The American citizens have diverse stereotypes that emanate from their inherent attributes such as gender, race, ethnicity, culture, occupation, and/or ancestral origin. McAndrew and Akande lament that in the United States, African Americans are the most stereotyped due to racial discrimination and the dark history of slavery (650).
The whites see African Americans as poor, lazy, superstitious, primitive, and criminal race. Western stereotypes depict Native Americans as fierce warriors, violent, criminals, drunkards, primitive and hunters, while European Americans stereotypes are intellectual, rich, racists, powerful, hardworking and innovative in their occupations.
Primitivism, criminals, illegal immigrants, smugglers, terrorists and actors are the major stereotypes associated with the Latino Americans. The westerners also portray Asian Americas as culture oriented, intruders, intelligent, innovative, sexually active, and hardworking.
The westerners also view Middle East Americans as Muslims, moneyed, terrorists, bombers, thieves, and murders. Gender stereotypes in the United States reflect men as tall, huge, quiet and powerful while women are tall, slim, talkative and less powerful. Given the diversity of stereotypes that the Americans hold about each racial group, how do they affect effective communication?
Stereotypes of various racial groups in the United States occur in the literature, media and comedies. The media constantly portray certain attributes and characters associated with given racial groups, thus changing the perceptions of Americans resulting into stereotypes.
In schools, literature and socialization generate more stereotypes of various races. From the stereotyped attributes, I realized that the most prominent stereotypes about certain race are the negative ones implying that stereotyping is degradation of real attributes concerning specific groups.
I discovered that stereotypes do not reflect the true and accurate attributes of a particular race or ethnic group because they are forms of criticism, which always tend to portray real attributes of the people in the most negative way possible.
In the society, people form stereotypes to criticize, abuse, or even defame others in social and political arenas. Stereotypes are common during times of social unrest, political campaigns, games and another social gathering. Since stereotypes involve defamation, abuse and criticism, they are unfair because they negatively portray true attributes of the people.
Stereotypes such as primitiveness and naivety interfere with successful communication because the person communicating sees the other as someone who does not understand the topic or the context of discussion and this degrading perspective contravenes existence of any meaningful engagement. Eventually, the communicating partners would not communicate effectively due to the stereotypes.
Moreover, since stereotypes due to racial differences tend to classify people into stereotyped groups, the most negatively stereotyped group would feel degraded and develop fears, which would significantly interfere with effective intergroup communication.
Stereotypes such as criminality, violence, and terrorism associated with particular races scare other racial group and prevent friendly interaction, which interferes with effective interracial communication.
Understanding one’s stereotypes and those associated with other racial or ethnic groups would enhance effective communication. For effective communication to occur, one should be able to indentify offending stereotyped language and character in order to avoid annoying others who perceive such stereotypes as offensive. Nurturing of positive stereotypes about certain racial or ethnic group enhances socialization and thus effective communication.
For example, identifying with cultural lifestyles of particular racial or ethnic groups promotes intercultural interaction, which ultimately improves effective communication. Stereotyping affects relationship among friends; for instance, one day, my friends teased me that I looked like a Negro and went further to discusses how Negroes are presumably primitive, naïve and poor.
This experience heralded the death of our relationship, even though the perpetrators of the same were my very close friends. We almost fought and for the first time, I hated my friends for upholding misconstrued opinions.
Works Cited
McAndrew, Frank, and Akande, Antoun. “African of Americans of African and European Descent.” Journal of Social Psychology 135.5 (1995): 649–655.
Stereotypes refer to misleading perceptions labeled against a group of people or a certain way of doing things, which are flawed, and that misrepresent reality (Stangor, 2000, p.24).
Common stereotypes include negative perceptions against certain religions, gender, ethnic groups or a certain race. Stereotypes have adverse effects on victims. They encourage hatred, irresponsible behaviors, aggressiveness, lack of self-control and diminish motivation of individuals in certain situations (Stangor, 2000, p.28). Stereotypes are unethical and should be discouraged.
Common stereotypes
Three common stereotypes include the perception that Muslims are terrorists, Christians are ignorant, and that women are less intelligent than men. These stereotypes are unjustified because they lack scientific evidence to validate them.
They result from hatred and superiority complex by individuals or groups of individuals who harbor negative attitudes towards certain individuals or social groups (Stangor, 2000, p.43). Stereotypes are either positive or negative. However, they are baseless and unethical because they lack evidence to validate them.
The stereotype that Muslims are terrorists propagates the perception that Muslims are evil people and always act to destroy the world and harm people (McGarty et al, 2002, p.73). The media has played a significant role in propagating this stereotype. Individuals who perpetuate the stereotype claim that Islam supports murder in its teachings.
This stereotype is flawed because a decision to commit a crime is motivated by personal values and character, and not an individual’s religion (McGarty et al, 2002, p.75). In addition, the teachings of Islam condemn murder and instead encourage peace. This stereotype leads to hatred and religious intolerance, which cause religious and political wars.
Another common stereotype is that Christians are ignorant. People who propagate this stereotype believe that Christians are ignorant because they ignore the validity of science (Chunnel, 2010, par3). In addition, they claim that Christians are evil because the Bible contains many stories that talk of war and violence.
This stereotype is flawed because there are so many Christians who believe in science. Christians who do not believe in science do so because they choose to believe what Christianity teaches without investigating to find the truth. Even though their Christian beliefs may contribute towards their refutation of science, not all Christians are ignorant. This stereotype causes religious intolerance and persecution.
The stereotype that women are less intelligent than men is a gender stereotype that is held by many people. People use the traditional concept of division of roles based on gender to propagate the stereotype (McGarty et al, 2002, p.79). Women were given easy tasks such as cooking, washing and taking care of children. On the other hand, men handled difficult tasks such as fending for their families and cultivation.
Men’s ability to handle difficult tasks is the foundation of this stereotype. The stereotype is unfounded because in today’s society, gender roles have changed and women are handling tasks that were considered masculine (McGarty et al, 2002, p.80). In addition, women have equal potential to success as me do. The large number of women in leadership roles is a proof that women are as intelligent as men are, and they can achieve whatever men can achieve.
Conclusion
Stereotypes refer to misleading perceptions labeled against a group of people or a certain way of handling responsibilities, which are flawed, and that misrepresent reality. Common stereotypes include perceptions against certain religions, gender, ethnic group or certain race. Stereotypes have lasting negative effects on victims. Common consequences of stereotyping include hatred, aggressiveness and lack of self-control.
McGarty, C., Yzerbty, V., and Spears, R. (2002). Stereotypes as Explanations: The Formation of Meaningful Beliefs about Social Groups. London: Cambridge University Press.
Stangor, C. (2000). Stereotypes and Prejudice: Key Readings. New York: Psychology Press.
Different groups of people in every set up all over the world demonstrate different images. The image created can either be innate or assumed depending on the lifestyle of a person, status of an individual, age and so on.
Such characters can thereforebe perceived by other commentators in a way that is diverse in choice e.g. positive or negative judgment usually representing formed opinions. Some of these impressions are synonymous to the image portrayed by an individual at any given time.Examples of such images include; rhetoric, stereotype, prejudice among others (Macdonald, 2005, p.4).
This paper investigates the effects of rhetoric and stereotype image among various groups of persons namely politicians, tattooed persons, feminists and senior most citizens. We shall also look at the different perceptions associated with these images on such persons in the society.
Definition of rhetoric and stereotype image
Rhetoric image is the ability to communicate effectively usually in a way that is Persuasive but also deceitful (Iske, 2009. P.1). On the other hand, stereotype image is the common perception that is associated with a particular group of people due to their image. Let us start by examining the image linked to politicians and how they are perceived in the society. Politicians are in most cases the policy makers of a nation.
It is for this reason that they represent the people’s wishes and interests in the executive arena. Before they get elected to these large and privileged positions, they get back to the people in order to sell their policies. It is during such times that politicians are seen to be liars since they tend to make promises as they campaign but fail to fulfill them after getting in office. Politicians are also sighted to be hypocrites.
This is so, because they align themselves to the elite groups with higher chances of winning even when it is quiet obvious that their policies only favor a particular class of persons. Greed is also common to most politicians. For instance, many politicians represent their own vested interests instead of the people’s will.
Within no time, they swindle public office and thus seen to be corrupt. Politicians are known to be good public speakers who can also dare to carry out character assassination on their rivals through damaging empty rhetoric. Even though they are good orators, their image can also befit a perfect charismatic individual however, with contempt too. Politicians therefore portray both positive and negative stereotypes.
Tattooing is a practice of making body art by piercing, drawings etc.Tattood people are seen as outcasts. This is because they perform such adventures so that they may fit in a lifestyle that is still new to most people. For instance, this is why ladies who practice tattooing can sometimes be seen as sex driven and therefore portrayed as immoral.
On the other hand, tattood persons are daring. This is the case because they are courageous enough to face an already formed judgment by those people around them. Their ambition is what drives them and not the opinions criticizing their intentions.
In addition, feminists are those persons holding equal concepts on economic, social or political interests and many more to both male and female lay out. Feminists have been prejudiced especially if they are of the male gender. As a result, they are seen to be weak since they are sympathizers.
As they embark on creating awareness on equality, their rhetoric and sympathetic voice of reason is found to be an open betrayal to non proponents of such practices. Nevertheless, this is not the case to the lady feminist, she is seen to be so combative and cannot become a good wife. The female feminists are also accused of hiding behind the image of ugliness hence, are dishonest. It is clear then, that feminists are found to be of negative stereotypes from the start.
Effects of such images
Old age is wisdom. The beginning of this rhetoric is the prime age. Senior citizens are those at their peak in age and have heard and also seen it all setting forth wisdom. Even though, it is a stage plagued by many challenges, they are still a force to reckon with. For example, these people can be ascertained to be patient and tolerant.
This is exhibited by the manner in which they solve issues. Take for example, how a parent would react to a stubborn child. They are also a source of security because they are the custodians of our possession when still in sound mind. Unfortunately, these people are prone to sickness. Consequently, being judged as too frail and bereft of new ideas. The stereotypes in this group are a complete revelation of both positive and negative image (Moore and Parker, 2006, p.22).
Conclusion
It is somewhat unmistakable that life judges its subjects either by being positive or negative stereotypes. Nonetheless, the judgment arises from rhetoric patterns exhibited by different people and creates an outlook that is hard to erase thus remaining etched in our mindset. Either way, people are entitled to an opinion or as such, stereotypes of this group of persons would not be noticeable hence, can be true or false depending on a formed idea.
There has been an immense concern of the impact of gender and racial stereotyping on the academic performance of individuals stereotyped from these angles. Poor performance of women in comparison to men in some subjects such as mathematics had been attributed to the existing differences, both biological and social, between them and men.
However, this was before the emergence of the discipline of stereotype threat in 1995. In the current research, it is confirmed that elimination of stereotypes on women’s abilities in mathematics can enhance their performance in mathematics, a subject that has been taken a reserve for men.
Introduction
Before the development of research in the field of stereotype threats, psychologists coupled with various practitioners in the field of social psychology enormously believed that the differences in performance between boys and girls in intelligence and mathematics tests were related to their sociological and biological differences.
However, emerging researches as from 1990s have shown that the existing differences in social situations can often truncate into the depiction of differences in performance in intelligence and math tests among boys and girls.
These social situations involve the creation of awareness of negative stereotypes especially in a situation encompassing stereotyping of the relevant group domains. The impacts of stereotyping are found as being incredibly pronounced among groups of persons who identify themselves strongly with particular groups and domains (Stone et al, 1999, p.1213).
Why Introduce ST
Claude Steele introduced the topic of ST in the discipline of social psychology in 1995. He defined it interactively as the fear that people have while confirming their negative stereotype characteristic on their individual groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995, p.798). They argue that the reason why women in general coupled with minority groups perform poorly in math is that they have an immense fear of confirming any stereotype associated with them akin to their perceived capabilities.
Apart from the group euphoria, certain personal traits are also associated with ST. These include consciousness of stigmas acerbated by the members of a group that a person identifies himself or herself with, setting high expectations, and hefty investments in personalised domains.
Previous Studies
Several studies have confirmed ST as having negative impacts in the performance of women in math. For instance, Spencer et al. (1999) conducted a study on “stereotype threat and women’s math performance” (pp. 4-28). They accomplished this task in three different experiments.
Collectively, the three experiments confirmed that the performance of women in math faces many risks of being judged from the contexts of negative stereotypes that confirm that women are essentially weaker in math (Spencer et al., 1999, p.4). In the first study, they “demonstrated that the pattern observed in the literature that women underperformed on difficult math tests” (Spencer et al., 1999, p.4).
On the other hand, in study 2, they demonstrated that it is possible to reduce the performance differences when elimination of the stereotype that is descriptive of the anticipated performance is done to ensure that gender differences are not reflected. Lastly, their third experiment deployed a lesser portion of the population to explore the mediation effects that are produced in ST.
The results of the experiment indicated that ST related to gender differences capabilities produced differences in performance in math even upon administration of advanced math tests without the elimination of the stereotype domains. From this perspective, the aim of the current study is to investigate whether cognitions of stereotyping on a group in which one belongs to affect the performance of an individual in academics based on his or her gender group’s traditional stereotypes.
Hypothesis
Prior learning of stereotype associated with a person’s gender acts as a stereotype lift, which increases stereotype threats, and hence the performance of that individual, in math and intelligence tests.
Methodology
The methodology used in this lab report is conducting a research on the existing body of literature to help in garnering the data utilised in the discussions of the impacts of cognitions of stereotype threats among people belonging to a particular social group defined by common racial and gender characteristics. This is done by conducting a search of literature on ST by using “stereotype threats among minority groups and women” as the key words. This means that the findings of this research are predominantly dependent on secondary data.
Hence, this methodology introduces some drawbacks such as the absence of primary data, which, upon statistical analysis, could aid in arriving at valid hypothetical inferences that would need further research to clarify on their rigidness in contributing to the incensement of body of knowledge in the field of ST. However, the approach used in this lab report mitigates such a disadvantage by concretising the results of a variety of studies in ST into one paradigm of explaining the impacts of ST on performance in intelligence tests and math.
Results
Upon conducting a search using the keywords “stereotype threats among minority groups and women”, a variety of data was acquired. Steele and Aronson’s (1995) results on the impacts of emphasis on race on the performance of standardised tests when the white race is emphasised (p.797) form one of the plausible results of this research that help in making inferences of the study.
According to the number of experiments that were conducted by these researchers, emphasis on the white race led to poor performance in the standardised tests among the college freshmen belonging to the black race coupled with sophomores (Steele & Aronson, 1995, p.809). On the other hand, in case no emphasis was made on the white race, the results of their experiments showed that the black people performed much comparably to the white people.
The results also reveal that the scope of ST has broadened to include studying on the consequences of the ST beyond academic performance. For instance, results on the studies conducted by Stone et al. (1999) show that stereotyping could also lead to self-handicapping impacts such as the reduction of practice time (p.1214).
It is also found out that directly consistent to various exposures to an environment characterised by ST, for instance, ST encountered by minorities and women in the environments of academics, can incredibly reduce the manner in which such people value their domain (Steele, 1997, p.616). Stone et al. also found out that individuals prefer refraining from choosing careers that justify their stereotyped traits hence reducing the number of professionals with such domains in certain careers (1999, p.1215).
This leads to social inequality. Other secondary sources also indicate that ST also has the capacity to impact individuals in other domains that are beyond academics among them being sports (Stone et al., 1999, p.1213), performance of women in debates, negotiations (Kray, Galinksy & Thompson, 2002, p.386), and the performance of women in driving (Yeung & von Hippel, 2008, p.667).
ST produces harmful impacts in the performance of Hispanics in academics, as well as to students who come from poor economic backgrounds. This happens especially when ST leads to invoking certain performance anticipations in comparison to some other people who are deemed superior in some group domains.
In case members of a particular group that is stereotyped are informed about the implication of ST on them, it is possible to “buffer their performance on stereotyped-relevant tasks” (Schmader, Johns & Martens, 2005, p.178).
According to the findings of these researchers, despite the fact that the performance of women in comparison to men when diagnostic tests were administered was worse, women who had been taught about the ST were never impaired by cognitions associated with anxieties of their ST. Consequently, prior learning about ST can hike the performance of women in intellectual and math test (Schmader, Johns & Martens, 2005, p.178).
However, this prior learning helps to reinforce the perception that men would perform better in math than women due to the existing differences in their abilities. Now, it is safe to deduce that from Schmader Johns and Marten’s findings, inculcating knowledge of ST among people who are likely to be impacted negatively by the stereotypes threats before the administration of a test may help to improve their performance.
In particular, performance among groups whose abilities to perform in a test are stereotyped is increased by providing a means of arousal externalisation. In this dimension, Schmader, Johns, and Marten’s study confirms, “women’s math performance in the teaching intervention condition tended to increase the more they attributed their anxiety to gender stereotypes” (2005, p.178).
This work confirms Steele (1997) findings that performance of women in math deteriorates whenever they articulate their anxiety experiences with stereotyping their abilities on gender basis (p. 616). Therefore, prior learning through teaching persons on the negative and detrimental impacts of their ST may act as an ample mechanism of dealing with the implications of ST on performance of women in math and intellectual tests.
Activating various stereotype perceptions has the ability to impair performance of person in various stereotyped tasks. The work of Schmader, Forbes, and Johns (2008) provides substantive mechanisms of affirming that ST has the capacity to disrupt the performance of people in three main ways (pp. 336-356).
These are “physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, a tendency to actively monitor performance, and efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation” (Schmader, Forbes & Johns, 2008, p.336). Additionally, the authors find out that the three mechanisms have the capacity to disrupt tasks whose execution is dependent on the sensory motor performance.
For persons who contend with certain negative stereotypes concerning their abilities, with regard to the results of Schmader, Forbes and John’s study, “ chronic experience of stress, heightened vigilance, self doubt, and emotional suppression can not only impair performance directly but also can lead them to avoid situations where this aversive phenomena reside” (2008, p.352).
In this dimension, a subtle result on impacts of ST on the performance in intellectual test is achieved in that the appeal coupled with strength of any ST perception related to contemplation of either individual or group abilities become possible to harness to facilitate the reduction of the capacity of such situations from truncating into reduced performance.
This means that possessing the knowledge through which stereotypes may alter individual’s behaviours provides proactive mechanisms of helping people to change such behaviours hence reducing the thresholds of ST. The overall capacity for a person to manage stereotypes threats rests on the ability to manipulate the psychological perceptions of that individual on the capacity of the stereotype threats to influence his or her performance.
Discussion
The results of this study make it indispensable to seek a clear understanding of the situations that are likely to truncate into ST since, upon the elimination of such situations, it is possible to eliminate the social inequalities based on anticipations on certain performance levels of people of different gender, minority group, and or ethnic groups. The condition that has the highest probabilities of producing stereotypes threat is the one that highlights both conditions by replicating self-social associations with particular social categories.
This implies, for instance, that, when women see themselves from the perspective, “they are women, therefore they are not anticipated to performance to a certain degree in math test, and hence the test taken is difficult” (Spencer et al., 1999, p.13), they can never perform to their full potential. This follows because they have already constructed some other negative altitudes about their performance even before attempting the test.
Therefore, it is possible to “undermine performance because of the concerns of the possibility of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group” (Stone et al., 1999, p.1221). Consequently, based on the results of this study, it sounds plausible to infer that a situation that hikes any group’s stereotype salience has the capacity to hike the probabilities of vulnerabilities to ST.
Consistent with Stelle et al. (2002) findings, upon a thorough introspection of the scholarly works on the consequences of ST, it is arguable, “disengagement can also produce “misidentification” if an individual copes with the long-term threat by avoiding the domain or detaching one’s identity from a domain” (Stelle et al., 2002, p.48).
This is because there is a correlation between self-esteem and academic performance among white and black students. The more the black students perceive themselves as inferior in terms of academic performance apparently because of invoking negative stereotype associated with their ethnicity, the poorer they perform in academics.
When such a situation is replicated based on gender, segregation and seclusion of women may occur especially on career paths deemed as a reserve for men. Hence, undergraduate women pursuing studies in disciplines that are male-dominated will have increased chances of facing ST and discrimination. Consequently, such women have higher probabilities of thinking to change their areas of specialisation in comparisons to women who do not pursue careers that are dominated by men (Steele et al., 2002, p.47).
This means that, in case stereotypes attributes are emphasised in classroom settings, the sense of self-belonging to a particular discipline is disrupted. Therefore, emphasising on stereotypes that women have poor abilities in math performance would result to making them perceive themselves as outcasts in the math community.
Conclusion
Of great paramount to note is that the results of this lab report study reveal that ST may seem likely to be experienced by persons belonging to a particular group than groups having differing characteristics with it. However, it is not accurate to infer that ST is a reserve for members of a group of people that has been stereotyped since time immemorial. Consequently, a stigmatised social identify may surface itself in a number of social situations.
Indeed, the results of studies on impacts people’s identities before and after the administration of tests reveal that performance is deterred when information on a person’s identity is sought first before the test administration. Unfortunately, the standard way of conducting exams such as GRE and SAT is to seek out information about the candidates’ gender identity coupled with race before taking the tests.
Reference List
Kray, L., Galinksy, A., & Thompson, L. (2002). Reversing the gender gap in negotiations: An exploration of stereotype regeneration. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 87(1), 386-409.
Schmader, T., Forbes, C., & Johns, M. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115(2), 336-356.
Schmader, T., Johns M., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing Is Half Battle: Teaching Threat As Means of Improving Women’s Math Performance, Psychological Science,16 (3),175-178.
Spencer, S., Steele, C., & Quinn, M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(4), 4-28.
Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(1), 613-629.
Steele, C., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African-Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(3), 797-811.
Steele, J., James, B., & Barnett, R. (2002). Learning in a man’s world: Examining the perceptions of undergraduate women in male-dominated academic areas. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26(2), 46-50.
Stone, J., Lynch, C., Sjomeling, M., & Darley, J. (1999). Stereotype threat effects on black and white athletic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(4), 1213-1227.
Yeung, N., & von Hippel, C. (2008). Stereotype threat increases the likelihood that female drivers in a simulator run over jaywalkers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 40(7), 667-674.
The daily occurrences where relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims are strained have become a critical issue in the recent past. This is coupled with the publicity that the Muslim community is usually given when it comes to Islam and the Muslim world, and their positions regarding controversial issues such as terrorist activities and militarization/armament programs. In this paper, I explore the stereotypes which exist against Islam and the Muslim community.
Stereotypes of Islam and Muslims in the West
The negative stereotypes against the Muslim community are thought to be worsened “by the considerable rise in scientific and media publications about Islam which took place in the last three decades” (Shadid 20-23). In addition, occurrences such as the Gulf War, the revolution in Afghanistan, the Rushdie affair and the Iranian revolution has served only but to increase these stereotypes (Shadid 20-23).
As Muslims continue to migrate to countries such as those of the European Union, the stereotyping of Muslims becomes a controversial and tense issue which should not be overlooked (Shadid 23-25). This is because it has dawned on the governments of Western Europe that their societies will be swollen with a considerable number of immigrating Muslims who’s cultural and religious backgrounds are different (Halliday 223; Hippler 27-50).
The contacts between different persons in such countries are mutually defined by stereotypes and prejudice. These occurrences have been evident in various reports, especially in the media where the Muslim community is depicted as being irrational, dangerous, primitive, fanatics and belligerent (Halliday 23-43).
The Muslim community in turn has detested such statements or stereotypical statements which is a result of generalization and simplification (Halliday 223; Hippler 27-50).
Therefore, such generalization can only be described as “lack of expertise which causes a surge in fantasy and emotional stereotyping that indicates faulty knowledge” (Pool 27). As such, the mutual contacts are characterized by emotions, which are a crucial requirement, especially on how the course of mutual relationships should be regulated (Pool 27-33; Halliday 223; Shadid 18-37).
The alleged generalization and stereotyping in Western European countries can be traced back from the 1980s. Until current times, the media content is rife with stereotypical remarks and statements regarding the Muslim community. The media has been at the fore front in highlighting the alleged danger of Islam, which has continued to warn the western world against the threat posed by Muslims.
Such warnings were instigated by journalists, scientists and politicians since the 1980s and this has continued until recent times, even without the presence of substantial evidence to back up such messages (Pool 27-33; Shadid 18-37). The public figures (mentioned above) have made statements which are almost stereotypical of Islam.
They include the Chairperson of the Club of Rome, the former secretary general of the North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO), political figures in right-wing political parties especially in regions such as North America and Europe (Shadid 15). These vivid examples (and many others) indicate the enormity of the situation where the west perceives the Islamic community in a stereotypical fashion. Such occurrences have been regarded as underserved and baseless (Pool 27-33; Shadid 18-37).
According to Shadid there are rising numbers of people who continue to be aware of the stereotypical messages which have been passed across, and this continues to worsen the negative image of Muslims and Islam in western countries. This was evident after Shadid made analyses of various publications which analyzed the threat of Islam and the Muslim community to the western countries and fashion such stereotypical messages in the realm of myth (Shadid 18-37).
According to Shadid, the Islamic myth should be disregarded because of different reasons such as the non-existence of significant military action by the Islamic community against the west. This is contrary to encounters of Muslim immigrants in the west who have frequently been victimized and attached to terrorist actions, which are usually approaches pursued by extremists.
Such countries have stereotyped, rejected and even threatened to send these Muslim suspects out of their countries. Other allegations of prejudice such as the incompatibility of the Muslim culture with the European counterparts are usually a result of unfounded prejudice towards Islam and its followers (Shadid 21-27).
The Muslim culture in the west has been prejudiced, thus resulting to a heated debate, especially by human rights watch groups. E.g. polygamy, unveiling girls, and female circumcision which have been thought to have a negative influence on Islamic education especially regarding matters of religion.
Shadid pointed out the mythical character of the Islamic threat to the west by suggesting that it is a false assumption of the nations of western origin that minority populations (in the Muslim community) are more loyal to the nations at home (Muslim nations) than the nations to where they immigrated to (host countries). The assumption depicted above “was evident during the Rushdie Affair and the Gulf War” (Shadid 23).
According to Halliday, the perceived Islamic threat to the west is a lie and an illusion. Thus Halliday has pointed out the fact that the Islamic world which is perceived to be unified is non-existent. Furthermore, even if it were to exist, the military and economic power falls short of competing with the west (Halliday 15-20).
Several authors have pointed out that the nature of the hostility which is depicted by the western nations towards Islam can be regarded as that which is based on xenophobia, racism, and elements which are stereotypical.
According to Halliday, such a phenomenon is called anti-Muslimism, a term which underpins the kind of hostility which is depicted towards the Muslim community at large and not only to individual persons (Halliday 15). According to Shadid, anti-Muslim propaganda does not strictly entail elements which are religious, but depicts a mixture “spurious rhetoric and other ideologies that are murky” (Shadid 2).
According to Halliday, two types of anti-Muslimism are established. These variants are the strategic and populist anti-Muslimism. The strategic variant of anti-Muslimism has been thought to emanate from the United States. This variant is related to and worsened by issues such as nuclear weaponry, oil reserves and issues of terrorism (Halliday 23-50).
Halliday points out that this variant of anti-Muslimism accrued in the 1970s and is a result of crises in the Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC). Other issues which are underpinned in this variant include others such as hostages of the United States Team in Tehran, the 1993 incident where the world trade centre was bombed, and the Iranian attempt to produce atomic energy using uranium. Such issues depict how anti-Muslimism has been propagated by prejudiced media (Halliday 23-50).
According to Halliday, the populist variant of anti-Muslimism is found predominantly in Western Europe, although the strategic variant may also be present in Europe. The populist variant of anti-Muslimism has been thought to be predominant in Western Europe because of its re-emergence as a reaction to the ever increasing numbers of the Muslim community in the west. This issue is worsened by issues such as veiling of girls, assimilation, race and integration (Halliday 23-50).
Halliday’s perception of anti-Muslimism assumes that the populist variant of anti-Muslimism (which began in the 1980s) is entrenched in the general immigrant attitudes, especially in Western Europe. Such sentiments that are anti-Muslim have been evident in occurrences such as rejection of veiling and foundations of Islamic schools and mosques (Halliday 23-50).
According to Shadid, the duty to correct the mythical perceptions directed towards Islam and the Muslim community has not raised any concern amongst Islamologists and social scientists. This is because many of such leaders and experts derive their sources from predominant classical religious publications to understand and give explanations for the modern developments, especially in contemporary Muslim societies (Halliday 23-50).
According to Shadid, the ivory tower approach has depicted inability to comprehend the political ad socio-economic development. These issues cannot be explained by referring only to the Quran, views of Ulamas and the Sunna. It is inexorable that the above approach creates new stereotypes and cannot curb existing ones (Shadid 12-40).
Conclusion
According to Hippler, western countries have persistently assumed that western values are incompatible with those of Islam. This is by focusing on the areas of conflict between western and Muslim cultures, while ignoring the similarities which exist (Hippler 23-43). Hippler argued that such a phenomenon only occurs in cases where some people in the west are determined to maintain the negative image of Islam and the Muslim community (Hippler 23-43).
Works Cited
Halliday, Herman. Islam and the Myth of Confrontation: Religion and Politics in the Middle East, New York: Tauris Publishers, 1995. Print.
Hippler, Shamir. Foreign Policy, the Media and the Western Perception of the Middle East, New Jersey; Hampton Press, 1998. Print.
Pool, Ali. Framing Islam: An Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of Islam in the British Press, Hampton Press: New Jersey, 1987. Print.
Shadid, Ali. De islam in het Westen: onbekend enonbemind, New York: Tauris Publishers, 1999. Print.
The individuals may not be able to control their emotions appropriately. Such factors as stress, the feeling of happiness and other similar emotions might negatively influence their performance and induce instances of arousal. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003)
The study on the perception of stereotype threat on women’s test scores is conducted in a correlative manner. In test taking, there has been noted quite a large difference between the general performance of test scores in regards to racial and gender differences.
The study was conducted to show that arousal during test taking situations accounts for these differences rather than any biological factor, and arousal from stereotype threat is suggested to account for these differences. The stereotype threat was concluded to previously have an effect on the test scores, but there was no actively defined function.
In the end, arousal turned out to be this factor. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003)
Variables
Independent and predictor variables are used throughout the study. The variables used in the study were gender, difficulty of the tests, and the perception of stereotype threat. For independent variables, both males and females were tested across various ethnicities; tests were varied and divided into simple, fairly easy, and difficult ones, as well as tests of expected results versus the tests of perceived stereotypical results.
The predictor variable which was used in the experiment was of the stereotype threat.
Operational Definition of Variables
Stereotype threat was used in the current study. The operational definition of stereotype threat was of perceived implications of performance in tests along with stereotypical lines.
Specifically, the stereotype which was implemented consisted in the fact that generally men do and perform better on mathematics tests than women actually do. A person feels threatened when stereotype threats are present because they are afraid that they will end up demonstrating these negative character traits. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003).
In other words, it can be emphasized that as opposed to any sort of biological factor playing into test taking ability, social factors are in fact the main cause. More specifically, the desire not to be unfairly judged causes the anxiety. The threat of negative perceptions cause the negative perceptions to exist in the first place.
Arousal was used as well. The effect of arousal is that difficult tasks become more difficult to manage and handle and, therefore, they show poor results while testing while simpler tasks are being improved upon. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003).
Hypotheses
The main hypothesis of the study was to show that the active component in stereotype threat was an increase in arousal. Also, because arousal creates difficulty in performing difficult tasks, test scores were hypothesized to drop when stereotype threat was indicated (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003).
Results
The results of the data were that the implication of stereotype threat did in fact negatively affect the test scores on the difficult tests and caused an increase in the scores of the easier one. When the subjects took the tests without any implication that results fell along stereotypical lines, both men and women performed comparably.
Conclusions
A conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that teachers who are administering tests should assure students that matters of biology, such as gender or ethnicity, do not play an active roll, and that a woman performing poorly in mathematics test is more than likely plays into self-fulfilling prophecies; if you think that you will do poorly on a difficult test, the arousal caused by your nervousness is likely to cause you to receive poor results on the test, as opposed to any inherent problems.
Confidence in test taking is a highly important factor in the success of the test-takers.
Of course, one possible problem would be to stress out that there are no biological factors into play. By drawing attention to this fact, the test-takers could still cause themselves arousal because they have heard far too many times about doing poorly on a test.
It’s more of a matter of overcompensating; be stressing intensely to the test-takers that there are no reasons for them to do poorly on a test, the test-takers might then internalize their fears of testing poorly and that there is now only something inherently wrong with them.
For anything positive to be accomplished through the use of the results of this study, a careful plan must be implemented in order to assuage fears that biology will play its significant role for the test results without causing any stress to the students who believe that there would only be an individualized problem of people who regularly have difficulty in test taking. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003)
Critique
The study took into consideration one possible problem. It was necessary to show that students didn’t simply do better or worse on these tests due to their ability to answer more questions on the simple tests and thus experienced fewer problems on the harder tests.
Through measuring the degree to which the results varied, they were able to show that it was not simply the matter of one’s ability to answer more or fewer questions depending on the test. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003)
However, the study takes a few ideas for granted. In the tests that were administered, there was a specific implication of the existence of a stereotype threat. But can we really go ahead and then assume that the implication of stereotype threats is simply “in the air” as suggested in the study seems to be taking too much for granted.
A female teacher might favor the female students in a class, or vice versa, and a legitimate prejudice might come into play as the results of the tests. Also, different people have different test-taking and studying strategies, and various classrooms might be more focused towards and on one learning style over another.
Furthermore, the ages of the test-takers should be varied, and so a longitudinal study could demonstrate the extent to which these stereotype become learned by the test-takers. Also, there would need to be studies done in different cultures to see if any stereotype from one separate culture can affect the test-takers of an absolutely different culture. (O’Brien & Crandall, 2003).
There are further factors which would increase or decrease a students’ arousal. The amount of time studied would be increased or decreased accordingly. Also, this study focused on mathematics tests. Different subjects require different approaches to test-taking.
Another study could focus on the work a student performs in a different environment, for example, similar to the one of taking an essay home to work on. It will surely students to relax however will not let arousal overwhelm them.
References
O’Brien, L., & Crandall C. (2003). Stereotype threat and arousal: Effects on women’s math performances. Arizona: Pers Soc Psych.
Psychologists have long argued on the complexities of stereotype priming and whether such priming always leads to assimilation or could contrast also develop. This essay focuses on examining this central question by dwelling on the various studies conducted by social scientists which have yielded a variety of results.
The essay confirms that stereotype priming leads to assimilation in most cases. Automatic stereotyping can occur directly by perceiving a person executing a certain action. The activation of a mental representation of a social group leads to behaviour corresponding to specific attributes of the stereotype. People may assimilate their attitudes to those of the primed category even when the shift is in a direction that is not personally or socially desirable. Other researchers have studied the effects of priming racial stereotypes (negative stereotypes) in individuals who did not belong to the stereotyped groups. The studies proved that such priming reinforced assimilation and resulted in a negative outcome for the individuals. Negative stereotype priming however has been used by many countries to enhance the self-esteem of their ‘in-group’ or to justify their actions. However, not all stereotype priming leads to assimilation. Numerous studies have pointed out that priming, under differing circumstances can produce contrast or sometimes both. Theorists have held that while assimilation occurs almost by default, contrast requires certain other inputs to crystallize. These other factors could be by having exemplar priming or by self-activation. The essay concludes by stating that the last word on stereotype priming has not been written and that researchers will continue to discover new angles to the complex working of the human mind and human behaviour.
The Merriam-Webster online dictionary (2009) holds that a stereotype is “something conforming to a fixed or general pattern; especially: a standardized mental picture that is held in common by members of a group and that represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment”. Priming refers to the incidental activation of knowledge structures, such as trait concepts and stereotypes, by the current situational context (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996, p. 230). Assimilation is the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. A Contrast on the other hand is a mechanism by which the new information because of its perceived or actual variance with the stored information leads to different conclusions for the observer. Psychologists have long argued on the complexities of stereotype priming and whether such priming always leads to assimilation or could contrast also develop. This essay focuses on examining this central question by dwelling on the various studies conducted by social scientists which have yielded a variety of results.
Humans tend to categorize objects, people and events in simplified categories for the ease of responding to them when the situation so demands. “We group things into categories because we expect things in a particular category to behave in a similar manner so that we have a simple way of understanding the behaviour”(Schneider, 2004, P.64). It is because of this reason we have many predictable results for some set pieces of information and at times this leads to automatic stereotyping. Automatic stereotyping can occur “directly by perceiving a person executing a certain action” ( Kawakami et. al, 2002, p.5). For example, a vision of an old man is automatically associated with the quality of ‘slowness’. The activation of a mental representation of a social group leads to behaviour corresponding to specific attributes of the stereotype (Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg, 1998, p. 873). For example, a control group primed with the characteristics of a professor was found to answer more general knowledge questions correctly than an unprimed control group. This has been corroborated by Dijksterhuis and Bargh (2001) who state that primed traits lead to assimilation (p. 22). In their study, the researchers primed a group of participants with a positive set of traits of a control candidate and then were asked how they rated the control candidate. The group reported more positive impressions of that candidate than another participant group who had been primed with a negative set of traits of the control candidate.
Kawakami, Dovidio and Dijksterhuis (2003) have found that people may assimilate their attitudes to those of the primed category even when the shift is in a direction that is not personally or socially desirable (p. 318). For example, a control group of African Americans were primed on the perceived stereotype of African Americans being poor in mathematics actually ended up scoring low in mathematics tests conducted. Assimilation also depends on the perceived preferences of the people. Hall and Crisp (2008) observe that some groups matter to some people more than others and in such cases people self-stereotype (p. 344).
For priming a stereotype some researchers have held that accessibility of the information and the applicability of the interpretation is a prerequisite for assimilation and are sufficient to affect a person’s judgment in forming a stereotype. Others such as Stapel and Koomen (1998) state that stereotype-relevant knowledge will be used only if the social category of the target matches the activated stereotype (p. 137). For example, if a control group were to be primed to assimilate traits of aggressive behaviour, they would most likely associate it with a man rather than women as socially, women are not supposed to be aggressive. Thus activation of a stereotype will also depend on the degree of association. Dijksterhuis et.al state that the “differences in the degree of stereotype activation can also be caused by differences in the strength of the association between a category and a stereotype” (2000, p. 533).
Other researchers have studied the effects of priming racial stereotypes (negative stereotypes) in individuals who did not belong to the stereotyped groups. The studies proved that such priming reinforced assimilation and resulted in a negative outcome for the individuals. This was proved by Wheeler, Jarvis and Petty (2001) who in their study concluded that “Non-African-American students for whom the African American stereotype was activated performed worse on a standardized math test than those who were not so primed” (p. 179). Negative stereotype priming however has been used by many countries to enhance the self-esteem of their ‘in-group’ or to justify their actions. The US Armed forces routinely used the stereotypes of ‘slant eyed’, ‘monkeys’ and ‘japs’ to bolster the morale of the troops in their fight against the Japanese during the Second World War and the Vietcong during the Vietnam War. Such actions have been theorized by behavioural scientists as “positive self-stereotypes and negative out-group stereotypes (that) constitute positive inputs to social identity”(Klein & Azzi, 2001, p.280).
Blanton, Crocker and Miller (2000) through their excellent research have found that psychological closeness can lead to activation of a comparison process and a reflection process on a self-esteem-relevant task (p. 525). The study showed that if African American students were to be socially compared with a white student on an upward social scale, they would perceive a lowering of self-esteem but if they were to be upward social comparison with another Africa- American student the students showed higher self-esteem.
However, not all stereotype priming leads to assimilation. Numerous studies have pointed out that priming, under differing circumstances can produce contrast or sometimes both. Hicklin and Wedell (2007) have found that assimilation is not likely to happen when group members are well distinguished in memory along the relevant dimension of judgment (p. 431). In such cases, the contrast was more likely than assimilation. Where the individual memory recall is hazy and a clear individual judgment becomes difficult, then members of a group tend to follow the groupthink and assimilation occurs.
Priming can lead to either assimilation or contrast. Many studies have focused on the fact that this priming has a significant effect on the intellectual behaviour of a group. Theorists have held that while assimilation occurs almost by default, contrast requires certain other inputs to crystallize. These other factors could be by having exemplar priming or by self-activation. However, it was not necessary that self-activation would lead to contrast. At times, it “can also enhance assimilation depending on the activated self-concept” (Bry, Follenfant, & Meyer, 2008, p. 755).
Dijksterhuis et. al (1998) have found that ” Traits and stereotypes elicit assimilation, priming of exemplars can elicit judgmental contrast by evoking social comparisons” (p. 862). For example, if a control group is primed to consider a target individual as hostile then the group predictably produces an assimilative reaction of judging that person to be hostile. However, if the same group is primed with an example of Adolf Hitler and then asked to judge the target individual, the comparative knowledge about the example shows a judgmental reaction that ranges as the target individual could not be that hostile as Hitler. Thus there is a specific contrast generated. Hence in this case of stereotype priming, contrast and not assimilation is the result.
A study by Bless et.al (2001) concluded that assimilation was less vigorous when the participants were induced to introduce an atypical exemplar in the group category (p. 391). The authors also found that the atypical exemplar came to be viewed more stereotypically when viewed from within the group rather than when he was out of it. Thus assimilation and contrast both occurred depending upon where one looked at the case. Activation of positive stereotypes led to a performance boost that showed assimilation as well as contrast effects depending upon the degree of the stimuli. This was proved by Shih et. al (2002) who state that “stereotype targets evidenced assimilation effects in response to subtly presented stimuli and contrast effects in response to blatantly presented stimuli” (p. 645).
In conclusion, it can be stated that under many conditions, stereotype priming usually produced assimilation. This is not a universal rule. Under certain conditions and circumstances, priming can produce contrast or sometimes both assimilation as well as contrast. This is especially true in conditions of self-activation as well as in situations where exemplar priming evoked comparative judgment. Researchers continue to study the subject from different angles. With advances in technology, better tools and a better understanding of the human mind, behavioural scientists will continue to explore the inner workings of the human mind and human behaviour.
Works Cited
Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of Social Behavior: Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 71, No. 2, , 230-244.
Blanton, H., Crocker, J., & Miller, D. T. (2000). The Effects of In-Group versus Out-Group Social Comparison on Self-Esteem in the Context of a Negative Stereotype. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 36, , 519-530.
Bless, H., Schwarz, N., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Thiel, L. (2001). Personalized versus Generalized Benefits of Stereotype Disconfirmation: Trade-offs in the Evaluation of Atypical Exemplars and Their Social Groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37, , 386–397.
Bry, C., Follenfant, A., & Meyer, T. (2008). Blonde like me: When self-construals moderate stereotype priming effects on intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 , 751-757.
Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (1998). The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of trivial pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 74(4) , 865-877.
Dijksterhuis, A., Aarts, H., Bargh, J. A., & Knippenberg, A. v. (2000). On the Relation between Associative Strength and Automatic Behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 36, , 531-544.
Dijksterhuis, A., van Knippenberg, A., Spears, R., Postmes, T., Stapel, D. A., Koomen, W., et al. (1998). Seeing One Thing and Doing Another:Contrast Effects in Automatic Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol 75 No.4 , 862-871.
Hall, N. R., & Crisp, R. J. (2008). Assimilation and contrast to group primes: The moderating role of ingroup identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44 , 344-353.
Hicklin, S. K., & Wedell, D. H. (2007). Learning Group Differrences:Implications for Contrast and Assimilation in Stereotyping. Social Cognition, Vol. 25, No. 3 , 410-454.
Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). Effect of Social Category Priming on Personal Attitudes. American Psychological Society VOL. 14, NO. 4, , 315-319.
Kawakami, Kerry, Young Heather & Dovidio, John F. (2002). Automatic Stereotyping: Category, Trait, and Behavioral Activations. PSPB, Vol. 28 No. 1, 2002. Web.
Klein, Olivier & Azzi, Assaad E. (2001). The Strategic Confirmation of Meta-Stereotypes: How Group Members Attempt to Tailor An Out-group’s Representation of Themselves. British Journal of Social Psychology (2001), 40, 279–293. Web.
Shih, M., Ambady, N., Richeson, J. A., Fujita, K., & M, G. H. (2002). Stereotype Performance Boosts: The Impact of Self-Relevance and the Manner of Stereotype Activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 83, No. 3, , 638–647.
Schneider, David J. (2004). The Psychology of Stereotyping. New York: Guilford Press. 2004.
Stapel, D. A., & Koomen, W. (1998). When Stereotype Activation Results in (Counter)Stereotypical Judgments: Priming Stereotype-Relevant Traits and Exemplars. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 34 , 136-163.
Wheeler, C. S., Jarvis, W. B., & Petty, R. E. (2001). Think Unto Others: The Self-Destructive Impact of Negative Racial Stereotypes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37 , 173-180.
Perception is defined as the process through which various organisms sense what is going on in the environment in which they live. As a result, they are able to interpret what is perceived thus developing meaningful interpretation. In other words it is the process by which human beings give an understanding of the information that they sense such as what they see, hear, feel, taste or smell (Lindsay & Norman 7). Perception is amongst the oldest concepts in psychology and its study resulted in the formation of Gestalt School of Psychology. Past experiences that a given individual went through such as cultural issues greatly determine such an individual’s perception.
Perception can be accurate or not. For example, in some cases it has resulted in stereotyping. In this paper two activities are conducted. The first activity is from stereotype to empathy whose purpose is to brainstorm various ways to build empathy based on personal experiences with stereotyping. The second activity will relate to perception and art. The purpose of this activity is to illustrate that people have different perceptions. An explanation of the reasons that result into this will be given.
From Stereotype to Empathy
The purpose of this activity is to brainstorm ways to build empathy based on my own personal experiences with stereotyping. This arises from the fact that people hold different beliefs about certain social groups of people or different individuals. For example, some people are believed to be wise, others smart, while others are believed to be thieves amongst others. These public beliefs about people are what we refer to as stereotypes and can either be positive or negative but in most cases they are negative. This process of categorising and making assumptions about members of a particular group of people because they belong to that group is called stereotyping. As an individual, I have had some stereotype concerning black (Africans) Americans.
African Americans’ stereotype
Some of my stereotypes relating to Africans-Americans include believing that black people are dumb. This means that they are not able to express their needs in addition to being lazy. The resultant effect is that black African Americans are poor. In addition, these individuals are uncivilised, smelly and unchristian or un-devoted Christian who went to church just to sing gospel music (Charles 13). I also hold believe that black people are slaves and that they practice witchcraft. These stereotypes resulted from different sources as discussed below.
Sources of Africans Americans stereotype
Most of the stereotypes about African-Americans resulted from the media owned by white colonialists. For instance, in many televisions programmes, most of the characters who act as dumb and lazy are Africans.As a result, most of the people have believed that this is the case. In addition, Africans Americans are presented in scenes where they are engaging themselves in witchcraft in these television programmes. As a result, they are believed to be witches. Moreover, these stereotypes came from the colonizers.The fact that African-Americans are black make many people believe that they are dull even in their mind as their colour.
Lastly, the source of stereotype arises from the fact that most of the Africans-Americans who settled in U.S first were slaves.Therefore, all the other that came after them are believed to posses the same attributes. Most of my friends and relatives hold these stereotypes concerning Africans-Americans since we have all been made to believe this. However, I no longer hold these stereotypes I had concerning the Africans-Americans though a few of my friends still hold some of them. There are so many reasons that led me to do away with the above stereotypes.
What happened that made me change my perception concerning the Africans-Americans
To start with, since the media it is the one that had made us develop these stereotypes by portraying Africans as the best art performers such as singers, dancers and great athletes, I did away with some beliefs I held about them. In addition, some televisions and films presented them as very kind and honest people and since these qualities are mostly possessed by Christians, I stopped stereotyping them as un-Christians. Additionally, I have read so many interesting and inspiring books written by Africans-American.This show that they are very intelligent people. The most classic example is the case of Barrack Obama who is the current President of US. He is an African American who has managed to rise to power in the most powerful country in the world. This show that we are not different or superior to the Whites.What differentiates us is only skin colour and this does not contribute a lot to our attributes except when negative stereotypes are used and one believes them to be gospel true and start acting as stated by these stereotypes.
Perception and Art
The purpose of this activity is to illustrate that we all have different perceptions and explore the reasons associated with this. This is very important since most individuals assume that all people view the world in the same way. This is due to the fact that these people who make these assumptions do not have a chance of comparing what they see with those of other individuals (Mosher 2).However, this kind of assumption is not accurate as discussed here. For example, we may have the same drawings but we view it differently.
During the discussion regarding our perception and feelings about different pieces of artwork, we were with three of my friends. These include Ann, Jane and John. Ann came from a united family full of love. Jane has so much interested in art though she was not performing while John was a young boy who was only 13 years old. On the provided artwork, we all perceived different things even though we viewed the same piece of artwork. For example, when we looked at the Dejeuner Sur L’Herbe painting done by Edourd Manet, Ann saw a family sat together either on an outing or just relaxing. On the other hand, John saw a baby that was put aside and felt sorry for the baby while I saw a group of people who are in the forest resting either after a long toil such as hunting. However, though some of us saw the same things when we continued with the discussion we realised they were not talking of the same things.
Our feelings concerning the art were also different. For example, on looking at the Dejeuner Sur L’Herbe painting some of us felt so bad and humiliated because of the nakedness of the people while some did not feel anything bad about this. To them, these people might have been brought up in a culture whose nakedness to them is not a big issue. In addition, our interests and likes were also different. For instance, one of my friends could not even like to see some of the artwork as they believed they were immoral and others could not even remove their eyes from them. However, even where we liked the same artwork, the reasons that we gave as to why we liked the particular piece of artwork was also different. The reason for this is that we perceived the paintings differently meaning that after looking at the same pictures our interpretation of the same were very different.
Factors that made us perceive the artwork differently
There are many reasons as to why we perceived the paintings differently though we were seeing the same things. Firstly, the process of perception does not only depend on sensation but also involve the mind interpreting what is sensed. With regard to mental work, we all have different genes that determine our intellectual Quotient.This explains why we had different perception of the paintings. Moreover, we were all brought up differently in different cultural backgrounds where to some of us some of the paintings were not found in our areas and other paintings we were told have different influence on us when we look at them.
The fact that we belonged to different races and ethnic groups that held different cultures also contributed towards our differences in perceiving similar things differently. Moreover, we were all going through different issues of life, for example some of us were experiencing separation and others unity in their families.This is why when it came to the second painting some of us could talk of a family that are on an outing while others felt so bad remembering what is happening in their families. Lastly, we were not of the same age since some of us were younger and others older.
Individual’s favourite and least favourite work
After looking at the provided piece of artwork with my friends Ann, Jane, John and I, we gave each person’s favourite and least favourite piece of artwork. My favourite piece of artwork was the Les Demoiselles d’Avignon painting by Pablo Picasso. This resulted from the fact that the artist used different colours and communicate many things using one painting.My least favourite was Rokeby Venus paintings done by Diego Velazguez because of seeing the naked people as I have been brought up knowing that nakedness is associated with immorality. On the other hand, John’s favourite artwork was La Fourchette photograph done by Andre Kertesz as he was young and liked eating so much and seeing the photograph could associate it with food. On the other hand, his least favourite was Dejeuner Sur L’Herbe painting done by Edourd Manet as he saw as if there is a baby who is left to sleep and nobody was concerned about it.
Ann who came from a family full of love and unity said that her favourite piece of work was Dejeiner Sur L’Herbe painting by Edourd Manet. The reason she gave was that after looking at the painting she associated it with a family that have gone for an outing together. On the other hand, her least favourite was Rokeby Venus painting that was done by Diego Velazguez since after seeing the naked people she remembered the way she was beaten when she was young the day she had removed her clothes and walked naked in the rain.Lastly,Jane favourite piece of artwork was Composition 2 in Red Blue and Yellow paintings done by Piet Mondrian as these were her favourite colours.However, the Unique Forms of Continuity in Space sculpture by Umburto Buccioni was her least favourite. This arose from the fact that after looking the sculpture she remembered the punishment she was given during an art lesson when she failed to make a good sculpture as she had been told by her teacher.
Perception of the artist based on these artworks
After analysing the artwork carefully, we gave different perceptions concerning the artists and later came to a conclusion that artists are talented people who can communicate many things using different pieces of artwork. In addition, we perceived artists as people who are very social and able to relate very well with people of different backgrounds and learn many things from them which they put in their artwork. Lastly, we associated artists with sharp minded people who are able to learn information very fast and put it into paintings.
Lessons I learnt about perception as a result of this activity
After engaging myself in the above activity, I learnt that perception is a continuous process which involves first sensing what surrounds us and then mind interpreting whatever we sense. As a result, we may all see the same things but our interpretation may be different. This is due to the fact that our level of Intelligent Quotient is different. In addition, we may have come from different backgrounds where we were exposed to different cultures and beliefs. Differences in ages also affect the way people perceive things.
Conclusion
After engaging in the two activities, the first one from stereotype to empathy and the second one on perception and art , it is my belief that perception goes hand in hand with sensation.In addition, perception involves mental work where people may sense the same things but interpret them differently leading to different perceptions. Perception is an important topic as it helps us to develop different ideas from the way people perceive things. However, perception can lead to stereotyping which can in turn lead to different kinds of discrimination such as race and gender discrimination. Therefore, understanding the concept of perception better could lead to avoiding stereotypes thus reducing instances of discrimination and result to a better world.
Works Cited
Charles, Hurst. Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. 6. Boston: Pearson Education Incorporation, 2007.Print.
Lindsay, Peter and Norman, Donald. Human Information Processing: An Introduction to Psychology. USA: Rational Island Publishers, 1977.Print.
Mosher, Rachel. Model for Perception. Serendip.1998. Web.
One of the most enchanting novels in the American literature, the piece by Cahan offers a plunge into the world of the usual. All soaked with the binding routine, always repeating, always the same, the book is a perfect study of human’s nature in terms of everyday life.
Although people tend to be original and outstanding, the routine and the mundane life take them back into the life of the ordinary. With help of the traditional stereotypes, Cahan manages to create the specific nowhere-to-run atmosphere.
Stereotype Me: Learning to Think
It is quite peculiar that all possible stereotypes can be traced at every level in Cahan’s creation, starting from the mundane family life and business relationships up to the stereotypes concerning nationalities and national features of character and behavior. With help of these tiny details, often almost invisible, the author creates the impression of striking reality.
Yet at the same time the reader understands that what Cahan suggests is the mock-reality where everything is a grotesque, and where people watch their reflections in a distorting mirror.
What bursts upon the eye immediately is the traditional idea of various nationalities. For instance, the lead character, Leizer Lipman, is a perfect specimen of a Jew as they are often depicted – living in a foreign country, yet running his small but successful business:
The shop was one of a suite of three rooms on the third floor of a rickety old tenement house on Essex Street, and did the additional duty of the family’s kitchen and dining room. It faced a dingy little courtyard, and was connected by a windowless bedroom with the parlor, which commanded the very heart of the Jewish markets.
Another traditional picture of a national character is Lipman’s wife, Zlate, a woman of East European descent. According to the widespread myth about the Slavonic women, she is rather humble yet hard-working, a real helping hand for her husband.
Another issue which the author touches upon is the prejudices and myths concerning work. Zlate mistakenly gives orders to her husband’s employee, considering the latter her own “errand boy” as well. Creating certain conflict, this small detail sheds the light on the stereotypes learned at the mother’s knee.
Although they could seem absurd to the people of different culture, they are still a part of someone’s life; they are practically a part of someone, to be more precise.
It is obvious that once Zlate or Lipman abandon their prejudices and stereotypes, there will be only empty shell left, not the people, for stereotypes are often what people’s lives depend on.
The Secret Shelter from Vulgarity
Another common stereotype which the author considers is the shame of saying sorry. As Lipman decides to apologize to Beile, he feels quite uncomfortable and realizes that he might have no heart to continue what he started:
He armed himself with a fib to explain his conduct. But all in vain; he could not nerve himself up to the terrible meeting. And so day after day passed, each day increasing the barrier to the coveted visit.
With all the wisdom and understanding Cahan approached one of the most significant things in people’s lives, the art of saying “sorry”.
Another tricky issue which Cahan considers as a stereotypical situation is Lipman’s affair. Using the traditional stereotype of relationships between a man in his ripe age and a young woman, Cahan exposes the futility of people’s attempts to make the incompatible come together.
Conclusion: A Long Way to Go
With help of his talent, Cahan makes people’s chronic stereotypes burst like bubbles. Describing the world as it is, bare and unveiled, Cahan makes people see their own silly prejudice. As stereotypes surrender the lead characters, it becomes obvious that the vision of the world can be changed – all that one has to do is to make an attempt.
During the 1980s and 1990s, the expression “Welfare Queen” gained popular in political discourse. The phrase was criticized for its alleged usage as a political tool as well as its negative implications. Individuals perpetrating welfare fraud made up a relatively small fraction of people getting legal benefits, according to critics. The term’s use was also interpreted as an attempt to caricature users in order to erode public support for Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).
President Ronald Reagan used this phrase to express his dissatisfaction with social initiatives in the United States. He used the myth to mobilize public support for welfare reform. Reagan frequently mentioned the phrase at campaign rallies during his first run for the Republican nomination in 1976, and again in 1980. Some of these tales, as well as others that followed into the 1990s, focused on female welfare recipients engaging in conduct that was detrimental to their future financial independence, such as having children out of wedlock, using AFDC money to buy drugs, or exhibiting a lack of motivation to work.
Reagan’s portrayal of these ladies was used to justify real-world policy changes and contributed to the shrinkage of the social safety net. These women were viewed as social leeches who drained society of vital resources while participating in self-destructive conduct. They were also thought to be predominantly women of color in order to propagate racist notions. Despite the “Assistance Queen” icon’s early appearances, stories about able-bodied males receiving benefits continued to dominate conversation until the 1970s, when women became the primary focus of welfare fraud stories.
The “Welfare Queen” stereotype is supported by false and racist assumptions that attribute poverty to the personal failings of black single moms, reinforcing racial stereotypes like promiscuity. With primary narratives about poverty being driven by the myth of meritocracy, the trope exemplifies the result of adding racial and gender dimensions to these inaccurate claims. This became a public identity projected onto the bodies of black women, and the maintenance of this public identity has been utilized to shape welfare policy results.