading to the workers health issues and the teams poor performance. Therefore, the issue demands intervention from the management, and one of the effective approaches is directly related to humor. Cooper et al. (2018) argue that humor is an indispensable resource, which leaders are capable of utilizing in order to relieve the tension within their teams. The research suggests that humorous interaction initiated by the manager leads to the employees experiencing positive emotions, thus improving interpersonal relationships and promoting productivity (Cooper et al., 2018). Accordingly, it is possible to say that positive emotions are the direct opposite of stress, and their prevalence will be able to alleviate the discussed issue.
Humor in the Context of Change and Existential Anxiety
On the other hand, while the workplace environment is the leading source of stress in ones life, the tension may also be caused by other factors. Bansal (2018) mentions the fear of change among the main issues causing stress, and this problem can be encountered throughout a persons life. Generally, all changes are associated with a certain degree of anxiety, meaning that each individual experiences extreme stress if they realize they do not have control over their own future. In a particularly severe case, this issue may entail an existential crisis and anxiety related to it. This phenomenon usually occurs whenever a person faces major challenges or even life-threatening situations. The described condition was the focus of research conducted by Morgan et al. (2019). A practical study has revealed that humor is a highly promising instrument in terms of its stress relief capability, confirming its anxiety-buffering role. People, who participated in humor-induced interactions amid existential anxiety, demonstrated significant improvements, which proved that this approach is, indeed, beneficial (Morgan et al., 2019). Therefore, humor demonstrates the potential to relieve stress in severe conditions, such as existential crises.
Humor and Stress Caused by Global Issues
Sources of stress vary greatly, encompassing all areas and levels of human activity. While some of them exist on a personal level, which is caused by the interaction between people, there are those that reveal themselves globally. Evidently, many individuals tend to experience heavy stress due to the issues which concern the entire planet. The situation is aggravated by the fact that there is usually a sense of lack of control in this scenario, which is another factor contributing to anxiety. In the year 2020, the whole world was affected by Covid-19 pandemic. As a result, in addition to feeling anxiety in regard to friends and relatives lives, billions of people remained confined to their homes. As expected, the pandemic and the lockdown became additional stress factors, making the situation more difficult. Zahoor (2020) explored the use of humor, and Internet memes, in particular, in the context of pandemic-induced stress. The study showed that the linguistic humor related to the Covid-19 situation proved the essential role of humor as a coping technique amid global issues (Zahoor, 2020). Therefore, humor is an effective tension relief tool on all levels.
Summary and Conclusion
In conclusion, humor is a key instrument of stress management in the 21st century despite the fact that its importance is often neglected in favor of other interventions. Humors usefulness has been researched and confirmed in a variety of settings. First, it is effective in the workplace environment, especially when initiated and encouraged by the management. Second, humor helps people to cope with severe issues, such as an existential crisis. Finally, humor related to global issues over which one does not exercise control can help to mitigate the effect of said issues in terms of ones mental condition. Overall, while the importance and effectiveness of humor are unquestionable, it is not necessary to resort to it as the only type of intervention. A combined approach, in which, however, humor plays a pivotal role, appears to be the best strategy for coping with stress.
References
Bansal, R. (2018). Stress management at workplace. International Journal of Techno-Management Research, 5(4), 29-32. Web.
The peoples life is full of different situations, which require from them to make decisions, respond appropriately, and act.
It is vital for people to stay confident and concentrated in any situation to make the best decision for quality outcomes;
Nonetheless, stress becomes an integral part of life so that coping with it is a crucial skill to preserve health;
The proposed strategies and examples should help students to understand different situations and overcome stress disregarding settings and external factors.
What is Stress?
Stress is a universal mechanism that allows all sentient beings to be flexible in different circumstances.
American physiologist Walter Cannon introduced the term stress in 1932. The term has become more widely used thanks to Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye, who explained the underlying mechanisms of body adaptation (Tan and Yip 170).
All factors that cause pressure are called stressors or stressors. They can be of any nature: physical, chemical, geological (natural elements), biological, social.
Something unplanned can happen to you, but you can prepare yourself to stay calm and concentrated in any situation.
During the study of occupational stress management programs conducted by scientists, the most effective was the one, which included setting precise goals, solving current problems, identifying negative thoughts, time to rest, and time management.
Instead of trying to avoid or suppress them, try to accept it and understand that they are only temporary and will pass soon. In psychology, this strategy is called decentralization.
Take control of the situation
Healthy people identify the source of stress and do everything they can to get rid of it. Making some changes to your lifestyle and surroundings can significantly reduce your stress levels.
Sometimes, a little positive emotion is enough to reduce stress. Even in the most stressful situations, being able to laugh at how you overreacted or misunderstood something will help you turn your negative mood into a positive one (Zhang et al. 1296).
For example, you might say to yourself, It was unwise for me to forget my wallet, but its good that I noticed it now, not at the checkout counter at the supermarket with a full cart of products.
Time management
Very often, stress occurs when we do not have time to do what we need. Therefore, it is crucial to plan your time well in advance so that everything can be managed and avoided.
Avoiding a particular situation makes you delay it. You will not solve the problem if you are continually running away from it, so do not be afraid to face difficulties face to face (Zhang et al. 1296).
Acknowledge the fact that you do not avoid unpleasant feelings and prepare for it in advance using one or more techniques. One stressful situation alone will not change your life.
Conclusion
The stressful situations are unpleasant events; however, they are not inevitable or long-lasting.
The presented strategies allow people to be prepared and confident in to face stress and deal with it.
It is better to embrace the challenge rather than avoid it or behave as if nothing had happened.
Works Cited
Tan, Siang Yong, and A. Yip. Hans Selye (19071982): Founder of the stress theory. Singapore medical journal 59.4 (2018): 170.
Zhang, Yiwen, et al. Promotion-and prevention-focused coping: A meta-analytic examination of regulatory strategies in the work stress process. Journal of Applied Psychology 104.10 (2019): 1296.
Radical atoms originating from molecular oxygen in cells are called reactive oxygen species (ROS). The body uses antioxidants to neutralize the effects of these ROS in the body. However, excess ROS in the body occurs induces oxidative stress because it overwhelms antioxidants protective effects, leading to cell and tissue damage in the body. In essence, oxidative stress stems from an unfavorable imbalance between ROS production and protective antioxidants, resulting in the damage of biomolecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Usually, infection, trauma, heat injury, toxins, vigorous exercise, and hyperoxia trigger short-term oxidative stress.
The damaged tissues and cells generate ROS in excess amounts due to increased stimulation of enzymes, such as lipogeneses, xanthine oxidase, and cyclooxygenase. Moreover, the secretion of copper ions, release of free irons, activation of phagocytes, and interference of the electron transport chains contribute to excess ROS production. An imbalance between protective antioxidants and ROS in the body is associated with the occurrence, development, and progression of cancer. The extent of chemotherapy and radiation therapys side effects is also associated with the imbalance of antioxidants and ROS in the body. Additionally, excess ROS has a role in initiating and developing age-related eye diseases, Parkinsons disease, and diabetes.
Oxidative Stress and Biomedical Conditions
Researchers have claimed that oxidative stress has numerous roles in numerous biomedical conditions, such as cancers, inflammation, and aging. Currently, oxidative stress has been linked to the genesis and progression of inflammatory diseases, including vasculitis, lupus erythematosus, arthritis, adult respiratory diseases syndrome, and glomerulonephritis. Oxidative stress is also associated with the occurrence of ischemic diseases such as stroke, heart diseases, intestinal ischemia, gastric ulcers, hemochromatosis, hypertension, smoking-related disorders, emphysema, hypertension, neurological disorders, alcoholism, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The presence of ROS in excess causes oxidative stress in the body, leading to the oxidation of proteins and lipids and the transformation of their structures and roles in the body.
Role of Antioxidants on Carcinogenesis
The mechanism of carcinogenesis shows that nitrogen species and ROS, including hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, nitric oxide, hydroxyl radical, and their metabolites, contribute to cancer occurrence and progression. For instance, ROS causes DNA damage by breaking strands, modifying bases, and creating protein-DNA cross-linkages. Researchers have provided ample evidence to demonstrate that free radicals play a critical role in genetic material mutation, the transformation of cells, and carcinogenesis. In analyzing the mechanism of carcinogenesis, radiation induces mutagenesis by damaging DNA via heme oxygenase (HO).
Radiolysis produces radicals and other reactive species, which damage DNA indirectly or directly via HO. The mechanism of DNA damage by radicals occurs by adding double bonds on pyrimidine bases and the removal of hydrogen atoms from ribose sugar, initiating a chain of reactions in cells. Coupled with lipid peroxides, radical also causes the stimulation of carcinogens in the body. Cumulative effects like these trigger cell mutagenesis, change cellular functions, initiate carcinogenesis, and develop cancerous cells in the body.
Antioxidants employ various mechanisms to protect cells and tissues from oxidative stress. Direct scavenging of ROS is one mechanism that reduces their concentration in the body to levels that the normal cellular mechanism can process. Inhibiting cell proliferation and the generation of ROS is another mechanism. For instance, beta-carotene has a protective effect against cancer because its antioxidant properties neutralize the oxidative radicals that cause genetic damage. Moreover, beta-carotene has a photoprotective ability against ultraviolet radiation, preventing it from inducing radicals and causing cancer.
This mechanism suggests that immunity could enhance the protective effect of beta-carotene on cancer. Vitamin C is also another molecule that is important in the prevention of cancer. Possible mechanisms of vitamin C include improvement of the immune response, antioxidant effects, enhanced detoxification, and prevention of synthesis of nitrosamines.
As another important molecule, vitamin E has antioxidant effects, which increases immuno-competence by stimulating the production of T-lymphocytes, boosting cell-mediated response, enhancing resistance to bacterial infection, improving humoral antibody protection, blocking micro cell line formation, repairing damaged genetic material, and inhibiting mutagen formation. In this view, vitamin E plays a critical role in the prevention of cancer and initiation of carcinogenesis. The use of beta-carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E has proved to have a diminishing effect on the risk of cardiac cancer.
Effects of Free Radicals on Aging
Although aging is a natural process, the human body constantly rejuvenates itself and prevents aging. Researchers have established that free radicals destroy cells and cause significant pathological transformations associated with aging. ROSs existence in the body has been linked to high incidences of disorders and diseases coupled with the aging process. The analysis of the mechanism shows that aging stems from the buildup of molecular, cellular, and physiological products in the body. Researchers have demonstrated that free radicals oxidation to reduce their amounts and diminish the rate of their production slows down the aging process.
Antioxidants in some foods aid in slowing the aging process and preventing the occurrence of diseases among people. Since enhanced oxidative stress happens in the aging process, the use of antioxidants may alleviate the oxidative stress of ROS. Additional research has indicated that the optimal consumption of antioxidants leads to reduced free radicals and diminished oxidative stress, resulting in a slowed aging process. Overall, antioxidants improve the quality of life and increase the life span among individuals.
Protective Mechanisms of Antioxidants
Although antioxidants have numerous effects on the body, two main mechanisms exist. The first one entails a chain-breaking mechanism where antioxidants act as electron donors to free radicals in the body. The removal of secondary radicals (ROS/reactive nitrogen species) through terminating chain reaction is the second antioxidant mechanism. Other mechanisms of antioxidants involve metal ion chelation, gene expression, electron donation, and co-antioxidants.
Antioxidant Enzymes
Superoxide dismutases (SODs) comprise antioxidant enzymes that protect cells from oxidative stress from radicals. SODs constitute a collection of metalloenzymes offering front-line protection against ROSs oxidative stress and its associated cellular damages in all organisms. These enzymes provide protective effects by catalyzing the breakdown of free radicals of superoxide anions into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which subsequently decreases the concentration of ROS in cells. The redox reaction of metal ions present in the cells follows these reactions of SODs. Depending on the nature and type of ions that exist in the active sites, SODs can be grouped as iron-SOD, copper-zinc-SOD, Nickel-SOD, and manganese-SOD. These different groups of SODs exist in varied organisms and dissimilar cellular sections.
As antioxidant enzymes, SODs play a critical role in the protection of the body against free radicals. Numerous studies have confirmed that SODs have physiological significance and therapeutic potential against oxidative stress. SODs act as an anti-inflammatory agent in their mechanism of action, which hinders the initiation and development of cancerous changes. As the SOD levels diminish with age, it increases susceptibility to illnesses related to oxidative stress. In the cosmetics industry, SODs are incorporated in skin-care products because they have anti-aging properties of reducing the damage caused by free radicals, hindering the formation of lines, wines, and spots. Moreover, SODs in skin-care products protect against ultraviolet light, enhance wound healing, relax scar tissue, and rejuvenate tissues.
Ample evidence shows that SODs are significant in the occurrence of numerous disorders. The occurrence of cystic fibrosis, malignant breast cancer, erythrocyte-related diseases, post-cholecystectomy, cancer, AIDS, lateral sclerosis, neural apoptosis, and nephrotic syndrome have some links with SODs. Additionally, other researchers have suggested a significant association between the occurrence of Alzheimers disease and the activity of SODs in the body. Other studies have established that SODs aid in the recovery of burns from mustard gas. SODs are effective enzymes used to treat inflammation and myocardial and cerebral ischemic injuries in diverse animal models.
The action mechanism shows that SODs are small molecules that catalyze antioxidants activity, resulting in the alleviation of oxidative stress. As synthetic compounds, SOD mimetics imitate the role of SODs in the conversion of oxygen radicals into hydrogen peroxide for catalase to neutralize them easily into water. Features that make SOD mimetics effective in protecting against oxidative stress are their minute sizes, comparable activity, and extended half-life than the native SODs. Researchers have attempted to utilize to synthesize SODs and use them as therapeutic agents for diseases stemming from ROS. Literature review shows that SODs have various therapeutic potentials in the treatment of oxidative stress.
Lipid Peroxidation
Lipid peroxidation is a metabolic process that occurs naturally in cells owing to oxidative stress. The process of lipid peroxidation entails initiation, proliferation, and termination. At the initiation phase, the activation of oxygen occurs and forms the rate-limiting step in the process of lipid peroxidation. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma membranes are likely to undergo peroxidation and induce oxidative stress. In cellular biology, lipid peroxidation is an important mechanism that ROS uses to induce oxidative stress and influences the structure of functions of plasma membranes. A growing body of evidence has indicated that lipid peroxidation is not only a destructive process of oxidative stress.
New findings have indicated that initiators of lipid peroxidation, lipid hydroperoxides, and oxygenated products have a role in forming signal transduction cascade, regulation of cell proliferation, and control of cellular growth. Further findings have shown that ROS and lipid peroxidation activators and mediators of apoptosis are key in preventing carcinogenesis, clearance of virus-infected cells, and elimination of damaged cells.
Additional findings demonstrate that lipid peroxidation plays a role in the suppression of carcinogenesis and cancer growth. While some studies show that n-6 fatty acid linoleic acid enhances cancer progression, other studies demonstrate that n-6 fatty acids and n-3 fatty acids prevent the growth and development of cancerous cells. The interaction of products of lipid peroxidation from these forms of lipids has a protective effect against oxidative stress.
These findings are valid because there is a significant correlation between the degree of lipid peroxidation and tumor cells growth in the body. A plausible mechanism of these observations is that pro-oxidants suppress cancer growth while antioxidants eliminate cancerous cells. The extent of cancer elimination relates to the suppression of lipid peroxidation by antioxidants in cells.
The research problem identified by the investigator relates to the prevalence of distress in the police occupation. According to the researcher, the definition of stress significantly applies to the police situation (Violanti, 1983). Stress develops from the perceived imbalance between the social environment and an individual, where failure to meet demands results in severe consequences. Faced with stringent legal regulations and patrolling demands, the police can undoubtedly perceive work as out of control. Moreover, the probability of failure in a police task is high because many crimes remain unsolved, and court cases are dismissed. Therefore, the police working conditions seem to fit the articles definition of stress: many job demands, a low response capability, and the possibility of failing. The research problem is clearly stated as it provides a comprehensive overview of the issue and acknowledges other researchers perspectives.
The study was conducted because police officers are highly affected by stress-related sicknesses, including diabetes, heart disease, and suicide attempts. The police were ranked highest in heart disease among professional occupations, including lawyers, physicians, and professors. In addition, the rates of suicide in the line of work were twice as high, and it outnumbered officer homicides (Violanti, 1983). The author states that approximately 1500 police officers in New York City needed psychiatric help for stress complications within one year. Lastly, compensation claims in the occupation were found to be six times higher than other jobs, with thirty percent claims related to psychological problems and fifty percent linked to high blood pressure. Therefore, police work is among the most stressful occupations; therefore, it is critical to study this trend to ensure police work is done effectively without affecting the officers or citizens they handle. The purpose of this research is to examine the stress levels at various stages throughout a police officers career. There is no theoretical basis for this study. The research questions developed for this research are: is there a possibility that police officers perceptions on stress change after sustained exposure to the job, and is stress related to police work constant?
Measurement
The primary variable of the study was the mean stress measure, which was derived from the Langner-22 list of withdrawal and physiological items. The items were answered in terms of a scale of five points ranging between strongly agree and strongly disagree. For every respondent, the stress measure was the sum of these 22 items. The score of officers involved in the study fluctuated between 22 and 110. The independent variable used was the length of police service, which was divided into four stages depending on the number of years an officer has been working (Violanti, 1983). The stages are alarm (0-5 years), disenchantment (6-13 years), personalization (14-20 years), and introspection (over 20 years). The independent variable is adequate because it has been operationally defined. The authors provided a precise elucidation of the variable mentioned above and how it is measured, which involves the criteria used to group police officers into these stages. By doing this, the investigator will ensure that the experiment does exactly what it needs to manipulate or do to obtain the expected changes on the dependent variable. An operational definition of the independent variable allows the researcher to measure it and establish if it is the one affecting changes on the other variable.
The dependent variable employed was the mean stress score for each respondent. The conceptualization is adequate because it is uniform and stable. If a similar experiment is conducted using the same conditions, experimental manipulations, and respondents, the outcomes on the dependent variable are likely to be very close or equal to what was obtained in this experiment. The measures used by the investigator were valid because the Langner-22 item test employed is simple and extensively used in stress studies (Violanti, 1983). Although controversies over the implementation of Langners scale exist, the method is predicted to be a valid psychological stress measure. However, due to a conceptual confounding of the dependent and independent variables, the measure is not reliable as it is an incomplete measure of mental issues, including stress-related problems.
Research Design
A research design is the selected, overall strategy that integrates the different study components in a logical and coherent way to ensure the research problem is addressed effectively. Violanti (1983) collected data from respondent officers through the Langner-22 item test, which gave the mean stress score of each individual. The figures were compared with the duration of police service, and a line graph was drawn to illustrate how the mean stress score changes at every stage of service (Violanti, 1983). The curvilinear relationship between career stages and stress was tested using polynomial regression. The method adds successive powers of the length of service to the regression equation to account for datas curvilinearity. The regression equation used in the present study is stress = A + B1 (police service length) + B2 (police service length)2.
Every independent variable power added symbolizes a bend in the regression line. Since the graph shows one bend, it means that only one power was added. During the initial stages before the bend, the mean stress score increased significantly as police service length increased. However, in the stages after the bend in the line, there was a significant decrease in stress as police service duration increased (Violanti, 1983). Threats to this research designs internal and external validity include the omitted variable bias, possible measurement errors, misspecification of the regression functions, simultaneous causality bias, and missing the sample selection and data. The omitted variable bias occurs when the independent variable is measured imprecisely, and the error does not disappear even in large sample sizes. The aforementioned sources may cause the polynomial regression model estimator to be inconsistent and biased for the independent variables causal effect on the dependent variable. Therefore, the analysis of curvilinearity via polynomial regression should be restricted to experimental research.
Sampling
The target population in this study was police officers from Western New York police organizations. The sampling frame included full-time officers from twenty-one departments in the state. The frame from which the studys sample was derived is appropriate as it included all officers in the target population. In addition, it constituted respondents who were currently in service and were available during the data collection process. A simple random sampling technique was used to randomly select five hundred full-time officers from the population to take part in the Langner-22 item test (Violanti, 1983). Since the size of police stations varied, smaller organizations were oversampled compared to larger ones. The technique was used because it is straightforward and common in quantitative research. One benefit of the aforementioned approach is that every instance of the population is given an equal opportunity to be chosen. Therefore, this guarantees that the selected sample is an appropriate representative of the sampling frame and that the selection happens in an unbiased manner.
To randomly choose the sample, the random number design was used to assign each police officer in the population a number. By using a random number table, a subset of integers was picked from the entire table, and police officers who correspond to the assigned numbers became part of the population (Violanti, 1983). Most random number tables have about 10,000 random numbers, which are composed of whole numbers between zero and nine. The random selection process continues until the desired sample size is achieved. An advantage of using random tables is that all integers have an equal chance of being selected and, therefore, its use is an efficient way of obtaining a random sample necessary for valid study outcomes. When used on large sample sizes, the sampling technique has high external validity as it represents the larger populations characteristics.
Data Collection
The data collection method used in this study is the Langner-22 item test. The technique measures psychological strain in individuals and is theorized as a variable that intervenes between recent lifestyle changes and adverse health transformation. In this study, the test was composed of twenty-two withdrawal and psycho-physiological items, which were used as a stress measure. Some of the things included in the approach are feeling weak much of the time, being in high spirits, and the sense of being apart even in the company of friends. The aforementioned concepts were answered ranging from strongly disagree and strongly agree responses (Violanti, 1983). Every reply would be awarded points between one and five, respectively, and the sum of these points was employed as the stress measure. In addition, each officer indicated the number of years they have served full-time in the job, and this allowed appropriate placement into the right career stage. Subsequently, the results were discussed in light of the comparison between the stages or length of police service and the mean stress score.
One advantage of using Langners scale is that it is simple and extensively used in research related to stress. The test is a pioneering epidemiological tool that is widely implemented in detecting field cases related to mental issues. Secondly, the scale items are close-ended questions that seek to address self-reported psycho-physiological, psychological, and physiological complaints (Violanti, 1983). Therefore, this means that it is appropriate for measuring mental illnesses, such as stress disorders. Moreover, the items were selected based on their ability to isolate known well and known ill groups. However, the technique does not detect some psychological problems, including mental retardation, organic brain damage, and dimensions of anxiety, depression, anger, delusion, concentration difficulty, suspicion, and memory loss. Another disadvantage is that the scale cannot be used for diagnostic purposes because it does not determine the type of mental illness affecting an individual.
Results
According to the results, there was a curvilinear relationship between the mean stress score and the stages (length) of police service. The findings also show that the level of stress changes through the various officer career stages. Stress tends to increase in police officers in the alarm stage because the mean stress score increased to 53.31 from 40.35 during the initial five service years. Although stress levels will remain high from the first stage, police officers in the disenchantment stage do not experience increased stress. In the personalization stage, stress begins to reduce as the stress scores decreased from 58.12 to 45.6 from fourteen years to twenty years, respectively (Violanti, 1983). Finally, stress continues to decrease in the introspection stage. The stress scores lowered to 40.50 in police officers who are thirty-six years old. However, there was some stress increase before twenty-five years. The author noted that the increased tension might be due to anxiety about the expected retirement, but stress tends to decrease after this age.
The above results prove the studys hypotheses, and, therefore, they fit with the original objectives. The first research question was to determine the possibility that police officers stress perceptions change due to continued exposure to the job. According to the research, police officers manage to reduce work stress on time despite the strong imbalances and pressures that arise from stressful working conditions. Therefore, this shows that they adapt and cast off the severities of work burdens. The second objective was to investigate whether stress is constant throughout the length of police service (Violanti, 1983). The researcher established that stress is not a continuous element in police service as it varies based on the perception that officers have of their work at different career stages. There was a significant increase in stress during the initial thirteen years of their career, which decreases substantially with increased service time.
Implications of the Findings
The investigators first conclusion is that stress is not consistent in police work as it depends on officer perception at different career stages. The aforementioned findings are linked to the complex association between work roles and individuals; workplace responsibilities offer people the best way of achieving intricate life goals, but they must pay the membership price, which involves the restriction of will, psychological well-being, or control. Violanti (1983) explains the importance of the above findings using three reasons. First, they explained how stress affects police officers throughout the course of their careers. By doing this, the researcher filled a research gap because this had not been previously investigated.
Secondly, the study demonstrated that individual officers are not entirely at the mercy of job pressures that stress them. Officers can manage to reduce stress in their lives despite the imbalances and strong pressures that arise from stressful work environments. Subsequently, this demonstrates that an individual police officer can perceptually adapt to the challenges that come with the police function and eliminate job pressure rigors. Based on this idea, Violanti (1983) reinforced individual perceptions efficacy in identifying stress levels. Lastly, the research findings can be used in isolating problem years in police departments. A significant outcome of the investigation showed that there is a substantial stress increase in the initial two stages of service (0-13 years). Managers can, for instance, concentrate stress reduction programs on officers in these particular phases. Moreover, new officers can be oriented on the possible stress periods in their future years of service. The author also concluded that police work stress seems to go through a predictable course, which highly depends on the perception of the workplace surrounding and experience.
With regards to discussing avenues for further research, the author stated that police departments could focus stress reduction programs on employees in the first two stages of their career. Future research can concentrate on developing evidence-based stress reduction approaches among police officers with less than thirteen years in the work. Subsequent research can also center on training police officers on, for example, perception modification or career adaptation early enough to reduce stress levels as they advance their jobs. Since the course of stress in police work had not been investigated in the past, this study opens an untapped area of research that could be advanced by other professionals in the field.
An area that should be expanded on the topic of police work and stress is police stressors. Investigation on the most significant sources of police stress will allow police departments and administrators to determine the frequency of these stressors and how they affect their health. Consequently, strategies to lower the exposure of police officers to these stressors can be established. The shortcoming of this study is that the author did not establish whether the elected sample is an appropriate representation of the entire police force in America. The data was collected from 21 police departments in Western New York State only. Violanti (1983) did not conduct a power analysis on the chosen sample, and this makes it impossible to ascertain the sufficiency of the sample in minimizing type 2 errors. Another limitation is that the researcher did not provide a comprehensive overview of the studys limitations and strengths. The study did not have any spurious issues because the dependent and independent variables are associated and causally related.
Reference
Violanti, J. (1983). Stress patterns in police work: A longitudinal study. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11(2), 211216.
Psychology is one of the most dynamic studies in academia. Generally, psychology is concerned with the study of human behavior in the environment, factors that influence behavior change and other behavior determinants. Psychology involves research activities because it is concerned with finding out.
There are several research methods that are used in psychology to assist in the explanation of different behaviors among human beings. Research methods used in psychology use different methods of data collection, sampling and analysis process. Basically, the different techniques used determines the respective methods used in psychological research.
There are different methods due to diverse needs in research. Furthermore, the methods used also depend on whether they are used to collect qualitative or quantitative data. There are two major types of psychological research, for instance, qualitative and quantitative psychological research.
However, these are further subdivided into correlational, descriptive and experimental research methods. This study report highlights the causes and effects of stress using qualitative psychological research method. Furthermore, the report discusses the research methods and their applicability in psychology.
Psychology is a challenging field of study. This is due to the research methods used in the process of analyzing and finding solutions to the global psychological challenges and problems. Considering the analysis and study of the research methods, I decided to use the qualitative psychology research method.
This is one of the commonly used research methods because its easy to understand and implement (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, & Davidson 2002). Furthermore, the methods used in the data collection and analysis are easy to learn hence increases the chances of drawing reliable and realistic conclusions. Research is conducted in psychology to provide solutions to the social problems that can be solved psychologically.
Before designing the research, I will have to fully understand the concepts used in qualitative psychology research method. Generally, qualitative research findings are naturalistic. This method enables researchers to understand behavior in a natural setup.
Qualitative psychology research uses data collection methods such as interviews and questionnaires among others. My main aim is to report on a study using qualitative psychology research, and I will use a questionnaire to collect data that I will use for analysis and determination of results thereafter (Nesbit & Hadwin 2006).
Stress is a state of instability mentally. This is one of the most common psychological challenges that several people face around the globe. There are different factors that are believed to cause stress and their effects on individuals.
However, these factors differ based on the environment where individuals operate or conduct their daily activities (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983). Stress may affect an individual negatively, which will be discussed in this report.
Methodology
The research method that I have decided to use for the study is the qualitative research method in psychology. There are different methods of data collection used in qualitative research process.
However, I will use a questionnaire to collect data that I will use in the study. Using questionnaires is advantageous because it enables a researcher to collect reliable information that can be used in analysis and drawing of realistic and reliable conclusions. I will design an open ended questionnaire based on the research topic, which is what are the causes and effects of stress (Butler 2006).
Generally, the questionnaire will also have multiple choice questions. The multiple choice questions will test the ability of the respondents to determine the effects and causes of stress based on the presented information.
On the other hand, open ended questions will be used to give the respondents the opportunity to provide extensive and detailed information on the causes and effects of stress, and their individual experience (Lincoln & Guba 2003).
The questionnaires will be distributed to individuals in different areas. The research will target students and professionals. This is aimed at analyzing the causes and effects of stress in a working environment and learning institutions. Questionnaires will be distributed to students from different learning institutions and individual professionals from different companies producing different goods and offering different services.
The target groups are students and professionals because stress is common in learning institutions and working environments. Moreover, there are different causes and effects of stress on students and practicing professionals in different working environments (Leech & Onwuegbuzie 2007).
The questionnaires will enable me to determine the most common causes of stress among students. Furthermore, the questionnaire will enable me to determine causes of stress among working individuals and individuals despite their employment status.
Furthermore, it will enable me to discuss and highlight the most common causes of stress and their effects on the development and execution of duties and responsibilities in the workplace and at the family level. The questionnaires will be distributed to students in three higher learning institutions around my school, and other institutions in different industries. In schools, the questionnaires will be distributed to students and staff.
This will enable me to receive responses from students in different learning environments and professionals working under different conditions. Generally, this will enable me to collect diverse data, which will enable the presentation of reliable and realistic conclusions.
600 questionnaires will be supplied to cover for any responses that might not be received within the specified time for data collection. I intend to collect data within 30 days and targets 450 respondents. This is the sample size that I will use for my analysis (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, & Davidson 2002).
Data analysis
The questionnaire will be used in the analysis of data. The questions contained in the questionnaire addresses several the research questions. However, conclusions will be based on the responses received.
After receiving the expected number of responses, I will summarize the responses on the questionnaires based on the area of data collection, for instance, per institution where the questionnaires were supplied and other companies or organizations from other industries. Thereafter, I will generalize the summary as per different categories, for instance, learners and practicing professionals.
This will give me an easy time of presenting findings based on the views and preferences of students and practicing individuals. It will also enable me to determine the causes and effects of stress among students and individuals in the job market (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983).
Results
Stress is a psychological problem that affects the normal operation of individuals. Individuals may be stressed due to several reasons irrespective of where they work, study or live. Stress is part of human life, which must be managed to promote quality living. It is perceived that employed individuals are prone to stress that the unemployed individuals.
However, after extensive research on the causes and effects of stress, I came to realize that any individual can be stressed due to different reasons. Although there are several causes of stress, there are five major causes that were pointed out as a cause of stress by most respondents.
The most common causes of stress according to most respondents are workplace stress or tension, financial problems, health, personal relationships and irritants. Furthermore, most respondents reported that the effects of stress are mental instability, headache, lack of motivation and poor performance.
According to the data obtained, 80% of employees perform poorly because of stress, while 70% of students are not able to accomplish their academic goals due to stress.
Furthermore, 65% of stress among students is caused by financial strain, personal relationships, irritants and poor health. 73% of the respondents in the working environment are stressed due to financial problems, personal relationships, irritants, tension in the workplace and poor health status.
Discussion
Stress is a psychological challenge that can be caused by different factors in the global environment. Learners and working individuals may be stressed due to several reasons. It is believed that stress is caused by external factors and individual attitude and perceptions.
Stress has compromised the quality of life because it leads to adverse health effects such as coronary heart attack and respiratory diseases among others. There are several causes of stress according to this study. However, there are five common or major causes of stress according to responses received (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).
Financial problems
Individuals require money to acquire several products or goods. Furthermore, money is essential in accessing different services in the global environment. Money is a basic need because it is used in the acquisition of basic needs. Financial problems such as debts and inability to acquire or afford basic needs may cause stress. This is a problem that working individuals and students face.
Basically, employed individuals are expected to provide fullness to their families and ensure they are comfortable (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983). This is not possible in case an individual is faced with need to cut down on expenditures due to the increasing cost of education, payment of credits and high cost of health services.
This may also stress the family of the respective person, especially students because they might not be able to afford their basic needs in school due to limited funding support from their parents or guardians facing the same situation (Tennant, et al. 2007).
Considering the number of respondents who identified financial problems as a cause of stress, it is true that financial problems or strain may be the major cause of stress among individuals.
Workplace stress
There are several factors that may cause stress at the workplace. Workplace stress is also caused by tension due to several reasons, for instance, anticipation of promotion, retrenchment, demotion and termination of employment among others. Uncertainties in the workplace may lead to stress. Junior employees may also be stressed incase they are working under strict bosses or those who bully them among others.
Change is part of business operation. Change introduction in an organization may affect individual employees positively or negatively. Employees are stressed in case an organization where they work plans to introduce changes that might cause them the position or lead to demotion. This has led to change resistance among employees in an organization.
However, whether employees resist change or not, it must be implemented according to the strategies of the respective organization (Tennant, et al. 2007). This stresses several employees and affects their way of life.
Organizations are divided into departments; individual departments are assigned specific objectives or goals that should be achieved within a specific time to aid in the achievements of the overall goals and objectives of the respective organization. Employees must be determined to achieve these goals because failure may render them incompetent, and lead to demotion or termination of employment.
This leads to tension because most objectives have strict deadlines. Employees work to achieve the stated goals and any sign that shows inability to achieve the set goals and objectives within the stated deadline cause stress at the workplace (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983).
Personal relationships
Personal relationships may also be a source of stress although it is a source of comfort. Personal relations include parents, children, relatives and spouses. Studies of children may cause stress to their parents because they have to provide finances despite the high cost of living and education. The number of children seeking education may also determine the intensity of stress.
Sickness of a family member, spouse or relative may also cause stress because they require finances to access medical services (Tennant, et al. 2007). Furthermore, high dependence from relatives may also cause stress because individuals have to balance between the relatives needs and their family and personal needs, which require financing.
Personal relationships may also cause stress to students due to instable relationships. Currently, several students are engaging in affairs, which might cause them stress due to the unstable nature of most relationships of students. Moreover, infidelity in the family or relationship may also cause stress in case an individual is not able to handle it or encourage his or her partner to be faithful (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983).
Health
Health is a major concern for several people. Leading a healthy life requires finances, for instance, controlling hypertension, losing weight, maintaining good health or gaining weight among others. Individuals are concerned with the status of their health because productiveness requires healthy living.
An individual may not perform if his or her health is poor. Therefore, maintaining healthy lifestyles is a cause of stress to both working individuals and students (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).
Irritants
Apart from the cases mentioned and discussed above, other causes are irritants that compromise daily activities. Factors that irritate individuals are commuting to work, balancing education and family life, balancing work and family responsibilities, discussing family challenges, parents meeting on childrens school and lack of relaxation time among others (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).
Effects of stress
Stress affects individuals negatively. There are several effects of stress according to the study, for instance, poor health. Stress may lead to poor health because it may lead to contraction of diseases such as hypertension among others.
The poor health may affect performance of employees at the workplace hence lead to demotion or termination of employment. It may also hinder students from achieving their academic goals. Furthermore, stress may lead to instable families and relationships, which lead to breakups, fights and suicides among others (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).
Conclusion
Stress is a challenge that individuals face, but must continue living. The research has revealed that stress is caused by poor health, workplace stress, irritants, financial problems and personal relationships.
Furthermore, stress may aggravate hypertension and other chronic diseases, lead to marriage or relationship breakups and fights. Stress can also lead to suicide and demotion or termination of employment due to poor performance in the workplace.
List of References
Butler, D. L 2006, Frames of Inquiry in Educational Psychology: Beyond quantitative-Qualitative Divide, Handbook of Educational Psychology, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 903-927.
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelestein, R 1983, A global Measure of Perceived stress, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, vol. 6 no. 5, pp. 386-396.
Fossey, E., Harvey, C., McDermott, F., & Davidson, L 2002, Understanding and Evaluating qualitative research, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 13 no. 9, pp. 717-732.
Leech, N., & Onwuegbuzie, A 2007, An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation, School of Psychology Quarterly, vol. 6 no. 4, pp. 557-584.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, G 2003, Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks.
Nesbit, J. C., & Hadwin, A 2006, Methodological Issues in Educational Psychology, Handbook of educational psychology, vol. 35 no. 7, pp. 825-847.
Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., et al. 2007, The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation, Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, vol. 3 no. 4, p. 5.
Statistics from the education sector have suggested that approximately twenty million of college students are acquiring their various degrees online, a phenomenon vastly referred to as distance learning.
The e-learning curriculum has been mentioned to be the most appropriate technique. In addition, it has assisted colleges increase their enrollment to thousands of students given the reduced pressure on the resources. According to several researches carried out, the large number of college students being enrolled through the online procedure is accredited to less stress experienced by the scholars.
The distance learners have been perceived to be enjoying a suitable environment of learning as opposed to the traditional classroom learners who experience high levels of stress. This stress has been explained by the investigations to have emerged from extreme burdens and pressure which have been noticed to lead to poor environments for their learning activities.
Major findings supported Aragon, Ballenger and Blairs replica of the behavioral characteristics (shyness) and disabilities (deafness) as possible factors that can impart stress to a college student attending traditional classroom lessons. There are higher dispositional, situational, and institutional encumbers that can impart a lot of stress and creating a poor environment for learning to a scholar undertaking traditional classroom studies.
Introduction
The different techniques of educational designs for students in learning institutions have led to the development of a gap between those enrolled through online criteria and those enrolled through the students physical presence within the classroom. With regard to this, several indifferences have emerged concerning the best learning environment either for the traditional classroom learners or their distance learning counterparts.
This discussion emphasizes on the stress levels among the students. This paper will support the fact that college students attending traditional learning environments have significantly higher stress levels as compared to students in distance learning environments.
According to Peterson (2001) college students undertaking e-learning as compared to those of traditional learning have fewer costs of movement which provides a good environment for learning. Basing on this writers perception, these students need only computers as well as connections to the internet to settle down and read.
However, commuting costs are greatly reduced. He further adds that these students do not have to move all over the country before attending a college but can attend a college virtually anywhere. The writer claims that the environment of traditional learners is full of stress with several queries on how they will get the traveling costs from here to there attending to lectures.
In Lynch (2002), traditional learners face increased stress levels as in storage of their important information. They have to incur amplified printing costs. This is opposed to electronic learners who dont necessarily need to print out materials as their information can be read and stored in the computer.
To these learners, the whole syllabus on the course, instructions plus all other learning materials contained in course management system are retrieved online. In addition to this, printing is optional. Kiefer (2007) backs up the idea by stating that in submission of the homework plus other tasks, traditional learners have to move and present them in form of hard copies. However, e-learners can submit the tasks via email.
Furthermore, assignment files can be uploaded. Assignments are read and graded by the tutors online and comments left through email. Basing on this writers perception, the minimal of paper trailing for the distance learners creates the best environment for their learning thus less stress.
In Peterson (2001), the traditional learners are never able to access some other online materials such as textbooks to improve on their knowledge. This proves a very poor environment for them. The writer unfolds the presence of textbooks online which can be read by e-learners and thus improve on their proficiency about the subject.
He explains on the several offers given by many publishers as well as permissions granted for ordering specific chapters that are needed for any course. With regard to this, the costs of textbooks are cut making electronically read books cheaper than traditional texts. This can lessen further the costs of printing as only required pages can be printed rather than the whole textbook. This creates a proper environment for e-learners to gain knowledge.
Kibby (2007) states, &as in the traditional onsite classroom, online instructors underlying learning theories and pedagogical goals may vary, but the better the fit between the instructors theoretical foundation, pedagogical goals, and available technologies, the more easily attainable pedagogical goals will be (p. 54). He goes further to give some key contemplations concerning traditional learning among college students.
Courses of e-learners should not be duplicate materials of traditional classroom courses but possess their motivational and beneficial rights. Courses for e-learners should incorporate similar objectives to traditional learners and necessitate students to apply their intelligence and express their proficiency through satisfactory appraisal prospects. For objectives to be attained by distance learners, tutors should adjust their curriculum such that they are not restricted by the technology.
However, the increased use and demand for online courses has been found to be as a result of some benefits in the US (Kiefer, 2007). Basing on numerous surveys, the major motive as to why college students look out for online courses that necessitate distance learning is to accommodate their programs/time assurance (Kibby, 2007). Some other connected motives to prefer distance learning to traditional classroom learning are to circumvent commuting and for the absence of local educational programs (Sooner, 1999).
In addition to this, Gagne and Shepherd (2001) back up the perception of advantages of escalating the accessibility by suggesting that learners who are obliged to perform poorly in or those who would be incapable of attending traditional classroom learning have higher chances of flourishing in the online version of a similar course for distant learners thus less stress.
According to a review conducted by Clark (2001), vast online composition tutors believe that their courses offer college scholars with augmented opportunities to work in partnership with and join a society of writers, which the surrounding smoothens the progress of learners giving positive outcomes in peer-appraise groups and permits the development of modified education strategies premeditated to concentrate on individual apprentice strengths and weaknesses, and that it attains these aspirations more sufficiently than the traditional classroom.
In adjunction to these outcomes, Blair and Hoy (2006) also allude to research that propose the rudiments of online experience where there is the allowance of a reserved number of students to be heard and there is liberation of the cases of races and which in most cases have been known to alienate some other scholars.
The writers went further and advanced their concept by stating basing on the assumption that the courses are set up appropriately, the online classroom permits scholars who grow and advance in their studies while they are frustrated with the activities and dialogues that they perform with their fellow students that give them the chances to accomplish home works as well as course works at a faster pace than it is needed and synchronize the customized schedules and endeavors through the direct interactions with the tutor, while the other scholars persist to effectively get pleasure from the joint fundamentals of the course.
Despite the many significant achievements from distant learning that have been put forth, numerous of the respondents from the survey in (Kiefer, 2007) emphasize on the growth of staffing and curriculum, the duty of learning shifting on a larger note to the scholars, there is a high increase in technologically based knowledge among scholars, other media kinds of writing are included in the learning curriculum, college scholars in remote areas also have direct access to education, the established relationships among online college scholars are better off as contrasted traditional based classroom learners, high and increased diversity among the students, there is high anticipation expected from the production among the students by the tutors, most learning sessions emphasize greatly on illustration features of writing and lastly the courses done by distant learners have a positive consequence on the wellbeing of the students.
According to this writer, the benefits accrued by distant learners as opposed to traditional classroom learners are direct proves of a positive and rather good environment for these learners.
On totting up to the augmented motivation for college scholars to build up their knowledge on computers, Kibby (2007) argues that the credibility of the programs of writing is capable of receiving the relevant recognition.
This improves effectiveness because it assists scholars to be able to have some technological based knowledge that greatly facilitate their success in the prospect courses in college as well as careers. It also helps the scholars to be recognizable with the diverse styles of learning. This can enable scholars to work in a stress-free environment.
According to the research cited by Blair and Hoy (2006), its suggested that an amalgamation of writing courses given to distance learners are all suitable for constructivist pedagogies with its main objective being to get scholars to inscribe for a perfectly genuine audience.
The main common objective amongst composition tutors was mainly to drive their scholars establish their interest in considering the desires of their audience, and meeting the desires of the audience necessitates the stipulation of context, the employment of clarity and rational language, and employment of rhetorical ideologies.
Its therefore possible to be disputed that distance learners in online classrooms necessitates college scholars to practice with the help of these fundamentals in their inscription more than the scholars in traditional classrooms would.
Besides, having the best skills of writing with the core intention of meeting the necessities of and to converse perfectly with an explicit audience is datable among the most precious proficiency that our college learners could have some knowledge about.
In a direct and open room where the lectures are performed, the tutors have the comfort of adding up addendums on their own vocabulary and terminologies, rephrasing, considering the response of the audience to the scholars communication, and acclimatizing instructions or elucidations based on the oral and non verbal cues revealed by the audience.
Conversely, the written utterance that is published then sent is difficult to take back and edit. Consequently, the scholars usually encounter the greatest penalty of avoiding writing in a rhetorically resonance way.
Another problem that faces the traditional classroom learners that is not experienced by distance learners is that the dialogue written on paper relating on the activities within the class as well as discussions is endlessly accessible (Blair & Hoy, 2006).
In addition to this, Gagne and Shepherd, (2001) explicitly expose how an appraisal among peers that is conducted by means of synchronous conversations gives an opportunity for scholars to take charge and benefit to the maximum from the rapid brainstorming chats and give comments whereas keeping in mind the asynchronous alternative of assessing the archived interactions afterwards.
On totting up, it has been noticed that there is a lot of appreciation among college scholars undertaking e learning as well as their tutors towards what the merits that have been achieved from the educational curriculum that has allowed the electronic sharing of data amongst them.
Basing on Ballengers (2008) perspective many scholars showed a lot of appreciation because they had most of their time spend in reflection to their personal responses, which gave them an opportunity in articulation of their thoughts in an accurate manner. The activity of distance learning has posed greater insinuations for satisfying the requirements of the audience.
Through the activity, a comfortable environment is created for the college scholars who have naturally developed to be shy and furthermore those who have been uncomfortable with giving answers to a series of questions in a face to face communication. However, some authors may come up and disagree with the perception claiming that the answering of questions for distance learners could possibly limit their chances of developing and improving on their interpersonal communication proficiency.
Lynch (2002) backs up the perception by stating according to his research that the interaction among the distance college learners makes it possible for discussions that allow for a large number of participants with different kinds of comments as compared to the traditional classroom face to face interaction.
A good environment is created in online student discussions. She goes further and cites one more advantage that the online electronic conversation gives an allowance on the response from numerous students simultaneously at the same time. This is opposed to the live traditional classroom discussions where by the responses must be received in turns; one finishes his comment before the next does.
She adds up that the online discussions through the electronic devices foster a lively conversation leading to creation of strong interpersonal relationships among the scholars than the face to face traditional discussions. She sums up by saying that all the aspects that are dealt with by distance learners are in procession with the constructivist pedagogy.
Aragon (2003) explains in his research the merits that are achieved by distance learners that make them have an upper hand in comparison to the traditional classroom learners. One of merits is that there are augmented chances in development of important reading habits.
This is because students achieve their set objectives if they first understand the prospect requirements of the assignment. Basing on this fact, college students from traditional classrooms experience or rather face severe stress due to their reliance on the teachers reminders on due dates, the homework assignments expectations and the assessment of the course readings. They thus develop the dependency on the tutor as a habit.
The online scholars on the other hand are maintained at a state where they develop personal responsibility and cautious reading of the course requirements in order to ensure that they are at par with the rest. In addition to this, the arrangement may smooth the progress of different learning techniques which are designed and appropriate text-based learning more than the oral and visual instructions.
Besides, the benefits of online classes to the scholars, it also has some demerits. In spite of the benefits developed from the online exchange of data, Clark (2001) argues out that contributions to synchronous chats are slowed by technology, resulting conversations tend to appear differently than they would in face-to-face environments (p. 20).
Sooner (1999) suggests in his research that some courses are appropriate for distance learning while others strictly call for traditional learning design. He further argues out that there is need for an interaction between scholars and their instructors. This is a prerequisite for the development and improvement of their interpersonal communication skills.
It can be concluded that the distance learning environments have fewer stress levels than the traditional classroom environment. This can be noticed from vast merits that the online college scholars have that outweigh those of traditional classroom college learners.
Method Section
Secondary sources were employed in collection of assessed data from past research materials of various researchers. These were research accounts that used primary data in solving of problems of research that were intended to determine whether learners within traditional classroom environment face more stress as compared to the environment of their fellow counterparts who are distance learners.
Since there are several investigations that have been carried out on a similar topic, this paper engaged on identifying the various perceptions and analysis and comparing them. This was for the purpose of providing a wide base of literary appraisal on the same topic to emerge with a sound and reasonable implication free from bias. This provided a variety of critical perceptions and elucidations that exist concerning the topic. This further helps the reader to further understand some information that he had not known about the topic.
Reference List
Aragon, S. R. (2003). Creating social presence in online environments. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education,100, 57-68.
Ballenger, B. (2008). The Curious Writer. New York: Pearson Longman.
Blair, K., & Hoy, C. (2006). Paying attention to adult learners online: The pedagogy and politics of community. Computers and Composition, 23, 32-48.
Clark, J. (2001). Stimulating collaboration and discussion in online learning environments. Internet and Higher Education, 4, 119-124.
Gagne, M., and Shepherd, M. (2001). Distance learning in accounting. T.H.E. Journal, 28 (9), 58-65.
Kibby, M. D. (2007). Hybrid Teaching and Learning: Pedagogy versus Pragmatism. In J. Lockard & M. Pegrum (Eds.), Brave New Classrooms (pp. 87-104). New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Kiefer, K. (2007). Do Students Lose More than They Gain in Online Writing Classes? In J. Lockard & M. Pegrum (Eds.), Brave New Classrooms (pp. 141-151). New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Lynch, M. M. (2002). The Online Educator: A Guide to Creating the Virtual Classroom. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.
Peterson, P. W. (2001). The debate about online learning: key issues for writing teachers. Computers and Composition, 18, 359-370.
Sooner, B. S. (1999). Success in the capstone business course-Assessing the effectiveness of distance learning. Journal of Education for Business, 74 (4), 243-248.
Human emotions, feelings of anger, and health are interconnected. This means that people should be able to manage stress if they want to live longer and achieve their potential. This paper begins by analyzing the major issues or aspects associated with human emotions. People who are aware of their poignant experiences will manage them effectively using evidence-based measures. The discussion goes further to examine the connection between stress and health. The final section examines various practices and ideas that individuals can consider to cope with anger and eventually record positive health results.
Introduction
Human beings experience different forms of emotions depending on the situations they are in. Such feelings are usually capable of affecting every persons performance or achievement. Stress also affects people negatively, thereby making it impossible for them to achieve their goals. Managing it can result in positive health outcomes. This paper focuses on the issues of stress, health, and emotions. Meaningful insights are presented that can empower more people to lead high-quality and healthy lives.
Emotion
Cognition and Emotion
Arousal and expressive behaviors in emotion interact uniquely. According to James-Lange theory, arousal will arise before an emotion (Myers, 2011). This will trigger expressive behaviors that are associated with physiological responses. For human beings to experience emotions, they must interpret the existing situation consciously and label them (Myers, 2011). This means that individuals will be physically aroused.
Embodied Emotion
The link between emotional arousal and the autonomous nervous system is what scientists call embodied emotion. This means that any form of arousal will automatically result in a psychological response. This is something associated with or caused by the bodys autonomous nervous system (Toussaint, Shields, Dorn, & Slavish, 2016). Arousal will affect an individuals performance negatively. For example, a person who is about to give a public speech will be unable to deliver once he or she is aroused emotionally.
All emotions do not trigger similar physiological and brain-pattern responses. A study by Toussaint et al. (2016) revealed that the cortical areas of the brain were responsible for diverse emotional and physiological responses. This means that strong emotions will trigger complex brain patterns and physiological responses due to the nature of hormones the body releases. Polygraphs have been in use to measure physiological responses of emotion. However, they are not very reliable when detecting lies. This is the reason why guilty questions are used as alternatives.
Expressed Emotion
Human beings communicate nonverbally through several voluntary or involuntary ways, including dressing, construction, writing, paralanguage, and gestures. This approach ensures that people share adequate information and ideas. Women and men differ in this aspect. This is true since females are talented as natural communicators (Toussaint et al., 2016). This happens to be the case since they are empowered to engage others on a wide range of levels.
Nonverbal expressions of emotions are universally understood. This is the case since all human beings portray similar expressions for joy, fear, happiness, anger, or sadness. Similarly, musical expressions are usually uniform across all cultural groups (Myers, 2011). Latest studies have revealed that peoples facial expressions will influence their feelings accordingly. An individual trying to force an expression of happiness will eventually feel such an emotion. This means that facial expressions will influence the intended mood.
Experienced Emotion
The basic emotions include surprise, joy, disgust, fear, shame, guilt, anger, sadness, contempt, and interest-excitement. These can be differentiated using these two dimensions: valence (either positive or negative) and arousal (whether low or high). The major causes of anger include insulting actions and frustrating experiences that humans might interpret as unjustified, willful, or unavoidable. Its consequences include feelings of pain, vengeance, and suicide (Finlay-Jones, Rees, & Kane, 2015). Happiness, on the other hand, arises from promising or helpful situations or events. Personal achievements and positive feelings will result in increased happiness. This feeling can trigger good health outcomes. Happiness has also been associated with risky behaviors, such as binge drinking.
Stress and Health
Several events will provoke stress responses in human beings. For instance, the loss of a beloved person, injury, or divorce will result in painful emotions. Negative events or experiences can generate feelings of anguish or anger. Human beings respond and adapt differently to stress. Some might cry and engage in various activities to overcome pain. Others will embrace the concept of resilience to respond to the experienced situation in a positive manner (Finlay-Jones et al., 2015). In extreme cases, some individuals might decide to seek psychological support or commit suicide.
Feelings of anger and stress are associated with poor health outcomes. When an individual is affected by stress, chances are high that he or she will embrace inappropriate or risky health behaviors. For example, some people might eat large quantities of food while others will not. Such individuals will record negative health outcomes and be at risk of anorexia or obesity (Myers, 2011). Depression, mental illnesses, dementia, and migraine are also serious medical conditions triggered by prolonged stress. Affected individuals might decide to engage in risky behaviors that will expose them to various illnesses, including HIV/AIDs and addiction.
Some people will be more prone to coronary heart disease than others. Individuals from families with a history of this condition will be at a higher risk of becoming sick. Those who are facing stressful experiences or situations will also be exposed to coronary heart disease (Finlay-Jones et al., 2015). A proper understanding of these differences will empower more people to protect themselves from different medical conditions.
Promoting Health
The ability to cope with stress is a powerful attribute that can result in positive health outcomes. Many people facing this challenge will consider different strategies to record meaningful results. These may include engaging in self-care, talking to friends and counselors, avoiding alcohol and other addictive drugs, seeking therapy, and getting rid of the main trigger. Some people might focus on the most appropriate approaches to become more resilient (Finlay-Jones et al., 2015). A perceived lack of control will eventually affect a persons health outcomes negatively. This is true since the affected individual will engage in drinking or continue to use addictive substances. Such a person might also decide to embrace a risky lifestyle. Such misbehaviors will eventually result in controllable illnesses or suicidal thoughts.
Individuals who have a positive or optimistic outlook on life record positive health results because they respond to challenging experiences effectively. They will recover within a short time whenever they are sick. They will also portray increased levels of optimism and life expectancy. Social support is related to positive health since it empowers people to deal with stress (Myers, 2011). The bodys immunity will increase significantly and eventually improve the individuals health outcomes. People should, therefore, consider these linkages to lead long and healthy lives.
Aerobic exercises are useful because they can help people manage stress and improve their well-being. This is an oxygen-consuming activity that improves the functioning of the lungs and the heart. It also results in muscle relaxation and better sleep (Toussaint et al., 2016). It relieves depression and increases a persons cognitive abilities.
Meditation and relaxation are evidence-based practices that reduce stress by minimizing blood pressure and relaxing different muscles. Such techniques also result in improved body functioning, thereby reducing depression and anxiety. The faith factor reveals that religiously active individuals will have better and longer lives (Myers, 2011). This achievement arises from the social support, positive emotions, and healthy behaviors associated with it. People can consider these explanations or connections to achieve similar benefits.
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) entails the use of alternative practices to promote health outcomes. Although they are not common in medical schools and hospitals, they have been found to deliver positive results (Finlay-Jones et al., 2015). Scientific researchers consider such methods to understand their positive impacts through the use of randomized or control experiments. The findings encourage different people to use CAM techniques to meet their health demands.
Conclusion
The above discussion has indicated that emotions play a unique role in the experiences and health outcomes of all people. A proper understanding of how to cope with emotions and stress can empower more individuals to record positive health outcomes. Meditation, aerobic exercises, complementary and alternative medicine, and religious beliefs are powerful attributes that can result in improved health outcomes.
References
Finlay-Jones, A. L., Rees, C. S., & Kane, R. T. (2015). Self-compassion, emotion regulation and stress among Australian psychologists: Testing an emotion regulation model of self-compassion using structural equation modeling. PLoS ONE, 10(7), e0133481. Web.
Myers, D. G. (2011). Psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Toussaint, L., Shields, G. S., Dorn, G., & Slavish, G. M. (2016). Effects of lifetime stress exposure on mental and physical health in young adulthood: How stress degrades and forgiveness protects health. Journal of Health Psychology, 21(6), 1004-1014. Web.
Since the medieval days, western philosophers have often debated the nature of happiness and the definition of a good life (Collier, Frances, & Haliburton, 2015). Two of the most celebrated philosophers who have helped to expound on these issues are Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. Socrates is another notable philosopher who has provided unique views about the good life. His works are widespread because he has provided the background for the development of these views by newer philosophers, such as Kant and Mill, who came after him. Indeed, Kant and Mills works seem to borrow from the principles of Socrates and other philosophers about ethics, morality, and good life. Although the timelines of their works seem to overlap, they share different views about happiness and the good life. This paper explores their different visions of life, through a critical analysis of their arguments about the morality and ethics of human happiness. In the context of this paper, the phrase the good life and the concept of happiness are used synonymously.
This paper is divided into eight sections. The first one outlines what Kant and Mill say about the vision of the good life. The second and third sections of this paper compare and contrast both visions to find out the areas of commonality and differences in both. From this review, the fourth section of the paper outlines the more compelling view, which is that Kants vision of a good life is more superior to Mills vision of the same. The subsequent section of our analysis delves deeper into this position by comparing the relevance and importance of intention vs. consequence of action. This analysis sets the stage for the sixth and seventh sections of the essay, which explore how Mill and Kants philosophies are useful to modern societies and the treatment of patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The last section of the paper is the conclusion section, which summarizes the main points of the study and reinforces the main arguments of the paper.
What do the Philosophers say about Good Life?
The Good Life According to Socrates
Socrates introduced the concept of the examined life, as a hallmark of his conception of the good life. He argued that through self-examination, people could find out things about themselves that would enable them to live a good life (Young, 2014). Stated differently, he proposed that self-examination would yield positive outcomes that would enable people to live a good life (Collier et al., 2015). In other words, he argued that the whole purpose of self-examination is to understand oneself and rebalance life in a way that would yield a superior quality of life. Based on this analogy, Socrates emphasized the importance of self-awareness as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of the good life. Broadly, this view demonstrates that the reward for self-examination is a good life.
The Good Life According to Kant
Kants description of the good life is non-technical because he points out that the good life is achievable by getting what one wants. Moran (2012) provides a more accurate definition of Kants vision of happiness by saying the good life is a product of continuous wellbeing and the enjoyment of life. Stated differently, Kant suggested that the good life is achieved through a complete satisfaction with ones condition (Collier et al., 2015). Based on these definitions, his vision of happiness is synonymous with a mans preservation and welfare because his definition of happiness is represented by a complete sense of satisfaction with ones life and inclinations. In an article titled, The Critique of Practical Reason, Kant further delves into his vision of what constitutes the good life by saying it is the state of a rational being in the world in the whole of whose existence everything goes according to his wish and will (Hughes, 2014, p. 64). Here, it is critical to point out that Kant outlined a significant difference between happiness and pleasure. He said the good life is not associated with the joyous feeling of living a moral life; instead, it is defined by getting what somebody wants (Moran, 2012). Warner Wick, an independent philosopher, agrees with this view by saying that the good life is only achieved when people pursue their interests or get what they want (Hughes, 2014).
The Good Life According to Mill
John Stuart Mill says the good life is achievable if pleasure is maximized through the avoidance of pain (Young, 2014). In other words, he says the good life is achieved if there is freedom from pain. His arguments are based on a simple metric that gauges the good life on a continuum of pleasure and pain. Therefore, the good life is achievable if people are inclined towards pleasure and not towards pain. His argument is based on the principle that all that is desired and that creates a good life is appealing because of the pleasure it gives (Young, 2014). Using the principle of the greatest happiness, Mill says that people should seek the greatest enjoyment of life (through pain avoidance) to enjoy the good life (Collier et al., 2015). This view is also evident in his utilitarian ideology, which recognizes the power of sacrifice for the greater enjoyment of the whole. According to him, the greatest enjoyment of life would be possible if everyone is involved in the process (Young, 2014). Stated differently, Mill does not believe that the greatest enjoyment of life can be achieved through the happiness of an individual; everyone needs to be involved, or, at least, many people need to experience happiness for the good life to exist.
How are the two Visions Alike?
Although there are significant differences between Kant and Mills visions of the good life, notably, their views overlap on one key area of commonality both philosophers agree that the good life could be achieved by pursuing pleasure. The degree of this pleasure is the only area of difference emerging in both visions (Kant says the good life could be realized through the pursuit of individual pleasure, while Mill says the vision is achieved through the pursuit of collective pleasure). Nonetheless, both philosophers agree that the pursuit of pleasure leads to satisfaction with a persons life and hence the good life.
How different are the Two Visions?
Kants vision of the good life stems from his utilitarian view of ethics, which focuses on the moral law of duty (Hughes, 2014). In other words, he looks at the reason for doing something as the basis for happiness and a good life. Mill uses a different metric for defining happiness. He says that happiness is realized when there is the least suffering among people (Collier et al., 2015). He transfers this reasoning to his explanation of morality because he says that morality is achieved if there is a balance between happiness and suffering (Young, 2014). Here, he separates individuals from the concept of happiness by saying that the latter could be achieved even if a person is not involved in the general pursuit of happiness. In other words, he believes that happiness could be achieved if the majority population feels it (regardless of whether the minority experience it, or not).
This is a significant point of departure from Kants vision because the latter is more individualistic, in the sense that it focuses on the fulfillment of individual desires, as opposed to communal happiness, as a basis for the good life. Kants vision of happiness and the good life fundamentally differs from that of Mill because it is not based on morality. Comparatively, Mill bases his definition of happiness and the good life on morality. Stated differently, Kant says one person may not necessarily feel happy by doing what is moral (Moran, 2012). Mill believes otherwise because he says that the good life is only achievable if morality prevails, or a greater number of people feel pleasure, as opposed to pain.
Who has the more Convincing Vision of the Good Life?
Through our analysis of both Kant and Mills vision of the good life, we find that both philosophers have fundamentally different bases for defining what the good life entails. However, I believe that Kant has a more convincing vision of the good life because, by its definition alone, the good life is a personal experience, which one lives by engaging in activities that he/she considers worthwhile. I believe that this is mostly an individual endeavor. Therefore, the greater good principle outlined by Mill fails to hold credence because people do not often engage in the same types of activities, or consider similar activities to be worthwhile. If we were to further analyze Mills argument in a broader (universal) sense, we would find his arguments flawed in the sense that, what causes suffering, or pleasure, tends to change across cultures, events, places, and timelines. In other words, different things bring happiness to different people, cultures, countries, and even regions. Indeed, even in one family, it is difficult to find all members interested in doing the same things. Using this example alone, I find it hard to believe that the happiness of most people in a family should amount to happiness for the entire family. Comparatively, if we were to allow everyone in the family to pursue their versions of happiness, we are more likely to realize a goal where everyone is happy or is living the good life, in their way. In this regard, I believe that the generalization of the concept of the good life is the greatest weakness of Mills vision. However, the weakness in my argument is hinged on the fact that individual pursuit of happiness could infringe on others happiness and lead to the failure to realize the vision of the good life.
What is more important, Intention or Consequences of our Actions?
The balance between intention and consequences of action has subtly influenced how Mill and Kant define the good life. According to Kant, the intention is more important than consequences; however, according to Mill, the consequence is more important than intention (Collier et al., 2015). The differences in their views stem from their visions and understanding of morality. The intention is mostly denoted by a persons goodwill, while a consequence is denoted by the effect that such intentions could have on society. Stated differently, when looking at the intention, we are examining the morality and ethics of our actions. I believe when evaluating the importance of intention and consequences, it is important to consider the context of analysis because this would be the guiding principle of our evaluation. The context of the good life provides us with one such focus because it directs us to where the source of happiness lies.
Similarly, I believe that intention is more important than the consequences of action because the latter is often subject to different factors. Comparatively, the intention is often unwavering and more common among different groups of people, compared to the consequences of an action. For example, we find that the will to no harm is common among many societies. However, how to achieve this goal varies across them. Furthermore, what may work well in one context may fail to work in another. Based on this example, I believe that people should be much more focused on intention, as opposed to the consequences of an action. This view is close to the vision of Kant and Socrates about the good life because it focuses on peoples desires as a source of happiness, as opposed to what society expects of them, or what most people deem ethical and moral.
How can these Findings Apply to Modern Society?
Modern society is different from past societies because new complexities and forces define it. For example, globalization is a real thing today and it influences different aspects of our social, political, and economic lives, in ways never thought before. Similarly, many factors are influencing the vision of different societies about the good life. For example, some previously conservative societies in Asia are today adopting the western lifestyle of consumerism and are using it as a measure of the good life. The same is true in Eastern Europe, which was mainly communist. Generally, there is a sense of commonality developing across different societies regarding the ideals of life that similarly influence our vision of the good life.
Buoyed by an influx of ideas from different parts of the world, modern society is increasingly finding itself spoilt by an ever-increasing number of options and a cocktail of ideas about life. These influences have affected our perceptions and ideas regarding the good life. Kant and Mills visions of the good life could be useful in providing clarity to a world characterized by increased options and a high influx of information about almost anything. Socrates vision of the good life also comes into sharp focus in this respect because he outlines the balance many people face between convenient conventionality and the truth that could come from self-examination. What we choose, between these two polar ends, would determine whether to consider the lives we live as philosophically good, or true to our identities.
How can these Findings Apply to People Suffering from PTSD?
People with PTSD are likely to experience depression, low self-esteem, and more likely to have suicidal thoughts compared to the general populace. Kant and Mills visions of the good life apply to this problem because they outline different thought processes that victims could use to get out of the quagmire. Furthermore, their philosophies could help improve the response and treatment of PTSD in psychology and therapy treatments. To have a better understanding of Kants vision of the subject matter, we base our analysis on his view of suicide. According to him, suicide is unacceptable and immoral because human beings have a duty to stay alive (Moran, 2012). Thus, he believes that the utmost duty human beings have in the world is to take care of themselves, before performing any other duty. The failure to do so would be disastrous because it would mean that a person would not be able to perform other duties required of him or her.
In the context of PTSD treatment, we find this analogy useful because it implies that suicide is not an option out of the problem and instead of wishing it away, or putting an end to the misery through death, victims of PTSD should seek treatment, as a prerequisite for their happiness. Based on these arguments, we find that Kant espouses two main arguments relating to PTSD. One is that victims of PTSD have to perform their duty, which is to get better, so long as they are alive. The second one is that they should try to live as long as possible (Moran, 2012). All these arguments encourage victims of PTSD to seek help because it is their moral duty to take care of themselves and their duty to stay alive.
Mill has a slightly different view of human suffering because his arguments are often informed by the difference between individual actions and collective actions. PTSD is mostly an individualized problem and affects the realization of the good life, as described in our text. If we were to apply the principles of Mill to this problem, we find that he justifies the actions that an individual would take when suffering from PTSD, regardless of whether such actions cause a greater sense of happiness or pleasure to others. Therefore, if PTSD causes greater harm to the people around the affected person, it would be prudent to address it. Mill gives no specifics to the kind of actions that victims could take to get better because he argues that people have a right to take their own life or be punished for causing harm to others (Young, 2014). This view is profound in his assessment of the harm principle. Unlike Kant, Mill is open to allowing people to harm themselves because it is their right to do so. However, he clarifies that this position does not mean that it is morally right to do so.
Conclusion
In this essay, I have explored the views of Socrates, Kant, and Mill regarding the good life. More importantly, I narrowed down on the views of two philosophers Kant and Mill and explained the areas of similarity and differences regarding their visions on the same. Kants vision of the good life emerged as the superior view because it recognizes the concept of individualism, which characterizes most societies. In my view, Mills vision is relatively flawed because it generalizes peoples desires and perceptions of the good life. However, the weakness in my argument is hinged on the fact that individual pursuit of happiness could infringe on others happiness and lead to the failure to realize the vision of the good life. Regardless of these differences, we find that the good life is mostly described by engaging in activities that the concerned parties would deem worthwhile. These activities typically require a will to exercise human excellence. Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge that developing, or exercising, the virtues espoused by Kant and Mill is by no means living the good life, in the simplistic sense of the phrase; instead, it is a way of doing so.
Reference List
Collier, C., Frances, R., & Haliburton, C. (2015). Bioethics in Canada: A philosophical introduction. Toronto, CA: Canadian Scholars Press.
Hughes, J. (2014). The role of happiness in Kants ethics. Aporia 14(1), 61-70.
Moran, K. (2012). Community and progress in Kants moral philosophy. New York, NY: CUA Press.
Young, G. (2014). Ethics in the virtual world: The morality and psychology of gaming. London, UK: Routledge.
The governments lack of ability to balance its budget is fiscal stress. It creates a state of disparity in provisions of government services and the inability to cater for such services.
According to Mouritzen, fiscal stress creates a situation in which to balance the budget, a government must increase taxes, reduce real expenditures or engage in some combination of the two (Mouritzen, 1992). Schick noted that the government also experiences scarcity of resources in its budgeting (Schick, 1980).
This is because the public needs several services, but their willingness to pay for such services are low. Consequently, fiscal stress is always present in budgets of governments. However, it is the fluctuation of such resources in governments budgets that differs among governments.
Levine noted that states and local governments should be in charge of balancing their budgets on an annual term. According to Levine, responsibilities of balancing budgets at the local levels make symptoms of fiscal stress identifiable at local government levels than at the federal government level (Levine, 1980).
The state government and local authorities may use different services they provide to the public to measure the level of fiscal stress. They look at the imbalances that occur when providing services and receiving funds for such services.
In addition, the need to spend and resources available do not match in most cases. For instance, the State of Michigan may experience difficulties in provisions of public facilities to its rising population.
A number of studies have emerged to address challenges which result from difficulties in measuring local government fiscal situations (Kloha, Weissert and Kleine, 2005).
As a result, studies base fiscal stress indicators on decisions of the local government and underlying economic situations, which cause fiscal crisis (Skidmore and Scorsone, 2009).
Causes of Fiscal Stress in the States
The state can experience both short-term (transitory economic shock) and long-term (structural budget imbalance) fiscal stress (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). These conditions may create a gap between the projected revenues and expenditures.
Transitory Economic Shocks
When economic situations are weak, the local government reduces its tax revenues and the state government reduces aid. There is an increase in demands for public services and loss of investment opportunities. Local governments rely on a stable source of revenue (property taxes).
This makes them experience minimum effects of fiscal stress than state government that depends on revenues from sales and incomes. For instance, in 2006, house prices fell by 27 percent.
This implies that the property collections shall fall in the coming years as the local government shall adjust its property tax systems to reflect the market standards (Feldman, Courant and Drake, 2003).
Thus, any decline in the collection of taxes shall cause fiscal stress as demands for public services increase (Pagano, Hoene and McFarland, 2012).
The state government provides 30 percent of revenues to local government (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). However, this shall also reduce as income and sales taxes also drop.
The decline in state revenues also implies that the state government must cut its spending partly by reducing the amount spent on local governments. Both states and local government fiscal stress occur at the same time.
Consequently, states also reduce their aid when local governments also need it for provisions of public services. Some 31 governors had proposed to reduce spending on K-12 education due to decline in revenues (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
Source: House Fiscal Office, 2012
States have a number of options in reducing their aid to local governments. These include education, Medicaid, and other services states can fund partially.
Economic downturns normally lead to increase in demands for public services due to unemployment and reduced work schedules associated with loss of health insurance.
Thus, these people turn to public services such as health facilities, public transport, libraries and social welfares for free or discounted services. There are also issues of crimes, which put pressure on police (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
Structural Budget Imbalance
Long-term causes of fiscal stress are multifactorial. However, a common source of structural budget imbalance is the political situation at the local, state, or federal level. Different views emerge and affect the agreement on a budget.
Public unions and employee groups may also cause deficit. For instance, in California, Vallejo filed for bankruptcy based on the inability of the mayor and the council to control costs of labor (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
Bankruptcy is a rare case but occurs for diverse reasons. The City Council increased wages and benefits of its public officials and ignored warnings to stop such practices.
Changes in demographic characteristics also cause fiscal stress. For instance, a high income household may move from an area and cause long-term imbalance in the budget. Such changes may involve transferring a business to other areas. This translates to a drop in the jurisdictions tax incomes.
Lack of proper financial control systems can also cause long-term fiscal stress in a state. In New York, questionable accounting method led to concealment of increasing deficit to the extent that it was beyond financing by the financial market.
Effective budgetary control should focus on debt, expenditure limits and balanced budget control. There should be regular auditing and oversight committees to regulate financial practices for transparency and accountability (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
In some cases, fiscal stress may result from borrowing by the local government. Short-term debts may alleviate deficit in a budget. However, if the local government spends more that it can collect, then it may face fiscal stress in the future.
Symptoms of Fiscal Stress in the States
According to a study by Ivacko, Horner, and Crawford, the condition of fiscal stress of Michigan State has shown positive trends despite the widespread distress (Ivacko, Horner and Crawford, 2012).
Some of the symptoms of State of Michigan fiscal stress included a decline in property tax revenues, state aid, increase in demand for public services, and challenges with health care costs.
Decline in property tax revenues
The report reflects positive gains. However, Michigan State has serious fiscal distress. Property tax revenues are on the decline. This is the most crucial source of funding for the local government. The situation was severe in 2009 due to effects of recession.
The trends indicated declines in property tax revenues in various areas of Michigan. For instance, local governments of Upper Peninsula expressed optimism (35%) whereas those in the south regions showed high-levels of difficulties (81%).
Some regions in Michigan indicated growths in property tax revenues. About 17 percent indicated that the revenue had increased as compared to the previous year. However, the growth in property tax in Michigan remains sparsely distributed.
Decline in state aid
The decline in state aid is a major problem to most local governments. It affects 42% of Michigan jurisdictions. The decline in state aid usually affects large jurisdictions of Michigan where it was 68% in 2012. Conversely, less populated areas only reported a decline of 35% in 2012 (Ivacko, Horner and Crawford, 2012).
In 2010, 2011, and 2012, there were 86%, 61%, and 46% of aid respectively among various jurisdictions of Michigan. This shows a declining trend in provisions of state aid.
Other jurisdictions reported declines whereas others reported increments in state aid. In 2011, state aid was 15% whereas in 2102 was 9%. The trend was only common in less populated areas.
Increase in demand for services
Local governments experienced pressure from increased demands for public services. There were increments in demands for health services (64%), human services, infrastructure (66%), and security (59%) than witnessed the previous year. This shows how fiscal stress is on the rise in Michigan.
Challenges in provisions of health care services
The increments in costs of health care remain a challenge to Michigan fiscal stress. Only 46 percent of the jurisdictions indicated that they had fringe benefits for their employees. In Michigan, small jurisdictions rarely provide health care to their employees.
This is because some employees are not full-time employees. The general trend is that health care costs in Michigan increased considerably from the previous years costs.
Effects of Fiscal Stress on State governments
Fiscal stress of today is severe in Michigan and other states. Michigan has a budget deficit of $1.4 billion in the fiscal year 2012. As a result, the state has embarked on a tax balance in order to reduce challenges in its structural budget.
Decline in revenues due to tax cuts
During 1990s, most states experienced growth in revenues. This was due to robust stock market, increasing consumption, and returns on capitals. However, recessions have changed these trends.
For instance, the decline in housing pricing led to tax cuts. These figures show the decline in State of Michigan revenues between 2009 and 2012.
Source: usgovernmentspending.com, 2012
We can now see the effects of economic slowdown of 2008/9 on Michigan revenue growth and subsequent spending, and how it has created fiscal stress.
The long-term deficits in collections did not match economic growth of Michigan. States mainly depend on sales and incomes taxes. However, products subjected to taxes are on the decline due to slowdown in rates of consumption. Michigan has also noted the decline in state corporate income taxes.
This is because most firms have restructured to avoid hefty taxes from the state. Michigan has been relying on state income taxes. However, they cannot cover for the large deficits experienced from declining incomes and sales taxes.
Consequently, Michigan has tried to balance between reducing other taxes and increasing others coupled with reduction in spending on public services.
Decline in spending
Michigan has responded by cutting spending amidst the growing demand from the public (Reschovsky, 2004). This is an attempt to balance the revenue and the expenditure to reduce fiscal stress. Before 2003, most states had already turned to their rainy day reverses (McNichol, 2003).
However, they will be unable to do so due to procedurals barriers and limits. Consequently, tax increase and cutting spending are the only viable options.
Before the crisis of 2008/9, Michigans expenditure was already on the decline. This was not a mere crisis, but a serious fiscal deficit in the state. This trend is not likely to slow down soon. It will persist until the US economy improves.
There is a general cut of spending on education (K-12). In 2009, Michigan spent 33 percent of its annual budget on public education. However, this figure has declined by 1 percent in 2012 to 32 percent.
In the 2012/2013 budget, Michigan reduced University funding by 15 percent ($222 million) to $1.2 billion in order to reflect the economic reality of the state (State of Michigan, 2011). A number of education programs maintained their levels of funding or experienced slight reduction.
The State of Michigan has also reduced spending on Medicaid and health care funding by one percent between 2009 and 2012. According usgovernmentspending.com, Michigan shall reduce education spending to 22 percent. On the other hand, the state shall increase health care to 25 percent.
State of Michigan: Fiscal year 2011 expenditures
Allocations
Percentage
Amount in $ billion
Education
28.2
15.3
Interest on Long-term Debt
0.4
0.217
Conservation, Recreation & Agriculture
1.1
0.575
Business-Type Activities
12.3
6.6
Revenue Sharing
2
1.1
Labor, Commerce & Regulatory
2.2
1.2
Transportation
4.5
2.5
Public Safety & Corrections
5.3
2.9
Human Services
11.9
6.4
Tax Credits
2.3
1.3
Health Services
25.7
13.9
General Government
4.2
2.3
Total
54.2
Source: State of Michigan CAFR, 2012 (www.michigan.gov)
Consequences of States Fiscal Stress on municipal governments
Michigan fiscal stress affected municipal governments in a number of ways. Some jurisdictions reported declines in state aid. As a result, such municipal authorities shifted to other methods of managing fiscal stress.
The state will allow schools, municipalities and other local authorities enough time to control their affairs (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
Decline in spending
There has been a general decline in spending at the local levels by the state. The state budget recognized the need for a budget cut in order to restore fiscal solvency. There were declines in spending on education. Overall, support for schools declined by 8.4 percent in 2012 due to technical adjustments in the budget.
Health care spending also declined by one percent in 2012 compared to the previous year. This decline occurred due to changes in tax rate. Michigan estimates that the cost of health care services shall increase to 33 percent in 2013 (State of Michigan, 2011).
These changes occur due to decline in contribution to pension funds and health care funds (State of Michigan, 2011). They also experience delays as fiscal stress persists. Michigan also noted that changes in tax collection shall affect both public and private pension incomes.
For a long time, Michigan has exempted some parts or all of pension income from tax. However, due to escalating fiscal stress, declining population, and the increasing number of senior citizens, the state believes that it is now impossible to exempt any segment of the population from supporting public services.
The state shall tax pension income. However, it will exempt social security benefits from any tax.
Increasing Taxes and Fees
In 2003, Finegold, Schardin, and Steinbach noted that states adopted various methods of responding to fiscal stress (Finegold, Schardin and Steinbach, 2003). These methods had effects on municipal governments.
One of the responses was to increase taxes and fees so as to manage fiscal stress (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). A combination of changes in the tax structure helped Michigan ease fiscal stress in 2012 as studies suggest.
Such taxes and fees make up for losses incurred during previous years. Michigan state budget of 2012/2013 changed its tax structures and allowed time for municipal authorities to adjust their operation.
Michigan State Responses to Fiscal Stress, FY 20022003
Strategy
Spending approaches
Use reserves or rainy day funds
Cut across the board
Raise cigarette taxes
Expand early retirement options
Raise business taxes- Postponed planned tax cut.
Lay off state workers
Increase gambling revenues
Cut Medicaid
Cut SCHIP(State Childrens Health Insurance Program) Postponed spending increase
Cut TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families)
Source: Finegold, Schardin, and Steinbach, 2003
Timing of Public services and Tax increase
Apart from increasing taxes and fees, local governments have also reacted by postponing payments and changes in enacting tax measures.
For instance, in 2003 Michigan proposed increments in taxes from business, gambling, and cigarette sales. These were temporary measures, spending solutions, and revenue generation strategies.
The state also decided to cut SCHIP, and postpone its planned increment. At the same time, it also cut spending on TANF.
Borrowing
Michigan State budget estimate for 2012/13 indicates that it shall borrow short-term funds to schools. This shall increase from the current $20 million to $ 30 million in 2013. This is a method of coping with fiscal stress at the municipal levels which require these services.
Short-term borrowing is common among local municipalities because it can fund operating deficits. On the other hand, states prefer using long-term debts to fund capital budget and health care programs (Dilger, 2011).
States Responses to Local governments Fiscal Stress
Michigan State has assisted local governments that have experienced fiscal stress over the years (State of Michigan, 2011). For instance, it has increased aid in some jurisdictions and collection additional tax.
However, the state has not taken any local government for oversight purposes or financial operation of the jurisdiction.
Before any local government adjusts its taxes and spending upwards, it seeks for aid from Michigan State. Ivacko, Horner, and Crawford observed that Michigan State increased aid in some of it jurisdictions in 2012. More than 15% reported increased aid from the state.
In 2011, this figure was 9%. Areas, which received increased state aid, were mainly mid-size localities with 5,001 and 30,000 people.
In 2012, Michigan State shared a total of $25.5 million or 4 percent of its budget with cities, villages, and townships using estimated tax collections.
The state had the option of redistributing revenues from various states to those which experienced shifts in populations (State of Michigan, 2011). Such changes in populations create imbalances in revenue collections.
Michigan also adjusted taxes across various jurisdictions in its 2012 fiscal budget. This approach aimed at attracting business communities and discouraging people from moving to new localities.
In some cases, the state reviewed taxes that local government imposed in order to increase high rates of taxes (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
Michigan sought to invigorate its economy through a tax structure that is fair, simple, and efficient (State of Michigan, 2011). The state needed participation of all citizens to fiscal stress.
Federal Responses to States Fiscal Stress
The federal government has the responsibility of assisting state governments with grants, debt guarantees, loans, and other areas applicable through the tax code (Dilger, 2011). Local governments depend on the state for power. However, the US Constitution protects states from interferences from the federal government.
Thus, it cannot introduce oversight bodies or force states to correct their challenges with fiscal stress. In this sense, the federal government has conditions that it attaches to aid given to state governments.
Federal government can give both direct and indirect aid to states. Directly, it is through funds or other forms of aid. Indirect aid may come in form assistance to a local entity.
For instance, in 2008, the federal government spent only 4 percent as state aid directly. However, forms of indirect aid from the federal government are difficult to quantify as there are no available data on them.
The federal government may use several strategies when granting aid to states. First, timing and triggering approach specifically to ease effects of fiscal stress on local governments. The timing of this approach may differ from those targeting stimulation of the local economy.
Second, targeting approach focuses on specific areas hit hard by fiscal stress. The approach stimulates fiscal stress and promotes recovery of the local economy.
Third, there is also temporary strategy. The federal government uses this approach to prevent long-term dependence that may cause deficit in its national budget.
Fourth, there is also consistence approach to state aid. This ensures that the aid is consistent with the objectives of the federal government budget. The objective of this approach is to enable local government manage risks.
Consequently, it stops local governments from future expectations in cases of crises. This method also ensures that the local government maintains accountability as it also ensures that states have flexibility in spending. It also prevents states from substituting their fund for federal funds (Dilger, 2011).
Federal aid is rarely an option for states because of fiscal stress. However, states, which experienced severe effects of the 2008 recession, got aid from the federal government. In 2010, the Congress approved $10 billion as aid for states to channel to education programs and create jobs (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).
In 2008, states and local governments received $6 billion for the Neighborhood Stabilization Program (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). This program mainly focuses on areas experiencing foreclosures.
For instance, in the fiscal year 2010, the federal government gave $36.1 million grant to Michigan. This grant targeted the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS). This is because DHS is directly responsible for the US homeland security.
States usually get aid from the federal government based on the revenue they collect. As a result, states focus on increasing taxes in order to receive additional aid from the federal government. For instance, in 2010, Michigan did not collect enough tax to match $2 billion in federal highway aid for five years.
Consequently, Michigan proposed to increase per-gallon gas tax from 19 cent to 23 cents in 2011 and 27 cents in 2013.
Indirect support from the federal government goes to community programs. For instance, women and local farmers have received direct aid from the federal government to support their programs.
According to the US Census Bureau report of 2010, Michigan remains among the top beneficiary from the federal aid in selected programs (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Responses of State governments to Fiscal Stress
Some of the responses state governments apply in response to fiscal stress included the following.
Cooperation and privatization
States have turned to intergovernmental cooperation for provisions of public services. This method has become widespread among municipal governments of various states. In addition, state governments have shown interests in expanding this form of cooperation.
State governments have also turned to privatization or outsourcing of services in order to reduce costs (Ivacko, Horner and Crawford, 2012). In the year 2011, a number of large states expressed their interests to increase privatization.
Fund balances
Some state authorities reported fund balances at the end of the fiscal year. Many states have indicated that they will utilize their balances to alleviate fiscal stress. Most local governments do not have any balance at the end of fiscal year. Thus, this is not an effective option for managing fiscal stress.
On this note, most state governments have also expressed their interests to use rainy day funds. However, most states have indicated that this is not possible in their current fiscal situations. This indicates that such state governments have exhausted their reserve limits.
Large states show highest rates of reliance on rainy day funds and fund balances than small states.
Health care costs
State governments have shifted rising costs of the health care to their employees in order to reduce fiscal stress. In fact, most local leaders view this as a viable strategy for the coming years.
Most state governments with fringe benefits have shown interests in reducing such costs so that employees can cater for them. For instance, 81 percent of large jurisdictions of Michigan have also expressed their interest to reduce such costs and benefits.
Reducing staff, services, and increasing fees
New employees who join state departments have received low pay than their existing counterparts in many states.
However, small states are not likely to hire new staff in the coming years. Thus, pay cut is the viable option for them. Most states and local authorities have also encouraged early retirement in order to reduce staff costs.
Summary
Fiscal stress across most of the US states increased sharply from 2000 to present. Fiscal stress became severe after 2008 due to effects the recession. As a result, Michigan has faced some of the largest fiscal gap in history.
However, alleviating fiscal stress in Michigan shall be difficult because of the aftermath of the recession and exhausted limits of rainy day reserves. In addition, the federal government does not want to grant aid to states because of fiscal stress.
Therefore, states like Michigan must find a balanced approach to reduce fiscal stress. A number of states have turned to increasing revenues and other cost reduction strategies.
Raising revenues and reducing spending can provide resources and save others during fiscal stress. Raising taxes can strengthen states tax sources. However, this may be a short-term approach, but states can use it to address long-term fiscal stress.
Conclusion
Recent studies have shown that Michigan fiscal stress has declined as there are improvements in many areas of fiscal stress indicators. Local authorities have expressed confidence that they are able to meet some challenges of fiscal stress than in the previous years.
This shows effects of approaches such as reducing costs, increasing revenues, and restructuring the budget to meet fiscal gap that Michigan used.
However, Michigan has reported mixed results. Large local authorities still have difficulties with their fiscal stress. Still, recent indications showing that the US economy has slowed down can negatively impact such gains made.
Recent changes in the State of Michigan fiscal budget and proposed tax increments can also drive other firms out of the state. On the other hand, any reduction in tax revenues can severely increase fiscal stress in Michigan. This implies that fiscal stress may persist for many years in the State of Michigan.
References
Congressional Budget Office. (2010). Fiscal Stress Faced by Local Governments. Washington, DC: CBO.
Dilger, R. (2011). State Government Fiscal Stress and Federal Assistance. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Feldman, N., Courant, P. and Drake, D. (2003). Michigan at the Millennium: The Property Tax in Michigan. Michigan: Michigan State University Press.
Finegold, K., Schardin, S. and Steinbach, R. (2003). How Are States Responding to Fiscal Stress? Urban Institute Program, 58, 1-8.
Ivacko, T., Horner, D. and Crawford, M. (2012). Fiscal stress continues for hundreds of Michigan jurisdictions, but conditions trend in positive direction overall. Michigan: The Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy.
Kloha, P., Weissert, C. and Kleine, R. (2005). Developing and Testing a Composite Model to Predict Local Fiscal Distress. Public Administration Review 65(3), 313- 323.
Levine, C. (1980). Managing Fiscal Stress: The Crisis in the Public Sector. Chatham, MA: Chatham House Publishers.
McNichol, L. (2003). The State Fiscal Crisis: Extent, Causes,and Responses. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
Mouritzen, E. (1992). Managing Cities in Austerity, Urban Fiscal Stress in Ten Western Countries. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Pagano, M., Hoene, C. and McFarland, C. (2012). City Fiscal Conditions in 2012. Washington, DC: National League of Cities.
Reschovsky, A. (2004). The Impact of State Government Fiscal Crises On Local Governments and Schools. State and Local Government Review 36(2), 86-102.
Schick, A. (1980). Fiscal Stress and Public Policy: Budgeting Adaptations to Resource Scarcity. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Skidmore, M. and Scorsone, E. (2009). Causes and Consequences of Fiscal Stress in Michigan Municipalities. State Tax Analyst Report, 9, 675-692.
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Client K.M is an an18-year-old Hispanic teen in the 12th grade with a history of domestic violence exposure. She lives with her family a bio-mother, stepfather, and four siblings in a family house in Los Angeles. The presenting concern entails symptoms of heavy breathing and incoherent speech triggered by an exercise in theater class.
Biopsychosocial Assessment
Biological
Client K.M has no history of medical problems and no biological predisposition to chronic illnesses or allergies. She has no sensory/motor impairment but wears glasses. She has no reported medical issues except weight or appetite change. Client K.M has no developmental issues. However, she has a history of social withdrawal in latency and anxiety attacks in adolescence. She reports no unusual reproductive or physical health issues.
Psychological Health/Symptoms
K.Ms psychological health was affected by a traumatic event sexual abuse by a maternal uncle at the age of six. She also witnessed chronic domestic violence between her parents as a child. Client K.M suffers severe anxiety that is affecting her sleeping and eating patterns. She has maladaptive coping skills (cutting) and persistent avoidance associated with trauma (dissociative amnesia). The client could not remember parts of the events. She is easily distracted, is unable to communicate her feelings, and reports poor social skills and isolation. The trigger factor appears to be the exposure to theater class exercises. Her depressive symptoms are sleep disturbances, distraction, sadness, and altered eating patterns.
Social Components
Client K.M is an 18-year-old Hispanic female with a normal developmental history. The client stays with her mother, a stepfather, and four younger siblings two brothers and two sisters. The client was temporarily placed in foster care after a case of sexual abuse at age 6. Her bio-father was deported when she was 11. Client K.M isolates from family members and friends. She seems to be attached to the bio mother, but a lack of communication between them makes the client anxious as well. The client claims to be Christian but does not consider church a support system.
The clients coping mechanisms seemed sufficient until the recent repetitive symptoms of anxiety, sadness, distraction, and poor social skills, which appear to indicate delayed expression of traumatic stress. Family dynamics and social withdrawal do not seem to have affected the clients academic history; her grades are good and she has no history of behavioral problems.
Mental Status Exam
Appearance: Age-appropriate, well-groomed
Affect: Constricted
Mood: Depressed/Anxious
Thought Content: Fears for her future
Thought Process: Easily distracted
Speech: Normal
Motor: Limited activity
Intellect: Average
Insight: Cooperative and motivated
Judgment: Limited
Impulse Control: Uncontrollable hand rubbing
Memory: Intact
Concentration: Normal
Attention: Normal
Behavior: Cooperative
Thought Disorder: None identified
DSM-V Diagnosis
This 18-year-old female displays depressive episodes and anxiety as seen in her symptoms of sleep disturbance, sadness, difficulty concentrating, and socialization difficulties. The chosen DSM-V diagnosis, in this case, is F43.10 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with delayed expression. The reasons for arriving at this diagnosis relate to histories of trauma exposure and evidence of intrusion symptoms.
Trauma exposures in childhood could explain the clients symptoms at this stage in her life. As specified in Criteria A1 and A2 of the F43.10 diagnosis, traumatic stress could result from either directly experiencing trauma or witnessing violence as a child. A maternal uncle sexually assaulted client K.M at the age of six. She also witnessed repetitive domestic violence in her childhood.
Criteria B, C, D, and E also match with the symptoms identified through the biopsychosocial assessment. Client K.M presents with intense physiological distress or reactions heavy breathing and speech difficulty to a traumatic event, consistent with Criteria B4 and B5. In this case, the trigger factor or external cue symbolic of the trauma is the theater class exercise.
Trauma survivors demonstrate avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event. Based on Criterion C2, such stimuli may include people, locations, or situations that remind the victim of the event. Client K.Ms poor social/family relationships could be seen as an attempt to avoid reminders (kin perpetrators) of her history of sexual abuse. The client also displays trauma-related negative cognitions (Criteria D6 and D7) as demonstrated by two symptoms of detachment from friends and family (except the mother) and feelings of sadness. Her introverted nature and episodes of heavy breathing and incoherence indicate a benign inability to feel positive emotions due to her traumatic experiences.
Client K.M shows significant alterations in arousal specified in criterion E. Her sleeping patterns are not consistent, she lacks focus, and she is easily distracted. The criterion identifies problems with concentration and sleeps disturbance as evidence of alterations in arousal. Further, the clients recent episodes in the theater class and socializing difficulty will have a significant impact on her social and academic functioning (Criterion G). Her symptoms are not attributable to substance use (Criterion H).
Possible Differential Diagnosis
A possible differential diagnosis for client K.M is an anxiety disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). In general, people diagnosed with OCD display intrusive obsessive or compulsive actions. Unlike PTSD, OCD is linked with other psychiatric co-occurring illnesses. Although both disorders involve persistent intrusive thoughts, OCD involves a more heightened obsessive symptom severity than PTSD. OCD is characterized by repetitive actions or mental acts, which constitute stress responses to obsessions, as opposed to a traumatic event. The obsessions and compulsions that are the prominent symptoms of OCD diagnosis are lacking in client K.M. She had intrusive symptoms marked physiological reactions to a trigger but not recurrent obsessive or compulsive episodes; hence, the PTSD diagnosis.
Generalized anxiety disorders are also ruled out because they involve no relation to traumatic experiences. A panic disorder diagnosis is made when the individual shows dissociative responses (flashbacks) and alterations in reactivity or hyper-arousal. Although client K.M displays symptoms of arousal (lack of concentration and sleep disturbance), she lacks marked dissociative symptoms that could support a panic disorder diagnosis. The diagnosis of a generalized anxiety disorder is also not feasible. Client M.K shows symptoms of sadness and anxiety, but not irritability. Since she lives with her mother and siblings, the separation anxiety disorder is ruled out. Therefore, it is not possible to make an OCD or anxiety disorder diagnosis for client M.K since their etiology does not involve recurrent exposure to a traumatic event.
Cultural and/or Social Justice Issues
Hispanic Americans, being a minority group in the US, are prone to stress-related disorders, which could be attributed to economic marginalization and racism. Further, Hispanic cultural characteristics seem to affect health-seeking behavior, symptom severity, and coping practices. Hispanics are not open to mental health services. In most cases, they do not seek help or report abuse, especially if the perpetrator is a family member. The cultural attributes may promote avoidance and self-harm coping behavior. The underreporting of abuse cases can be attributed to the Hispanic cultures emphasis on family relationships. Family is an important part of the Hispanic culture. Client M.K may show discomfort discussing her history of sexual abuse or domestic violence with the therapist since it involves family members. An approach that builds therapeutic trust can promote self-disclosure. Family (mother) involvement can also lead to better therapeutic outcomes since client M.K identifies her as a support system.
Another cultural aspect that pertains to client M.K is the inclination to normalize stress. This behavior may be due to the cultural belief that people who seek mental health services are emotionally weak. The client only sought help after experiencing repetitive distress symptoms/episodes for weeks. Thus, Hispanics will only look for aid in emergency/crisis situations due to cultural attitudes and socio-economic hardships. Hispanics express their spirituality in the context of cultural beliefs. Although client M.K professes to be a Catholic, she does not identify the church as a support system. This shows that personal ideologies are critical in developing individualized therapy for Hispanic patients.
The risk of PTSD exposure in Hispanics could be higher owing to the economic difficulties often faced by minorities in the US. Client M.K belongs to the second generation of Hispanic immigrants. She admits that her family needs financial support. These factors could limit her ability to access to affordable mental health services and remain in treatment for long. Stress-related cultural concepts, such as Ataque de nervios, in the Hispanic culture can affect PTSD expression. In this case, a panic attack is a predominant symptom; hence, an accurate diagnosis based on the DSM-V criteria may be a challenge.
