Stem Cell Research from Catholic Perspective

Stem cell research is controversial because this raises questions like; Is it right to kill an embryo for cures to save other people’s lives? Or, if we don’t proceed, is it right to make those who can benefit from this research suffer? I don’t think that we should continue with this research because of many reasons, the most important being an embryo is living, and we humans have no right to kill other humans and not have consequences.

One might say that it is not cruel to kill embryos because they will be discarded anyway. This is true, but they can also be adopted by couples who would like to have children but aren’t able to. Another reason is that even if they are discarded, they will die with respect instead of in a Petrie dish where they can be mutilated. In the 1995 encyclical The Gospel of Life, Pope John Paul II wrote: “Human embryos obtained in vitro are human beings and are subjects with rights; their dignity and right to life must be respected from the first moment of their existence. It is immoral to produce human embryos destined to be exploited as disposable ‘biological material’” (Pope John Paul II in Moran, 2003).

Another reason for not proceeding with embryonic stem cell research is that the cost for the research may be greater than the benefits, especially for the government. Some also say that approval to fund embryonic stem cell research may lead to direct federal funding for abortion, which is not allowed because this could be used as an argument that embryos are not human beings. On the other hand, there are many positive advances towards the future of science such as, scientists are learning about the earliest stages of human development, which can help detect birth defects that can contribute to infertility. Another advance is new methods for screening and testing new drugs.

This is because there would be less testing on animals and humans because they would use stem cells instead. (Walters, 2003) While this is true, scientists still only understand basic biology while trying to explore more advanced biology and physiology.

Another important reason why I am so against stem cell research is that it will ruin homeostasis in the environment. One of the most important factors to keeping homeostasis in humans and animals is random selection, which means that you can not choose what a person mates with or the outcome of the offspring. (Mahowald, 2003) This raises the question of and we are choosing the mates and how the embryo will look? They would say no, that they are just taking specific cells and using them to cure diseases. This is true but what about the children who are born with diseases? And who is deciding which embryos live and which die, playing God?

The final argument is that we may get the hopes up of people and these experiments may not even work. We will have taken everything these people know, such as hope and money, and they don’t even get a guarantee? Also, if it did work, where would the families get the money for rehabilitation and for surgery to have this done? The government would have to spend more money to help families pay their bills.

Even though many movie stars and families are for embryonic stem cell research, they still need to remember what they believe in, love and family. As Andrew Sullivan said in the New York Times, “Life should be measured not by how long it is lived but how it is lived” some thing can not simply be bargained or rationalized away and surly life is one of them.” (Holland, 2001) Some would argue that because human embryos do not resemble human beings, they should not be considered human beings and that they do not deserve the basic rights of all other living creatures. The fact is, human embryos resemble exactly what they are, human beings in the embryonic stage of their development. Human embryos, once formed, are whole living beings that have the ability to develop into adult human beings using resources from within itself.

It has been argued that location and stage of development should be a factor in determining whether a human being should be denied rights or not. (Juengst, 2000) Does it matter if the embryo is one day old or eight months old? If we use these arguments for the basis of our decisions regarding embryonic stem cell research, we are likely to contradict ourselves. Claiming that because a human embryo is not fully developed and able to survive on its own is a good reason to deny them basic human rights would be like saying a baby that was born prematurely, without the ability to survive outside the womb on its own does not deserve every medical attempt to save its life.

The argument exists that because some embryos are created in petri dishes and require implantation into a womb to achieve their full potential that they should not be considered human life, and therefore, can be denied basic human rights. Isn’t it true, however, that regardless of location, human embryos, whether located in a dish or a womb, carry the same characteristics? The only difference is one was created naturally inside the mother and the other was created by scientific means.

We fight to save children who were unfortunate to be brought into this world under less than acceptable conditions. Children born in Ethiopia deserve the same fundamental rights as children born in the United States. Food and safety is something that should be afforded to all human beings. Therefore, location is not a basis for determining human rights.

An argument that appears to be very contradictory is the argument for the use of existing stem cells and against the creation of new stem cells. This argument has conflicting ethical ideas in its reasoning. Saying that it is wrong to create new embryos specifically for destructive research because they are human beings but it is acceptable to destroy existing embryos because they will be disposed of anyway is contradictory reasoning. Human value is not determined by its expected lifespan.

If it is acceptable to use an embryo that is expected to last only a short period of time is should also be acceptable to perform open brain surgery that will surely end the life of a patient who is already dying of a brain tumor in the interest of medical advancements. Some might argue that allowing the destruction of embryos may lead to an increased tolerance to loss of life, including late-term abortions and treatment withdrawal for the severely disabled. This is why we should put a stop to this abuse and disrespect for human life before it is too late.

References

Holland, Suzanne. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy. Boston: MIT Press, 2001.

Juengst, Eric and Michael Fossel. “The Ethics of Embryonic Stem Cells-Now and Forever, Cells Without End.” JAMA 284.24 (2000): 3180-84.

Mahowald, Mary B. “Reflections on the Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate.” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 46.1 (2003): 131-41.

Moran, Jim. “Embryonic Stem Cell Research.” The Humanist 63.4 (2003): 41.

Walters, Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research: An Intercultural Perspective, Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 14, no. 1 (2004): 3-38.

Nanoscale Silver and Stem Cell Research

Finding the silver lining in some things might seem very difficult. However, with the emergence of nanoscale silver, it’s becoming much easier. Nanoscale silver is an antibacterial and antiviral chemical being marketed for use in wound and burn dressings. Some opponents have said that not enough research has been established to ensure the safe usage of nanoscale silver and question its effectiveness over similar products. For example, treatment for pancreatic cancer can be more efficient and successful using stem cell research. Nanoscale silver does serve certain medical situations.

The bacteria fighting nature of silver has long since been used small scale medical and other cleaning activities. However, the extended use of penicillin and other popular medicines led silver to be placed behind the competition. Large companies, Curad and Samsung, are both using nanoscale silver for antibacterial and antiviral applications. Curad, a large scale first aid distributor, wants to see the market continue to increase. Estimates are that the market will hit $3 trillion by 2014. (Hening, 1). Samsung’s applications of nanoscale silver include disinfecting laundry and dishwashing machines. The costs of this technology are relative when weighed against the repeated use of inefficient over the counter and prescription drug use due to bacterial and viral infection.

Although nanotechnology certainly has its place in the antibacterial and antiviral fields, when it comes to treating cancer and perhaps curing it, the best possible choice it stem cell research. Doctors are able to identify and target those cancerous stem cells, instead of blanketing as many cancer cells within an area and hoping for the best. (Dunham, 10). Locating stem cells would allow the doctors to extract those root cells and then curtail if not completely eradicate pancreatic cancer. Since pancreatic cancer has the lowest survival rate at just three percent, the benefits of stem cell research are immeasurable. This research also provides the best chance of finding effective treatment instead of retreads of older technology.

Furthermore, if by chance these cells could not be removed for various medical reasons, then stem cell research would also provide alternatives. Through operation or chemical treatment, doctors could alter the cells in such a way as to destroy the cancer. The cost benefit analysis of this position is outstanding. The first company to ever cure pancreatic cancer through stem cell research would not only set a historic precedent, but earn more than enough funding to expand research and development for years to come. Stem cell research, given the pancreatic cancer scenario, is the best option for a venture capitalist.

Technology has given every one new hope for a brighter future. Whether nanoscale silver or stem cell research, patients realize that the benefits of this technology go without saying. Nanoscale silver continues to be an emerging market for meeting antibacterial and antiviral needs. This technology has been used in both the medical field and homeware production. While silver provides many effective applications, stem cell research is the best alternative for curing pancreatic cancer. Although both markets look to see a significant rise in budgets within the nest few years, the benefits will remain priceless.

Works Cited

Dunham, Will. The Boston Globe (2007): 11 pars. Web.

Hening, Robin Marantz. “Our Silver-Coated Future.” OnEarth (2007): 60 pars. Web.

Apple Stem Cell in Skincare

Introduction

The advertisement claims that stem cell technology has made a breakthrough in skin care by utilizing anti-aging properties of apple stem cells. Researchers have shown that extracts from Swiss apple, Malus domestica, have regenerative effect on skin, and thus have utilized them in the production of apple stem cells from adult cells. Adult stem cells are unique because they have no limited life span and are effective in repairing cells in the body, particularly skin tissue. According to The Age (2011), M. domestica apple’s extracts have regenerative effect on cell culture as laboratory tests have shown that they significantly increase proliferation of adult cells by 80% (p.1). Thus, it means that apple’s extracts have the ability to stimulate regeneration of adult cells in the skin. Therefore, this essay critically evaluates the relevance of information, claims, and the supporting evidence of the advertisement.

Critical Evaluation of the Advertisement

The advertisement is relevant in skin care because it suggests that apple stem cells are very important in rejuvenating aging skin. The advertisement further asserts that apple stem cell technology is unique because it uses adult stem cells that have no ethical concerns, unlike previous stem cell technology that relied on embryonic stem cells. Thus, the advertisement seeks to dispel fears associated with ethical issues that customers had by asserting that apple stem cell technology has no ethical concerns. According to Watson (2011), advertisement of skin care products with apple stem cells has recorded unprecedented demand from customers because monthly sales are twice as expected (p.1). This shows that the advertisement is very captivating due to scientific evidences that it claims. Furthermore, the advertisement is credible because endless regeneration of apple stem cells makes them applicable in anti-aging therapy of skin care. According to the Age (2011), application of apple’s extracts in generation of apple stem cells for rejuvenating skin is a breakthrough in stem cell technology (p.1). Therefore, since information in the advertisement is relevant in informing customers about advancement in stem cell technology and skin care, people need to rejuvenate their skin.

The advertisement claims that M. domestica is a unique apple in that has a long shelf life and it can repair itself. Furthermore, the advertisement claims that M. domestica has regenerative effect on adult cells by transforming them to adult stem cells. The claims are consistent with scientific research as Reunad (2009) confirms that apple stem cells have restorative and regenerative effect, thus rejuvenates the skin (p.2). Moreover, apple’s extracts protect adult stem cells from polluting agents and ultra violet radiations. Due to above properties of M. domestica, medical experts have conducted numerous studies and confirmed that apple’s extracts can significantly stimulate regeneration of adult cells and reduce depths of wrinkles in skin, thus appropriate in skin care because of its proliferative effect. The claim that M. domestica has a long shelf life and can repair itself is a valid claim for Schmid, Schurch, Blum, Belser, and Zulli (2008) assert that, both M. domestica and Uttwiler spatlauber are varieties of apple cultivated because of their appropriate storage properties (p.31). Moreover, claim that apple’s extracts have regenerative effect on human cells is consistent with numerous studies that have revealed the importance of plants extracts in stimulating and preserving stem cells.

Numerous types and sources of information support claim that apple stem cells rejuvenate skin, which is a breakthrough not only in stem cell technology but also in skin care. According to Schurch, Blum, and Zulli (2007), in vitro study carried out showed that apple’s extracts increase proliferative activity of human cells in that 0.1% of the extracts increased proliferation of cells by 80% (p.603). Moreover, in vitro study showed that apple’s extracts protect cells from ultra violet radiations since radiations that kill 50% of cultured cells have a negligible effect on the viability of cells cultured in the presence of apple’s extract. According to Goldfaden (2008), the managing director of American Academy of Dermatology, in vitro studies conducted to examine the effect of 2% apple extracts on fibroblasts treated with hydrogen peroxide showed that fibroblasts become rejuvenated due to up regulation of genes and stimulation of heme oxygenase 1 (p.6). This confirmed that apple extracts have rejuvenating effect on skin by enhancing expression of genes and stimulating oxidizing enzymes. Clinical trials done on 20 subjects for a period of four weeks showed that, apple stem cells considerably reduce wrinkles that usually occur on crow’s feet area. Thus, in vitro and clinical studies are evidences that support application of apple stem cells in skin care.

Conclusion

Advertisers of stem cell therapy have effectively utilized scientific evidences to support their claims of apple stem cell. The advertisers asserted that, the use of embryonic stem cells has ethical concerns while apple stem cell have no ethical concerns because they come from adult cells, thus captivates customers who have reservations of ethical concerns. Moreover, the advertisement relates long shelf life of apples with anti-aging effects they have on the skin, which is quite appealing to customers. Scientific evidence such as in vitro and clinical trials substantially supported application of apple stem cells as anti-aging agents in skin care. Hence, given that advertisement claims are scientific, they are reliable to customers who want use skin care products of stem cell technology.

References

Goldfaden, G. (2008). Apple Stem Cells Offer Hope for Aging and Damaged Skin. American Academy of Dermatology, 1-6.

Reunad, I. (2009). Making a Success of Beauty with Passion: Skin Care Treatment Selection. Idrenaud Laboratory, 1-4.

Schmid, D., Schurch, C., Blum, P., Belser, E., & Zulli, F. (2008). Plant Stem Cell Extract for Longevity of Skin and Hair. International Journal for Applied Science, 64, 30-34.

Schurch, C., Blum, P., & Zulli, F. (2007). Potential of Plant Cells in Culture for Cosmetic Application. Photochemistry Review, 7, 599-605.

The Age. (19 June 2011). Stem Cell Therapy: The New Buzz in Anti-aging. The Advertisement, 1.

Watson, S. (2011). Cost Conscious Beauty Lovers Go Ape for Grape: Superdrug Celebrates Latest Skincare Sell out. Health and Beauty, 1-2.

The Stem Cell Research: Key Aspects

“Stem cell research” is a fundamental process due to the characteristics, which define cell forms (Zarzeczny & Caulfield, 2009). Studies indicate continuous effort by scientists in developing technologies that utilize these cells in repairing depleted body organs. The general idea of stem cells will help in developing psychoanalysis procedures for diseases with adverse effects on delicate body organs. These organs may incorporate the heart and kidney. However, SCR is a recent technology that plainly utilizes the human cells in developing cells. Distinguished scientists, using scientific techniques, obtain the cells from the adult tissue.

Brock, D. (2006). Is a consensus possible on stem cell research? Moral and political obstacles. J Med Ethics, 32(1), 36–42.

This article argues that, the moral and the legal aspects linked to the SCR do not receive full examination. In light of the legal aspects of the research, the paper indicates that the human embryo deserves respect just as adults. The article indicates that destruction of the embryo is immoral. In the paper, the generation of HESS’s using the SCNT is immoral. In addition, the article compares the benefits emanating from SCR, which is equitable to respect that the embryo loses when destroyed. The article also determines whether women are subject to exploitation when extracting embryos from their reproductive organs. This poses both permissible and principled concerns.

Irish Council for Bioethics (2008). Ethical, Scientific and Legal Issues Concerning Stem Cell Research. Opinion. Dublin: The Irish Council for Bioethics.

The article demonstrates how the SCR presents many legal and ethical issues to the policy makers, the scientists, and to the community. The article states that researchers ruin the individual embryo in getting the stem cells thus regarding it wicked. Numerous people think that, embryos should be handled as adults since they bear life in them. This is merely by basing on the fact that life starts after fertilization. However, other issues have emanated from storage of the child’s blood for future use in medical practices. The entire issue of blood storing raises much debate on determining whether the investment is worth undertaking. In 2006, the European Union (EU) imposed a command that halted the SCR practice, until the medicine board of Ireland provided the licenses thus permitting the practice. However, the SCR mostly uses the adult cells in many places.

Master, Z., McLeod, M., & Mendez, I. (2007). Benefits, risks, and ethical considerations in translation of stem cell research to clinical applications in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of medical ethics, 33, 169-173.

The article addresses some of the ethical issues that need consideration when opting for the SCR as a methodology for combating Parkinson’s disease. In response to such a concept, the article states that, the profits likely to emanate from the risks involved ought to be calculated before the research commences. It further stipulates that, the anticipated benefits derive their basis on participants and the community of origin. The article recommends that, decisions be initiated after comparing the past and the current practices on the transplants in the clinical field. It also postulates that whilst determining the benefits of the SCR, preliminary research should be initiated in some animals prior to the actual research.

Rachul, C., Zarzeczny, A., Bubela, T., et al. (2010). Stem cell research in the news: more than a moral status debate. Scripted a journal of law, technology and society, 7 (2), 311.

The paper indicates that SCR started receiving consideration in 1998 thus setting a new dimension for the entire process. The paper highlights the passing of Bush’s law restricting the backing for the SCR. However, it specifies how different organizations developed strategies highlighting its significance. In 2009, president Obama strongly backed the SCR process after carefully assessing the benefits allied with the research thus reversing the 2001 bush directive that discouraged the use of the Feds money for conducting the research. The invention of new technologies, helped in addressing the principled aspects connected to the investigation. Consequently, this article focuses more on legal issues, upon comparison to ethical concerns. A question posed is whether the President should offer absolute directives on research processes.

Zarzeczny, A., & Caulfield, T. (2009). Emerging ethical, legal and social issues associated with stem cell research & and the current role of the moral status of the embryo. Stem cell reviews and reports, 5 (2), 96-101.

As evident in the past, the SCR is subject to analysis by basing on controversies as professionals scrutinize the main concerns. However, the media and different policy forums pose immense interest on the issue. The controversy witnessed in the SCR derives its basis on whether the human embryo has any protection privileges. This results in arguments among scientists. The media plays an important part in creating awareness amid the public on issues resulting from the conversations. This has highly assisted the public in providing crucial information that aid in making decisions for policy formulation. Consequently, such a process affects the legislative process. Additionally, the benefits linked with the therapeutic SCR enhance the enthusiasm for the interested parties; therefore, inventing innovative technologies for conducting research.

References

Brock, D. (2006). Is a consensus possible on stem cell research? Moral and political obstacles. J Med Ethics, 32(1), 36–42.

Irish Council for Bioethics (2008). Ethical, Scientific and Legal Issues Concerning Stem Cell Research. Opinion. Dublin: The Irish Council for Bioethics

Master, Z., McLeod, M., & Mendez, I. (2007). Benefits, risks, and ethical considerations in translation of stem cell research to clinical applications in Parkinson’s disease. Journal of medical ethics, 33, 169-173.

Rachul, C., Zarzeczny, A., Bubela, T., et al. (2010). Stem cell research in the news: more than a moral status debate. Scripted a journal of law, technology and society, 7 (2), 311.

Zarzeczny, A., & Caulfield, T. (2009). Emerging ethical, legal and social issues associated with stem cell research & and the current role of the moral status of the embryo. Stem cell reviews and reports, 5 (2), 96-101.

Embryonic Stem Cells and Nuclear Transfer

Nuclear transfer of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) involves the removal of the DNA from anyone cell of a person and transferring it by a microscopic glass tube into an unfertilized egg (whose own DNA had been previously removed). The egg is then allowed to develop into a blastocyst. The inner cell mass of the blastocyst is then removed and embryonic stem cells are grown from it (Mollard, 2005). Parthenogenesis is a process by which some animals (lizards and birds) can reproduce without a male. In mammals, parthenogenesis refers to the embryonic development of eggs, which have been activated (artificially or aberrantly) without fertilization by a sperm (Cheng, 2008). Somatic cell dedifferentiation is the “direct reprogramming of an adult somatic cell to return to the state of a pluripotent stem cell” (Mertes, Pennings, Steirteghem, 2006)

The pros of nuclear transfer are that these embryonic stem cells, which contain the patient’s DNA, match the patient’s immunological profile and will not be rejected by the immune system of the patient (Mollard, 2005). The cons are that nuclear transfer may not be able to generate complete organs from culture, and the culture conditions are not as developed when compared to the environment regulating cells during organogenesis (Mollard, 2005).

The proof parthenogenesis is that it provides a source to derive embryonic stem cells with an exact match to the oocyte donor’s genome (both nuclear and mitochondrial), and it could provide a source of cells that are homozygous for major histocompatibility alleles-HLA-A, B, or DRB (Cheng, 2008). The cons are that mammalian parthenotes cannot develop into a full organism (Cheng, 2008).

The pros of somatic cell dedifferentiation are that it is not necessary to create an embryo to obtain stem cells, and there is a reduced risk of an immune reaction or graft-versus-host disease because dedifferentiated cells would have the same genetic information as the donor.

Also, the procedure is simpler and better suited for large-scale applications because SCNT is bypassed (Mertes, Pennings, Steirteghem, 2006). However, it is technically difficult to remove the original embryonic stem cell’s chromosomes from the hybrid cell (Mertes, Pennings, Steirteghem, 2006).

References

Cheng, L (2008). Cell Research. 18: 215–217. Web.

Mertes, H, Pennings, G, Steirteghem, AV (2006). . Oxford Journals. 21 (11). Web.

Mollard, R (2005). Nuclear Transfer -Stem Cells or Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT). Web.

Factors That Influence Stem Cell Research

Gross Domestic Product

Gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the measures of a country’s economic growth or performance. GDP is defined as “the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time” (Mankiw, 2008, p. 510). The use of the market price reflects the willingness of people to purchase the goods and services in question.

The definition of GDP has several implications. First and foremost, GDP measures the value of all goods and services irrespective of whether they are tangible or intangible. Secondly, GDP takes into account only the final goods and services and eliminates the intermediate goods. Intermediate goods are goods used in the production of final goods.

Final goods on the other hand are goods which are meant for final consumption. By not taking into account the intermediate goods, GDP as a measure of an economy’s growth progress avoids double counting. This is because the value of intermediate goods is always included in the value of the final goods.

Third, GDP is geographically bound. It only measures the value of goods and services produced within a country, irrespective of the producer. For instance, the GDP of the United States measures the value of goods and services produced within the boundaries of the United States, by people living in the U.S. even if they are not American citizens.

A Japanese automotive company located in the U.S. would contribute towards U.S. GDP. On the other hand, an American company located in Japan or elsewhere does not contribute towards the GDP of the U.S. Lastly, GDP as a measure is time-bound. GDP is always measured within a period of one year. It is important to note that GDP can be measured as an income flow or expenditure.

Households use their income to purchase goods and services. The income received by firms from the sale of goods and services is then used to pay the factors of production, which then becomes their incomes. Hence, the expenditures in the economy end up as incomes to economic agents, implying that incomes equal the expenditures in the economy (Mankiw, 2008).

Relationship between gross domestic product and research

Gross domestic product is a reflection of not only the level of incomes earned by economic agents but also the level of expenditures by the same economic agents. Research in general is an expensive undertaking that requires heavy financial investments, mainly from big organizations, firms and the government.

A country with a high GDP growth rate is more likely to undertake research studies in various fields as compared to countries with low GDP growth rates. The relationship between GDP and gross domestic product has been examined by Spitzmueller et al. (2010). Spitzmueller et al. (2010) argued that research undertakings require adequate financial resources, especially if the research is highly technical in nature.

Spitzmueller et al. (2000) found a positive and strong relationship between gross domestic product and research activity (p. 277). This implies that high GDP growth rates translate into increased research activity. Other studies have also found a positive relationship between GDP and research activity.

For instance, Rosmarakis et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between GDP and research on cardiovascular diseases.

Falagas, Karavasiou and Bliziotis (2005) found a close relationship between GDP and virology research, while Vergidis et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between GDP and research in microbiology. The justification given for this outcome is that increased and productive research activity requires a stable and strong economy with high levels of investments in the research field.

Speculation on the relationship between gross domestic product and stem cell research

Given the positive relationship between GDP and conventional research, the speculation is a positive relationship between GDP and stem cells research. Stem cell research is an expensive but valuable undertaking due to its potential of developing treatments for a wide range of degenerative conditions.

The speculative positive relationship between GDP and stem cell research implies that countries with high GDP growth rates are more likely to engage in stem cell research than their counterparts with low GDP growth rates.

Gross Domestic Product per Capita

Gross domestic product per capita (GDP per capita) is a better measure of a country’s development progress. It is the measure of the income per person measured within a certain period of time, normally one year (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2009, p. 54). It is therefore obtained by dividing the gross domestic product by the total population of a country.

It is a reflection of a country’s standard of living because it takes into account the country’s population. A country may record high GDP growth rate but low GDP per capita if its population size is big. Therefore, such a country may have low standards of living. On the other hand, a second country may record lower GDP growth rate but still have higher standards of living if its population size is small.

GDP per capita therefore tells how the economic growth of country is distributed among the country’s population and whether or not such a growth has any significant impact on the country’s population. GDP per capita is composed of two parts. The first part is GDP per capita resulting from growth in labor productivity. This is measured as GDP per hour worked.

The second part is GDP per capita resulting from growth in labor utilization. This component is measured as hours worked per person. Increase in labor utilization can have significant effects on the growth of GDP per capita. For instance, a low rate of labor utilization combined with high growth of labor productivity indicates that an economy is using more of capital and less of labor.

Relationship between gross domestic product per capita and research

Gross domestic product per capita, as earlier discussed, reflects the level of income per person in a country. Countries with high per capita GDP have higher standards of living, as measured by their high educational level, high employment levels, better health status, and higher acquisition of technical and scientific skills.

People with higher personal incomes can afford to advance their educational and skill levels to the point where they become competent in scientific and technical research. According to the study conducted by Spitzmueller et al. (2010), there is a positive and significant correlation between per capita GDP and research activity.

This finding is also supported by the study conducted by Guerin et al. (2008). Guerin et al. (2008) found a significant correlation between GDP per capita of greater than $20,000 and research activity.

Speculation on the relationship between gross domestic product per capita and stem cell research

The speculation is a positive relationship between GDP per capita and stem cell research. Countries recording high GDP growth rates but having smaller populations are likely to have higher stem cell research than countries with high GDP growth rates but having larger population sizes. Thus, there should be a difference in the output of stem cell research among the developed countries based on their population sizes.

Gross National Expenditures

Gross national expenditure is the total amount of spending by households and firms on goods and services in an economy (Hoover, 1970, p. 257). Gross national expenditure is identical to gross national income and gross national product. This is because the incomes received by economic agents are spending by other economic agents. For instance, the wage received as an income by an employee is expenditure to a firm.

Similarly, the gross national expenditure is equal to the value of all goods and services produced; the gross national product. Gross national expenditures are therefore an indicator of the economic progress of a country. Countries with high gross national expenditures record high economic growth rate and vice versa, because expenditures stimulate economic growth.

Nevertheless, the object on which the expenditures are made is as important as the level of expenditure. Countries with impressive economic growth track spend their national incomes on productive sectors, which stimulate economic growth rather than on redundant sectors, which hinder growth.

Gross national expenditures on research give an indication of the amount of money that is channeled into research activity (Godin, 2003). Besides this, the gross national expenditures on education, vocational training, scientific and technical training, building of infrastructure that supports research, human capital development, and capacity building are all good indicators of the emphasis a country places on research activity.

The relationship between gross national expenditure and research

A positive relationship has been found between gross national expenditure and research. Spitzmueller et al. (2010) found that research activity increases with an increase in expenditure on public education and health.

Speculation on the relationship between gross national expenditure and stem cell research

The speculative relationship between gross national expenditure and stem cell research is a positive correlation. Stem cell research should increase with an increase in gross national expenditures. However, this relationship may not hold. The direction of this relationship depends to a large extent on which sectors of the economy experience high levels of expenditures.

If high levels of expenditures are witnessed in the education and health sectors, then the positive relationship will hold. However, if the country spends much of its income on non-productive sectors such as the military and spends less on the education and health sectors, the relationship between gross national expenditure and stem cell research could be negative.

Population

The total number of population and its growth rate is important to any economy. Of significant importance to any country is the composition of its population. This refers to whether the population has more males and fewer females or more females and fewer males. In addition, the structure of the population matter a lot.

This refers to the number of population in the child age bracket (0-15 years), the number of persons in the productive age bracket (15-65 years) and the number of persons in the aged bracket (65 years and above).

The number of persons in the child age bracket and those in the aged bracket make up the number of dependent persons in the country because people in this age brackets have to rely on others for support, be it financial, emotional or physical support. As a result, a country with a high dependency ratio would fair poorly than one with a high proportion of population in the productive age bracket.

This is because the country would be forced to channel its resources towards the welfare of the dependent population by providing social services such as free or subsidized child care and services for the elderly (Katsumata, 2000). These resources could have been used in more productive sectors of the economy thus driving the country’s economic growth.

A country with a high proportion of its population in the productive age bracket has an abundant of labor force which is a key driver of economic growth and development. However, this can only be positive if the country has policies that increase employment opportunities for this population age bracket.

If the employment level is high, then a high population in the productive age bracket would have a positive impact on the growth of a country. On the other hand, if the country has low employment levels and high unemployment levels, a high population in the productive age bracket would have adverse effects on the country’s economic growth.

This is because the idleness of these energetic people would force them into vices such as crimes, drug dealing and trafficking.

In the end, the country would have a heavy burden of not only trying to control the vices but also trying to redeem the young people and the society through services such as rehabilitation and imprisonment of criminals. All these activities require heavy investment by the state, which could have been used in more productive sectors of the economy.

The issue of population cannot be mentioned without taking into account the aspect of human capital. Human capital entails building up the knowledge, skills and technical know-how of the population so as to increase its productivity (Fu, Dietzenbacher & Los, 2007).

Human capital is built through educational systems especially in higher learning institutions, vocational training, industrial training, scientific and technical training (Murphy & Traistaru-Siedschlag, 2007). Human capital is one of the major reasons behind the economic success of the developed countries as well as the newly industrializing countries of Asia.

The governments of these countries invest heavily in their education systems and in the after-school training of their population. This helps to equip the populations with knowledge, skills and expertise needed in running industries, creating new industries, creating new innovations and inventions and engaging in high technical research fields.

The relationship between population and research

According to existing literature, there is a negative significant correlation between population size and research activity.

For instance, Spitzmueller et al. (2010) found that even though the United States published more articles in radiological research than other developed countries, the research output was higher among small European countries such as Switzerland and the Netherlands than among the developed countries with large population sizes such as the United States.

Fritzsche et al. (2008) studied the contributions made by European Union members and non-members towards research in pathology between 2000 and 2005. They found that the small countries, mainly in northern Europe had higher efficiency in research output than the large European countries in the western part.

Oelrich, Peters and Jung (2007) carried out a bibliometric study of studies published by European Union countries in radiology between 2000 and 2005. They found that without making population adjustments, the large countries of United Kingdom, Germany and Italy had the highest number of published work.

However, when population adjustments were made, the small countries of Austria, Denmark, Finland, Netherlands and Sweden had a higher research output than the large countries. Similar results were also found by Ramos et al. (2009) who found Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands to have the highest research activity in infectious diseases after taking into account the population sizes of the sample countries.

Speculation on the relationship between population and stem cell research

The relationship between population size and stem cell research is likely to be negative. This implies that countries with smaller population sizes are likely to have higher activity in stem cell research than countries with larger population sizes.

Number of Scientific and Technical Journal Articles

The number of scientific and technical journal articles in a country is a reflection of the intensity of research activity. Countries with high numbers of published scientific and technical articles have higher research activity compared to countries with few published articles.

The reason behind this is that any scientific or technical article written for publication undergoes a long and stringent process of review, fact-checking, and assessment before it can be accepted for publication (Spitzmueller et al., 2010). Published articles are also of high quality.

Publication drives the research process in a number of ways. To begin with, they provide readers with information on what has been researched on and what has not been researched on in a particular field; that is, the literature gap.

Second, publication of scientific articles provide the basis upon which future research activities can be conducted either to improve on the current findings or to research on an area that has not been touched on. As a result, publication helps to improve not only research but also the output.

For instance, if an article focuses on a new treatment for an illness but identifies the weaknesses of the drug, future studies can be done to help overcome the identified weaknesses so as to enhance the efficacy of the treatment.

Relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research

There is a positive relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research. Countries with high numbers of published articles engage in more research activity than countries with low numbers of published articles. Publishing is expensive and requires heavy financial and human resources investments.

Therefore, it is no wonder that countries with high national and per capita incomes have high numbers of published articles and engage more in scientific and technical research than low-income countries.

The relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research has been examined by various researchers. Mela et al. (2003) examined the proportion of published scientific articles by European scientists as well as scientists from other parts of the world.

They found that the number of published scientific articles is highest in Western European countries and in the United States, and low in other parts of Europe and the world. Soteriades et al. (2001) found that the United States is the leader in the number of articles published in the topmost 50 biomedical journals. Closely following the U.S. is Canada and Western Europe.

The other regions of the world such as Asia, Africa, Latin America, Oceania, Caribbean and Japan lag far behind.

Contrary to the studies, the study by Bliziotis et al. (2005) showed that although the United States and Western Europe had the highest number of published scientific articles, the rate of increase in published articles between 1995 and 2000 was higher among the other regions of the world than in the U.S. and Western Europe.

The study by Bliziotis et al. (2005) was contradicted by the study by Michalopoulos and Falagas (2005) who found that the number of published articles and the rate of increase in published articles were higher in the United States and Western Europe between 1995 and 2003 whereas the number of publications was low in other parts of the world.

In critical care research, Michalopoulos et al. (2005) found that the number of published articles increased significantly in Canada and Japan between 1995 and 2003, even though the United States and Western Europe had the highest number of published articles in the field.

Speculation on the relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research

The relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research is likely to be positive. This implies that countries with high numbers of scientific and technical articles are more likely to engage in stem cell research than countries with low numbers of scientific and technical articles.

Patents

A patent is a right given to owners of innovation or invention to prevent others from misusing the innovation/invention or claiming it as their own without the owners’ permission. The issuing of patents began with the Great Britain and the United States from as early as 1630 and 1790 respectively, through the enactment of patent laws in these countries (Mansfield, 1986).

Patent rights have been granted in different industries such as the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Since then, adjustments have been continuously made and other countries, both in developed and developing worlds, have joined the U.S. and Great Britain in providing patent protection.

The move to offer patent protections was partly driven by U.S. pressure on other countries to do so and partly by organizations such as World Trade Organization (WTO) whose membership mandated patenting of innovative and inventive products and processes.

For instance, the U.S. enacted the U.S. Trade Act of 1974 which included Special 301 provision that directs the U.S. to carry out investigations of the protection of U.S. intellectual property holders by foreign countries.

Such investigations forced many developing countries in Asia and Latin America to either introduce or strengthen their existing patent laws.

In addition, the implementation of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of 1995 WTO Agreement mandated all member countries to give patents to innovative products and processes. Thus majority of the countries that do not provide patent protection are either least-developed countries or not members of WTO (La Croix & Liu, 2009).

Relationship between patents and research

The relationship between patents and research has attracted much attention from scholars. The reason behind this is that innovation by firms is crucial in enhancing their productivity and is one of the major driving forces of economic growth in developed countries.

Gurmu and Perez-Sebastian (2007) carried out a study to examine the relationship between patents and research and development at the firm level in the United States manufacturing sector in the 1982-1992-period. The researchers found a strong and significant correlation between patents and research and development. This implies that high number of patents is positively related with research activity.

Thus, countries with strong patent protection rights have higher research output than countries with lenient patent rights. Rassenfosse and Potterie (2008) also examined the degree to which the number of patents reflect the propensity to patent and research output.

They argue that research productivity is highly influenced by education policies and science and technology policies. The researchers found that although the number of patents has a significant effect on research output, such an effect is dependent on the patent practices adopted by countries.

Jaffe and Lerner (1999) examined the impact of changes in patenting laws in the United States on state-owned research institutes. They argued that while universities make up a smaller percentage of research institutions and government-owned researcher institutes make up a bigger portion of all research institutes, little attention has been given to the latter.

From their study, the researchers found that the policy changes of the 1980s had a significant and positive impact on technology transfer through increased patenting activities. This shows a positive relationship between patents and research activity.

Speculation on the relationship between patents and stem cell research

The relationship between patents and stem cell research is likely to be positive. This implies that the intensity of stem cell research is likely to be higher in countries with high number of patents than in countries with low number of patents.

Biotechnology Patents

Biotechnology is viewed as one of the most promising technologies. However, this technological field is highly capital-intensive (Forsyth, 2000). As a result, investors of biotechnologies need to be assured that their investments would earn them rewards. In a competitive market, this is difficult to achieve because of the free rider problem, which would entail the use of the technology by others who have not invested in it.

Competitors can easily imitate the technology without incurring costs of the inventor and then bring it to the market at a lower price than that which would be charged by the inventor.

This situation is discouraging to inventors of such technologies. This is where patenting comes into play not only to prevent free-riding problems but also to encourage more people to undertake biotechnological inventions and innovations (Bostyn, 2004).

The positive impact of biotechnology patents on innovation is not an issue of controversy. What is controversial is the extent of the patentee’s rights. Patents provide monopolistic rights to the inventor of a technology. However, a patent is only functional if the rights granted to the patent holder are proportional to what the patent holder was willing to give to the public or the man skilled in the art.

If the patent holder is given a wider protection for a small invention, the patent system would be unfair. However, there would be no problem in giving a broad protection to a person who has made a valuable and far-reaching innovation (Westerlund, 2009).

The relationship between biotechnology patents and research

The European Patent Office (EPO) receives approximately 30 biotechnology applications every year from countries such as Denmark, Iceland, Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium (Felix, 2007). It is interesting to note that these countries are ranked among the top countries in the European region as far as research is concerned.

This shows a positive relationship between biotechnology patents and conventional research. Nicol and Nielsen (2003) make reference to the biotechnology industry in Australia and observe that the goals of the Australian government to enhance the benefits of biotechnology for the Australian community can only be achieved if the government provides adequate protection to its intellectual property, through patents.

This would encourage more research in the field which would in turn promote more innovations and inventions in the industry. Nicol and Nielsen (2003) further argue that patent protection should be justified on utilitarian grounds in that they offer the required incentive for innovation which is good for the society.

Although biotechnology patents are generally said to have a positive effect on research, some scholars are of the view that such a relationship is highly dependent on the manner in which the patents are used. For instance, patent holders who abuse their monopoly rights create more harm than good to other socially important values of the patents (Nicol & Nielsen, 2003).

Speculation on the relationship between biotechnology patents and stem cell research

The relationship between biotechnology patents and stem cell research is likely to be positive, implying that countries with high numbers of biotech patents have more research activity in stem cell research.

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