Stem cell therapy has come to the attention of researchers, clinicians, and patients around the world because of its promising potential beneficial properties. Stem cell treatment is a method that uses the transplantation of cells to facilitate the process of cell regeneration. The modern sphere of health care experts to gain tremendous benefits from stem cell treatment because of the ability to grow cells in the lab environment, making this process highly cost-efficient. However, modern researchers have not come to a firm conclusion whether stem cell treatments could be useful in dealing with a wide variety of health conditions. Further clinical studies into stem cell treatments are needed to answer the question regarding whether such treatments can be truly effective.
Introduction
Stem cell treatments have acquired a reputation as promising therapy methods targeted at overcoming a large range of injuries and diseases as well as other conditions related to health. Importantly, the potential of this type of treatment has already been studied in the context of blood diseases. Stem cell therapy has saved the lives of children diagnosed with leukemia; moreover, progress has been made in the treatment of maladies of the bones, skin, and the surface of the eye. Investigating the effectiveness of stem cell treatment promises to be a worthy endeavor, and for this purpose, several noteworthy studies will be reviewed.
Background and Definition
Stem cells refer to a group of cells that all descend from a single original cell and is grown in a lab (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2013, para. 1). Stem cell therapy is a clinical method that implies the use of stem cells to prevent or treat health issues. Such cells are used to repair diseased and injured tissues in patients bodies. For instance, when a patient is diagnosed with heart disease, stem cells that have been grown in a lab are injected directly into the heart muscle to facilitate the process of repair (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2013). It is important to mention that stem cells have already been used in health care to treat diseases; however, most such treatments have been bone marrow transplants. In these cases, stem cells were used to replace damaged cells in the body that could not function properly after serious diseases or treatments such as chemotherapy.
Review of the Research
The discovery of stem cell therapy led to extensive research to evaluate whether it would be safe and effective to perform such treatments on patients who have been diagnosed with critical health conditions. For example, Nagpal et al. (2017) aimed to identify the effectiveness and safety of stem cell therapies among patients with stroke. The researchers concluded that administering several types of stem cell treatments to patients with early-diagnosed stroke offered high levels of feasibility and safety. However, the authors made a firm recommendation to further study the effectiveness of treatment by conducting bigger and more practical trials. The implications for clinical practice are mixed due to the challenges associated with the lack of sufficient evidence. On the other hand, health-care trends related to stem cell therapies suggest a possible benefit for patients with a variety of health conditions.
Volti, Zhang, and Teng (2016) conducted another noteworthy study that focused on exploring the effectiveness of stem cell therapy for treating ulcers in the lower extremities. The researchers performed a meta-analysis of randomized control trials, and their results showed that stem cell therapy (autologous type) had a healing effect on ulcers of the lower extremities and was associated with a reduction in the mean size of ulcers among patients. When the researchers conducted a subgroup analysis, they found that stem cells that had been collected from bone marrow and peripheral blood showed beneficial properties for healing ulcers. It is also important to mention that studies have found no association between stem cell therapies and an increased risk of negative health effects. Therefore, the study suggested that stem cell therapy could be an effective and safe method for dealing with such adverse conditions as pressure ulcers.
Discussion and Conclusions
The overview of the topic of stem cell therapy has shown that this innovative method of treatment requires further research and exploration. Even though some studies showed a positive correlation between the use of stem cell therapy and patients improved well-being, it is important to explore the perceived gaps remaining in this area of research to ensure that such treatments can be used safely for different health conditions. It is recommended for researchers in the sphere of health care to consider examining the use of stem cell treatments across a wider range of illnesses and conditions since the current research findings are not sufficient to support the possibility of using such therapies safely.
In conclusion, stem cell therapy is expected to provide a breakthrough in the treatment of adverse health conditions. With improved mechanisms involved in stem cell therapy and expanded clinical trials, this method of treatment can address the health needs of millions of patients around the world.
Nagpal, A., Choy, F. C., Howell, S., Hillier, S., Chan, F., Hamilton-Bruce, M. A., & Koblar, S. A. (2017). Safety and effectiveness of stem cell therapies in early-phase clinical trials in stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stem Cell Research & Therapy, 8, 191-196.
Volti, G., Zhang, X., & Teng, M. (2016). Effectiveness of autologous stem cell therapy for the treatment of lower extremity ulcers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine, 95(11), 2716-2719.
Gross domestic product (GDP) is one of the measures of a countrys economic growth or performance. GDP is defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time (Mankiw, 2008, p. 510). The use of the market price reflects the willingness of people to purchase the goods and services in question.
The definition of GDP has several implications. First and foremost, GDP measures the value of all goods and services irrespective of whether they are tangible or intangible. Secondly, GDP takes into account only the final goods and services and eliminates the intermediate goods. Intermediate goods are goods used in the production of final goods.
Final goods on the other hand are goods which are meant for final consumption. By not taking into account the intermediate goods, GDP as a measure of an economys growth progress avoids double counting. This is because the value of intermediate goods is always included in the value of the final goods.
Third, GDP is geographically bound. It only measures the value of goods and services produced within a country, irrespective of the producer. For instance, the GDP of the United States measures the value of goods and services produced within the boundaries of the United States, by people living in the U.S. even if they are not American citizens.
A Japanese automotive company located in the U.S. would contribute towards U.S. GDP. On the other hand, an American company located in Japan or elsewhere does not contribute towards the GDP of the U.S. Lastly, GDP as a measure is time-bound. GDP is always measured within a period of one year. It is important to note that GDP can be measured as an income flow or expenditure.
Households use their income to purchase goods and services. The income received by firms from the sale of goods and services is then used to pay the factors of production, which then becomes their incomes. Hence, the expenditures in the economy end up as incomes to economic agents, implying that incomes equal the expenditures in the economy (Mankiw, 2008).
Relationship between gross domestic product and research
Gross domestic product is a reflection of not only the level of incomes earned by economic agents but also the level of expenditures by the same economic agents. Research in general is an expensive undertaking that requires heavy financial investments, mainly from big organizations, firms and the government.
A country with a high GDP growth rate is more likely to undertake research studies in various fields as compared to countries with low GDP growth rates. The relationship between GDP and gross domestic product has been examined by Spitzmueller et al. (2010). Spitzmueller et al. (2010) argued that research undertakings require adequate financial resources, especially if the research is highly technical in nature.
Spitzmueller et al. (2000) found a positive and strong relationship between gross domestic product and research activity (p. 277). This implies that high GDP growth rates translate into increased research activity. Other studies have also found a positive relationship between GDP and research activity.
For instance, Rosmarakis et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between GDP and research on cardiovascular diseases.
Falagas, Karavasiou and Bliziotis (2005) found a close relationship between GDP and virology research, while Vergidis et al. (2005) found a positive relationship between GDP and research in microbiology. The justification given for this outcome is that increased and productive research activity requires a stable and strong economy with high levels of investments in the research field.
Speculation on the relationship between gross domestic product and stem cell research
Given the positive relationship between GDP and conventional research, the speculation is a positive relationship between GDP and stem cells research. Stem cell research is an expensive but valuable undertaking due to its potential of developing treatments for a wide range of degenerative conditions.
The speculative positive relationship between GDP and stem cell research implies that countries with high GDP growth rates are more likely to engage in stem cell research than their counterparts with low GDP growth rates.
Gross Domestic Product per Capita
Gross domestic product per capita (GDP per capita) is a better measure of a countrys development progress. It is the measure of the income per person measured within a certain period of time, normally one year (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2009, p. 54). It is therefore obtained by dividing the gross domestic product by the total population of a country.
It is a reflection of a countrys standard of living because it takes into account the countrys population. A country may record high GDP growth rate but low GDP per capita if its population size is big. Therefore, such a country may have low standards of living. On the other hand, a second country may record lower GDP growth rate but still have higher standards of living if its population size is small.
GDP per capita therefore tells how the economic growth of country is distributed among the countrys population and whether or not such a growth has any significant impact on the countrys population. GDP per capita is composed of two parts. The first part is GDP per capita resulting from growth in labor productivity. This is measured as GDP per hour worked.
The second part is GDP per capita resulting from growth in labor utilization. This component is measured as hours worked per person. Increase in labor utilization can have significant effects on the growth of GDP per capita. For instance, a low rate of labor utilization combined with high growth of labor productivity indicates that an economy is using more of capital and less of labor.
Relationship between gross domestic product per capita and research
Gross domestic product per capita, as earlier discussed, reflects the level of income per person in a country. Countries with high per capita GDP have higher standards of living, as measured by their high educational level, high employment levels, better health status, and higher acquisition of technical and scientific skills.
People with higher personal incomes can afford to advance their educational and skill levels to the point where they become competent in scientific and technical research. According to the study conducted by Spitzmueller et al. (2010), there is a positive and significant correlation between per capita GDP and research activity.
This finding is also supported by the study conducted by Guerin et al. (2008). Guerin et al. (2008) found a significant correlation between GDP per capita of greater than $20,000 and research activity.
Speculation on the relationship between gross domestic product per capita and stem cell research
The speculation is a positive relationship between GDP per capita and stem cell research. Countries recording high GDP growth rates but having smaller populations are likely to have higher stem cell research than countries with high GDP growth rates but having larger population sizes. Thus, there should be a difference in the output of stem cell research among the developed countries based on their population sizes.
Gross National Expenditures
Gross national expenditure is the total amount of spending by households and firms on goods and services in an economy (Hoover, 1970, p. 257). Gross national expenditure is identical to gross national income and gross national product. This is because the incomes received by economic agents are spending by other economic agents. For instance, the wage received as an income by an employee is expenditure to a firm.
Similarly, the gross national expenditure is equal to the value of all goods and services produced; the gross national product. Gross national expenditures are therefore an indicator of the economic progress of a country. Countries with high gross national expenditures record high economic growth rate and vice versa, because expenditures stimulate economic growth.
Nevertheless, the object on which the expenditures are made is as important as the level of expenditure. Countries with impressive economic growth track spend their national incomes on productive sectors, which stimulate economic growth rather than on redundant sectors, which hinder growth.
Gross national expenditures on research give an indication of the amount of money that is channeled into research activity (Godin, 2003). Besides this, the gross national expenditures on education, vocational training, scientific and technical training, building of infrastructure that supports research, human capital development, and capacity building are all good indicators of the emphasis a country places on research activity.
The relationship between gross national expenditure and research
A positive relationship has been found between gross national expenditure and research. Spitzmueller et al. (2010) found that research activity increases with an increase in expenditure on public education and health.
Speculation on the relationship between gross national expenditure and stem cell research
The speculative relationship between gross national expenditure and stem cell research is a positive correlation. Stem cell research should increase with an increase in gross national expenditures. However, this relationship may not hold. The direction of this relationship depends to a large extent on which sectors of the economy experience high levels of expenditures.
If high levels of expenditures are witnessed in the education and health sectors, then the positive relationship will hold. However, if the country spends much of its income on non-productive sectors such as the military and spends less on the education and health sectors, the relationship between gross national expenditure and stem cell research could be negative.
Population
The total number of population and its growth rate is important to any economy. Of significant importance to any country is the composition of its population. This refers to whether the population has more males and fewer females or more females and fewer males. In addition, the structure of the population matter a lot.
This refers to the number of population in the child age bracket (0-15 years), the number of persons in the productive age bracket (15-65 years) and the number of persons in the aged bracket (65 years and above).
The number of persons in the child age bracket and those in the aged bracket make up the number of dependent persons in the country because people in this age brackets have to rely on others for support, be it financial, emotional or physical support. As a result, a country with a high dependency ratio would fair poorly than one with a high proportion of population in the productive age bracket.
This is because the country would be forced to channel its resources towards the welfare of the dependent population by providing social services such as free or subsidized child care and services for the elderly (Katsumata, 2000). These resources could have been used in more productive sectors of the economy thus driving the countrys economic growth.
A country with a high proportion of its population in the productive age bracket has an abundant of labor force which is a key driver of economic growth and development. However, this can only be positive if the country has policies that increase employment opportunities for this population age bracket.
If the employment level is high, then a high population in the productive age bracket would have a positive impact on the growth of a country. On the other hand, if the country has low employment levels and high unemployment levels, a high population in the productive age bracket would have adverse effects on the countrys economic growth.
This is because the idleness of these energetic people would force them into vices such as crimes, drug dealing and trafficking.
In the end, the country would have a heavy burden of not only trying to control the vices but also trying to redeem the young people and the society through services such as rehabilitation and imprisonment of criminals. All these activities require heavy investment by the state, which could have been used in more productive sectors of the economy.
The issue of population cannot be mentioned without taking into account the aspect of human capital. Human capital entails building up the knowledge, skills and technical know-how of the population so as to increase its productivity (Fu, Dietzenbacher & Los, 2007).
Human capital is built through educational systems especially in higher learning institutions, vocational training, industrial training, scientific and technical training (Murphy & Traistaru-Siedschlag, 2007). Human capital is one of the major reasons behind the economic success of the developed countries as well as the newly industrializing countries of Asia.
The governments of these countries invest heavily in their education systems and in the after-school training of their population. This helps to equip the populations with knowledge, skills and expertise needed in running industries, creating new industries, creating new innovations and inventions and engaging in high technical research fields.
The relationship between population and research
According to existing literature, there is a negative significant correlation between population size and research activity.
For instance, Spitzmueller et al. (2010) found that even though the United States published more articles in radiological research than other developed countries, the research output was higher among small European countries such as Switzerland and the Netherlands than among the developed countries with large population sizes such as the United States.
Fritzsche et al. (2008) studied the contributions made by European Union members and non-members towards research in pathology between 2000 and 2005. They found that the small countries, mainly in northern Europe had higher efficiency in research output than the large European countries in the western part.
Oelrich, Peters and Jung (2007) carried out a bibliometric study of studies published by European Union countries in radiology between 2000 and 2005. They found that without making population adjustments, the large countries of United Kingdom, Germany and Italy had the highest number of published work.
However, when population adjustments were made, the small countries of Austria, Denmark, Finland, Netherlands and Sweden had a higher research output than the large countries. Similar results were also found by Ramos et al. (2009) who found Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands to have the highest research activity in infectious diseases after taking into account the population sizes of the sample countries.
Speculation on the relationship between population and stem cell research
The relationship between population size and stem cell research is likely to be negative. This implies that countries with smaller population sizes are likely to have higher activity in stem cell research than countries with larger population sizes.
Number of Scientific and Technical Journal Articles
The number of scientific and technical journal articles in a country is a reflection of the intensity of research activity. Countries with high numbers of published scientific and technical articles have higher research activity compared to countries with few published articles.
The reason behind this is that any scientific or technical article written for publication undergoes a long and stringent process of review, fact-checking, and assessment before it can be accepted for publication (Spitzmueller et al., 2010). Published articles are also of high quality.
Publication drives the research process in a number of ways. To begin with, they provide readers with information on what has been researched on and what has not been researched on in a particular field; that is, the literature gap.
Second, publication of scientific articles provide the basis upon which future research activities can be conducted either to improve on the current findings or to research on an area that has not been touched on. As a result, publication helps to improve not only research but also the output.
For instance, if an article focuses on a new treatment for an illness but identifies the weaknesses of the drug, future studies can be done to help overcome the identified weaknesses so as to enhance the efficacy of the treatment.
Relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research
There is a positive relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research. Countries with high numbers of published articles engage in more research activity than countries with low numbers of published articles. Publishing is expensive and requires heavy financial and human resources investments.
Therefore, it is no wonder that countries with high national and per capita incomes have high numbers of published articles and engage more in scientific and technical research than low-income countries.
The relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research has been examined by various researchers. Mela et al. (2003) examined the proportion of published scientific articles by European scientists as well as scientists from other parts of the world.
They found that the number of published scientific articles is highest in Western European countries and in the United States, and low in other parts of Europe and the world. Soteriades et al. (2001) found that the United States is the leader in the number of articles published in the topmost 50 biomedical journals. Closely following the U.S. is Canada and Western Europe.
The other regions of the world such as Asia, Africa, Latin America, Oceania, Caribbean and Japan lag far behind.
Contrary to the studies, the study by Bliziotis et al. (2005) showed that although the United States and Western Europe had the highest number of published scientific articles, the rate of increase in published articles between 1995 and 2000 was higher among the other regions of the world than in the U.S. and Western Europe.
The study by Bliziotis et al. (2005) was contradicted by the study by Michalopoulos and Falagas (2005) who found that the number of published articles and the rate of increase in published articles were higher in the United States and Western Europe between 1995 and 2003 whereas the number of publications was low in other parts of the world.
In critical care research, Michalopoulos et al. (2005) found that the number of published articles increased significantly in Canada and Japan between 1995 and 2003, even though the United States and Western Europe had the highest number of published articles in the field.
Speculation on the relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research
The relationship between the number of scientific and technical journal articles and stem cell research is likely to be positive. This implies that countries with high numbers of scientific and technical articles are more likely to engage in stem cell research than countries with low numbers of scientific and technical articles.
Patents
A patent is a right given to owners of innovation or invention to prevent others from misusing the innovation/invention or claiming it as their own without the owners permission. The issuing of patents began with the Great Britain and the United States from as early as 1630 and 1790 respectively, through the enactment of patent laws in these countries (Mansfield, 1986).
Patent rights have been granted in different industries such as the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Since then, adjustments have been continuously made and other countries, both in developed and developing worlds, have joined the U.S. and Great Britain in providing patent protection.
The move to offer patent protections was partly driven by U.S. pressure on other countries to do so and partly by organizations such as World Trade Organization (WTO) whose membership mandated patenting of innovative and inventive products and processes.
For instance, the U.S. enacted the U.S. Trade Act of 1974 which included Special 301 provision that directs the U.S. to carry out investigations of the protection of U.S. intellectual property holders by foreign countries.
Such investigations forced many developing countries in Asia and Latin America to either introduce or strengthen their existing patent laws.
In addition, the implementation of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of 1995 WTO Agreement mandated all member countries to give patents to innovative products and processes. Thus majority of the countries that do not provide patent protection are either least-developed countries or not members of WTO (La Croix & Liu, 2009).
Relationship between patents and research
The relationship between patents and research has attracted much attention from scholars. The reason behind this is that innovation by firms is crucial in enhancing their productivity and is one of the major driving forces of economic growth in developed countries.
Gurmu and Perez-Sebastian (2007) carried out a study to examine the relationship between patents and research and development at the firm level in the United States manufacturing sector in the 1982-1992-period. The researchers found a strong and significant correlation between patents and research and development. This implies that high number of patents is positively related with research activity.
Thus, countries with strong patent protection rights have higher research output than countries with lenient patent rights. Rassenfosse and Potterie (2008) also examined the degree to which the number of patents reflect the propensity to patent and research output.
They argue that research productivity is highly influenced by education policies and science and technology policies. The researchers found that although the number of patents has a significant effect on research output, such an effect is dependent on the patent practices adopted by countries.
Jaffe and Lerner (1999) examined the impact of changes in patenting laws in the United States on state-owned research institutes. They argued that while universities make up a smaller percentage of research institutions and government-owned researcher institutes make up a bigger portion of all research institutes, little attention has been given to the latter.
From their study, the researchers found that the policy changes of the 1980s had a significant and positive impact on technology transfer through increased patenting activities. This shows a positive relationship between patents and research activity.
Speculation on the relationship between patents and stem cell research
The relationship between patents and stem cell research is likely to be positive. This implies that the intensity of stem cell research is likely to be higher in countries with high number of patents than in countries with low number of patents.
Biotechnology Patents
Biotechnology is viewed as one of the most promising technologies. However, this technological field is highly capital-intensive (Forsyth, 2000). As a result, investors of biotechnologies need to be assured that their investments would earn them rewards. In a competitive market, this is difficult to achieve because of the free rider problem, which would entail the use of the technology by others who have not invested in it.
Competitors can easily imitate the technology without incurring costs of the inventor and then bring it to the market at a lower price than that which would be charged by the inventor.
This situation is discouraging to inventors of such technologies. This is where patenting comes into play not only to prevent free-riding problems but also to encourage more people to undertake biotechnological inventions and innovations (Bostyn, 2004).
The positive impact of biotechnology patents on innovation is not an issue of controversy. What is controversial is the extent of the patentees rights. Patents provide monopolistic rights to the inventor of a technology. However, a patent is only functional if the rights granted to the patent holder are proportional to what the patent holder was willing to give to the public or the man skilled in the art.
If the patent holder is given a wider protection for a small invention, the patent system would be unfair. However, there would be no problem in giving a broad protection to a person who has made a valuable and far-reaching innovation (Westerlund, 2009).
The relationship between biotechnology patents and research
The European Patent Office (EPO) receives approximately 30 biotechnology applications every year from countries such as Denmark, Iceland, Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium (Felix, 2007). It is interesting to note that these countries are ranked among the top countries in the European region as far as research is concerned.
This shows a positive relationship between biotechnology patents and conventional research. Nicol and Nielsen (2003) make reference to the biotechnology industry in Australia and observe that the goals of the Australian government to enhance the benefits of biotechnology for the Australian community can only be achieved if the government provides adequate protection to its intellectual property, through patents.
This would encourage more research in the field which would in turn promote more innovations and inventions in the industry. Nicol and Nielsen (2003) further argue that patent protection should be justified on utilitarian grounds in that they offer the required incentive for innovation which is good for the society.
Although biotechnology patents are generally said to have a positive effect on research, some scholars are of the view that such a relationship is highly dependent on the manner in which the patents are used. For instance, patent holders who abuse their monopoly rights create more harm than good to other socially important values of the patents (Nicol & Nielsen, 2003).
Speculation on the relationship between biotechnology patents and stem cell research
The relationship between biotechnology patents and stem cell research is likely to be positive, implying that countries with high numbers of biotech patents have more research activity in stem cell research.
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Stem cells potential application in medicine and medical research.
Main points:
Cells grown in the laboratory can be used to replace damaged tissues and organs or correct their improper work (Cafasso, 2017)
Their study can also help in the research of genetic defects in cells and the development of cancer (Cafasso, 2017)
Moreover, stem cells can be used in laboratories for drug testing (Cafasso, 2017)
Stem cells can be used in the treatment of chronic diseases.
Main points:
Can help people with autism increase cognitive functions, normalize speech, and demonstrate more emotional control ( The Benefit of Stem Cell, 2020).
Can control hyperglycemia generating the pancreas cells and prevent them from destruction ( The Benefit of Stem Cell, 2020)
Can help to relieve Crohns disease due to its anti-inflammatory properties ( The Benefit of Stem Cell, 2020)
Free-writing
Stem cells have a number of advantages, which make them an ideal medical instrument. Samples of such cells can be grown in laboratory conditions in unlimited quantities. However, the main disadvantage of the technology is a serious moral and ethical controversy. Since the blastocyst, which is a fertilized human egg, must be destroyed in order to produce stem cells, many consider this to be murder. However, there are non-embryonic cell resources (e.g., cord blood), which further strengthens the technologys position.
Three perspectives
Stem cells can function as any other type of cell in the body. They are important in the early stages of the bodys development, as they form the human body. However, their use causes ethical controversy among the public and medical circles. The way to extract stem cells from mouse embryos appeared only in 1981 ( History of Stem Cell Use, n.d.). In 1998, scientists learned to derive them from human embryos and later grow them in the laboratory ( History of Stem Cell Use, n.d.). Embryos have been specially created through artificial fertilization and then donated for scientific research. In 2006, a way was found to reprogram some adult cells into stem cells, which was called induced pluripotent stem cells. Although technology is associated with significant moral controversy, modern methods make it possible to avoid using embryos for cell production. The topic also refers to the problem of medicine and finance since stem cells can replace almost all existing medical approaches, eliminating many special fields.
There are no other cells in the human body that can generate more different cells than stem cells. Research scientists have developed an interest in stem cells composition and applicability in the medical field (Wang et al., 2017). Cell division of the stem cells can generally occur in the body or laboratories to create more different cells. The newly formed stem cells either become specialized for other functions or become new stem cells. Stem cells are of three different types (1) embryonic stem cells (ESCs), (2) adult stem cells, (3) induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). The ECSs are generated from the blastocyst-stage embryos interior cell mass, iPSCs emanate from the somatic cells through genetic reprogramming, and adult stem cells are derived from fully developed tissues. Stem cells can renew and differentiate themselves on their own into many cell lines.
The ability of stem cells to undergo differentiation into different forms makes them admissible in treating many chronic diseases. The iPSCs and ESCs are pluripotent cells that undergo differentiation to form cells meant for different adult heredities such as the endoderms, ectoderms, and mesoderms (Wang et al., 2017). The adult stem cells are in two forms, namely, unipotent and multipotent stem cells. The multipotent stem cells also undergo differentiation to form different cell types under a single lineage. For instance, mesenchymal stem cells can undergo differentiation to form fat cells, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes. Unipotent stem cells undergo differentiation into only one cell type, such as the epidermal or satellite stem cells. However, it is worth noting that stem cell research application faces criticism from fatalities resulting from the protracted time of suppressed immunity after transplants; the ability to self-renew and differentiate into different lineages makes stem cell admissible in tissue engineering and treatment of diseases related to the central nervous system (CNS), heart, and brain in human beings.
Pros of Stem Cells Research
Following advancements in medical field research, MSCs have become frequently used in tissue engineering and regenerative treatment. MSCs were first discovered in the bone marrow. Still, science has proven that they are usually situated around the sinusoidal endothelium, whereby they are closely associated with neighborhood hematopoietic stem cells (Fitzsimmons et al., 2018). Besides the bone marrow, MSCs are also localized in various adult tissues such as the tendons, cartilages, lungs, skin, hearts, brain, kidneys, adipose tissues, and pancreas. The MSCs are obtained from many tissues such as the umbilical cords, bone marrow, and adipose tissue. The MSCs can also be cultured before their medical application. The MSC suspensions are introduced through injections or intravenously depending on the desired therapeutical purpose. When aiming to engineer specific tissues, the MSCs are first facilitated to differentiate towards a particular desired cell type. Then after that, they are implanted surgically, usually together with the scaffold materials. MCSs are used in the treatment of autoimmune ailments or stimulation of local tissue maintenance.
The relentless effort from stem cell researchers has yearned to introduce medical practices that are less aggressive and more efficient in treating diseases. The pluripotent stem cells have been reported to be suitable in therapeutical methods since they easily distinguish into different cell types (Rikhtegar et al., 2019). Researchers have given the identification of fully developed CSCs and their capability to repair the body tissues emphasis. Research scientists have shown that iPSCs are broadly applicable in constructing disease models and the formulation of treatment transplants. Additionally, iPSC derivatives have also been significantly proposed for the experimental treatments of neurological diseases. It is worth noting that stem cell research scientists have brought about substantial knowledge about how tissue regeneration can help repair damaged parts of the human body. Treatments on heart and brain diseases have been made possible by applying stem cell research findings (Song et al., 2018). The inception of stem cell application in the medical field has proposed various medical practices that are more effective in treating chronic diseases.
Tissue Regeneration
Stem cells are self-renewing and undergo differentiation into several lineages. The stem cells have been proven to maintain, generate and replace the incurably differentiated cells in their particular tissues resulting from tissue injuries (Fitzsimmons et al., 2018; Song et al., 2018). Tissue engineering encompasses three fundamental parts, namely
the source or cells must have the suitable genetic composition and phenotype to successfully retain the particular functioning of the tissue
the scaffolds housing the cells serve as the substitutes for the injured tissues
bioreactive components or signals that trigger cells into functioning. The sources of the stem cells used in tissue engineering comprise adult stem cells or embryonic stem cells.
Downstream strategies have been embraced recently in tissue engineering and making the whole venture more promising. The downstream process entails implanting the precultured cells into the damaged part of the body and their synthetic scaffold complexes (Fitzsimmons et al., 2018; Song et al., 2018). The sources or cells taken away from the hosts target tissues are then expanded into vitro. They are then preseeded to the scaffold to offer a porous 3D component that provides accommodation to the seeded cells, forming an extracellular matrix. After that, various approaches such as cell printing, sheeting, aggregation, and micro-fabrication are employed in the generation of modular tissues. The abovementioned modular tissues are then accumulated randomly or cell sheets stacked into engineered tissues with a particular micro-architectural characteristic. Later, the tissues are transplanted into the damaged part of the human body. The method enables scientists to change the nanostructure of the components by regulating polymer degradation rates with the extracellular matrix generation and cellular infiltrations, increasing cell binding sequences.
The upstream alternative makes tissue engineering a promising venture through the combination of cells and biomaterial scaffolds. The upstream method encompasses two strategies of manufacturing the engineered tissues (1) culturing and consolidating biomaterial scaffolds and cells is carried out till the cells fill up the supportive structure, thus forming the engineered tissue. (2) The delivery of the integrated biomolecules and acellular scaffolds occurs following an injury. It can optionally incorporate progenitor cells within the defective area and facilitate differentiation and differentiation, making the injured tissue repaired (Fitzsimmons et al., 2018; Song et al., 2018). The upstream approach entails the combination and culturing of biomaterial scaffolds and cells into engineered tissue.
Treatment of Neurological Disorders
Neurological disorders are generally irreversible owing to insufficient production in the central nervous system. The central nervous system is deemed the most intricate and least understood system in a human being (Song et al., 2018). Diseases related to the central nervous system usually result in permanent damage to the nervous tissue structures and functioning. Through the research on stem cells rationale and admissibility, stem therapy is applicable in treating neurological complications. Neural stem cells have been proven to be significant in transplantation therapy in treating central nervous complications due to their ability to self-renew and produce different neural cell types. Apart from neural stem cells, other types of stem cells such as ESCs, iPSCs, and MSCs have also been found to be acceptable alternatives in central nervous system implantations.
Parkinsons disease causes inflexibility and slowed physical movements in patients. Conventionally, Parkinsons disease was being treated mainly using pharmacological therapies and brain stimulation whereby electrodes were implanted surgically into the host (Song et al., 2018). However, the above methods were not effective in alleviating the symptoms resulting from the disorder. Dopaminergic cells, gotten from different stem cell sources, have been found to survive in the host. They are used in triggering behavioral improvement and motor recovery. The transplanted cells enhance recovery based on two approaches. Firstly, each cell usually transplanted stays alive, expresses tyrosine hydroxylase, releases and uptakes dopamine, thus replacing the lost function neurons. Secondly, the transplanted cells can amount to asymptomatic relief using the protective and neurotrophic aspects. Dopaminergic cells have been found to alleviate Parkinsons disease symptoms.
Indeed, transplants of neuro stem cells can result in neuroprotection by controlling the host niche using the local astrocytes facilitation, taking part in de-differentiation, and promoting the expression of the host-derived growth parameters. Research has shown that the use of the iPSCs has eased the process of obtaining cells from the somatic cells of a patient, thus averting the issues of immune refusal (Song et al., 2018). From the research on stem cells, it has been found that there are no tumor cases reported within the first 10-36 months following iPSCs administration. After successfully implanting the stem cells and their derivatives, there are improvements in the patients who have Parkinsons disease. The patients usually show a decrease in tremors, inflexibility, and freezing attacks. Research has made it possible to use stem cells in the treatment of Parkinsons disease.
Alzheimers disease is a progressive neurodegenerative condition in human beings in which research has availed its treatment using stem cells. According to Song et al. (2018), more than 48.6 million people are affected by the disorder globally. Studies have found that stem cells offer treatment through the utilization of iPSCs, NSCs, and ESCs together with their respective derivatives. The stem cells and their products transplanted can move into the nervous system and then integrated into the local neural circuits to augment synaptogenesis and improve synaptic transmissions. The iPSCs are proven by research in modeling Alzheimers disease, thus reducing the challenge resulting from the species-specific discrepancies and making it possible to stratify drug responses during the personalized medication period. The models also help to offer novel ground for drug screening and toxicological researches. The iPSC Alzheimers disease models are a practical approach to understanding Alzheimers disease syndromes underlying genetic information.
Cardiovascular Disease Treatment
Mesenchymal stem cells help treat heart diseases by improving cardiac functioning and reducing scar size. According to Rikhtegar et al. (2018), heart diseases damage the heart and result in heart failures by stimulating myocyte death and generating fibrosis and ventricular remodelings. During stem cell therapy, progenitor cells and stem cells are usually segregated from allogeneic or autologous source tissue components. The transplanted stem cells resuscitate the cardiac function and commence the myocardial repair directly or indirectly. The pluripotent stem cells effectively treat heart diseases due to their capacity to differentiate into different cell types, such as cardiomyocytes. The pluripotent stem cells are applicable in the treatment of heart diseases since they trivially determine into cardiomyocytes.
Cardiac diseases are treated by the replacement of the faulty muscles with the stem cells. Cardiac therapy is based on stem cells application to overcome the challenges posed by gene therapeutical operations through the adoptive dislocation of healthy cells instead of the isolated genes (Rikhtegar et al., 2018). The stem cells function directly through the replacement of the damaged cells in the damaged cardiac tissue. The cells can also work by secreting molecules that trigger endogenous processes for cardiac regeneration and immune control. The cells meant for the transplants are gotten from fully grown tissues such as skeletal, cardiac, and bone marrow tissues. By directly replacing the cardiac tissues, there is a stimulation of endogenous repairment by triggering endogenous heart precursors and cardiomyocyte proliferation, resulting in immunity modulation. The cardiac therapies involve replacing the faulty cardiac muscles with the stem cells from cardiac, bone, or skeletal muscle tissues.
Brain Disease Treatment
The advancement in research has yielded to the application of stem cell implantation in the human brain. Damages on the human brain from abrupt accelerations, blast waves, or penetration wounds usually result in hampered psychological, physical, and cognition functionality (Song et al., 2018). After a transplant, a biobridge is formed between the injured cortex and the neurogenic SVZ. Though it is formerly constituted of the transplanted stem cells, the newly created hosts cells overgrow it. The implanted cells form biobridge between the damaged brain location and the neurogenic site. Then the implanted cells disappear and relinquish their responsibilities to the hosts neurogenic cells. Transplantation of MSCs recruits the hosts cells and enhances endogenous neurogenesis and repair using the stem cell biobridges.
MSCs derived from the bone marrow are effective and safe in treating patients suffering from traumatic brain injuries. Research has shown that patients suffering from motor disorders show improvement after MSCs implantations (Song et al., 2018). Additionally, in a different experiment, patients with visual impairments due to cortical injuries were subjected to treatment. The sample received an intracerebroventricular grafting of human NSCs progenitor cells. The patients then showed improvement in their visual abilities. Another research, whereby a group of patients was subjected to four MSC transplants derived from umbilical cords through lumbar punctures, showed neurological function improvement. The abovementioned patients showed enhanced lower and upper extremity motor abilities, sensation, social cognition, self-care, and balance.
Research on stem cells has also provided a basis for glioblastoma therapy. According to Song et al. (2018), glioblastoma refers to the prevalent primary brain tumor type. The condition is highly malignant and deadly to the patients. The glioblastoma condition is generally aggressive and entails attacks and infiltrations. Surgical operations have been proven not to eradicate glioblastoma foci effectively. This conditions intricacy is evident whereby patients die within less than a year in case of a reoccurrence of the tumor near the resected region. The tumors make chemical therapeutic remedies difficult because of their intricate locations within the brain.
However, stem cell research has made it possible to treat the dreadful glioblastoma conditions. Song et al. (2018) report that various anti-glioblastoma substances are usually incorporated into the NSCs as loads and help kill the tumor cells. Cytokines oncolytic viruses and the enzymes help in the eradicating of the tumor cells too. The cytokines belonging to the interleukin lineage, comprising the IL-23, IL-7, and IL-4, have been found to exhibit antitumor abilities that enhance immune responses. Additionally, the stem cells can transport enzymes that transfer the inactive pro-drugs into poisonous and active substances, helping fight against glioblastoma. Cytosine deaminase, a pro-drug activating enzyme, transmits 5-fluorocytosine into the poisonous 5-fluorouracil. The newly formed 5-fluorouracil kills the glioblastoma cells. Studies on stem cells have resulted in the invention of anti-glioblastoma substances.
The use of oncolytic viruses and herpes simplex viruses has been proven to fight against the human bodys glioblastoma cells. According to Song et al. (2018), the oncolytic virus approach entails the viruses that are cable of infecting, replicating within, and later on lysing the glioblastoma cells. NSCs containing replicating oncolytic adenovirus migrate around the tumor margins then attack the glioblastoma cells. Also, cells containing myxoma viruses and herpes simplex virus are proven to possess the ability to repress tumor growths. Oncolytic, myxoma and herpes simplex viruses are have portrayed efficacy in the fight against brain tumors.
Cons of Stem Cells Research
Though stem cell application in the medical field has been on the rise, there have been pertinent concerns from critics. According to Lukomska et al. (2019), the application of MSCs in treating different diseases has resulted in criticism. The treatment of various diseases using MSCs has been proven to be quite efficient. However, there are other potential risks during the transplant based on long-lasting observations. The authors opine that though there are no reports on the negative impacts of stem cell application in the medical field, there are many concerns worth noting. For instance, it was documented that a patient was reported to have a big tumor-like mass in the spinal cord after eight years of olfactory mucosal grafting. In as much as research on stem cells has yielded to the application of stem cells in the treatment of diseases, it is worth noting that many underlying risks are unreported.
Stem cells have been very admissible in treating heart diseases, whereby MSCs are a promising therapeutic cell. More than 17.3 million lives were lost to cardiac-related diseases in 2008 (Lukomska et al., 2019). Though adult stem cells have been unanimously proposed for myocardial repair by medical researchers, there is a potential risk of patients suffering from other infections. For instance, MSC grafting can increase relapse, pneumonia, fungal, bacterial, and viral infections. Graftings are also reported to fail in some cases. Though the MSC grafts help prevent and treat graft versus host diseases in patients who are not sensitive to steroids, infections are eminent. The acute and chronic graft versus host diseases in patients after an MSC transplant has been proven to be more than those who do not have the MSC. The infection-related deaths are high even after the graft versus host diseases have been determined. The instances are highly associated with the long immunosuppressive impacts of the MSCs. Stem cell implants are significantly associated with high mortality in patients than individuals who do not have the MCS implants.
Stem cell implantation is detrimental in patients. The MSCs facilitate tumor growth by modulating the tumor microenvironment (Lukomska et al., 2019). The stem cell implantation increases the risk of patients suffering from protumorigenic effects. This risk is augmented by the fact that MSCs are immunosuppressive. Different stem cell transplant types risk remains high until the bone marrow makes the white blood cells independently. However, during allogeneic transplants, the risk is highest since patients take drugs that lower their bodys immunity to prevent graft-versus-host diseases from taking place. Graft versus host diseases arises when the recipients immunity starts fighting the donors cells as foreign bodies, thus permanently destroying the organ. The stem cell is also associated with tumor stromas modulation and changes itself into fatal malignant cells. It is worth noting that the infections related to the MSCs remain a concern in medical-related researches.
The recovery time after a stem cell implant varies and can fatal to a patient. The suppression of the hosts body immunity following an implant can last for a while, rendering the patient susceptible to other diseases (Lukomska et al., 2019). Following stem cell grafting, it can take between six to twelve months or more to normalize the patients blood composition and immunity. A patient has a challenge of having low blood cell counts following a stem cell grafting since it takes some time for the stem cells to be transported to the bone marrow to start the process of synthesizing new blood cells. For instance, a patient with a low white blood cell count is highly prone to infections. Low blood cell count causes dizziness, fatigue, and malaise. Low platelet count makes the patient have a high risk of prolonged bleeding. It is not guaranteed that the patients immunity will quickly be improved since it varies from one individual to another. Kidney problems might also arise when chemotherapy drugs, meant to suppress immunity, are given to a patient before the transplant. The process of stem cell implantation can result in health complications owing to low immunity.
Conclusion
Stem cell research plays a significant role in tissue generation, treatment of neurological disorders, cardiovascular disease treatment, and brain disease treatment due to stem cells ability of self-renewing and differentiation into different lineages. However, stem cell application has faced criticism due to the increased fatalities caused by the suppressed immunity during the transplant period, which leaves the patient prone to other infections. Stem cell research has identified MSCs to be vital in tissue engineering. During the treatment exercises, the MSCs undergo differentiation into the desired cell then implanted into the target organ. However, suppressing the hosts body immunity prevents graft-versus-host diseases with fatal results, such as organ damage. Parkinsons disease and Alzheimers disease, affecting many people globally, are now treatable through stem cell research.
MSCs are also admissible in the treatment of cardiac diseases, whereby they replace worn-out tissues. The transplantation of MSCs during brain disease treatment incorporates the hosts cells to facilitate the endogenous neurogenesis and repair using stem cell biobridges. Stem cell research has made it possible to treat the deadly glioblastoma diseases by incorporating anti-glioblastoma components in NSCs that are then used to kill the tumor cells. Occasionally, MSC transplants have also been reported to cause tumors that are sometimes fatal. Though stem cell has some disadvantages in its application, the many applications of stem cell research in the medical field give more hope that it can be admissible in treating many chronic diseases.
Song, C. G., Zhang, Y. Z., Wu, H. N., Cao, X. L., Guo, C. J., Li, Y. Q., Zheng, M. H., & Han, H. (2018). Stem cells: A promising candidate to treat neurological disorders. Neural Regeneration Research, 13(7), 1294. Web.
Wang, M., Yuan, Z., Ma, N., Hao, C., Guo, W., Zou, G., Zhang, Y., Chen, M., Gao, S., Peng, J., Wang, Y., Sui, X., Xu, W., Lu, S., Liu, S., & Guo, Q. (2017). Advances and prospects in stem cells for cartilage regeneration.Stem Cells International, 1-16. Web.
Cerebral palsy is a non-progressive condition that results from brain damage to the fetus during embryological development or immediately after birth (Carroll and Robert 468). Due to its early onset in a persons life, the condition is diagnosed in infancy and early childhood. Clinical features of the condition are abnormal behaviors, posture abnormalities, epileptic seizures, nervous system disturbances, and problems in walking due to muscular tension. The use of stem cells to cure cerebral palsy involves the introduction of the cells to the affected brain region so that they could grow and enable the part of the brain to regain its normal physiological functions (Goldstein 45).
Literature review
In the developed world, every 2 in 1,000 births are affected by cerebral palsy whereby males are impacted to a greater extent than females across the world. There have been concerns that if the injuries to the brains of a fetus or infant are not minimized, cerebral palsy cases could be on the rise. Many countries have attempted to encourage expectant women to avoid exposing their fetuses in the womb to pressure that could lead to brain injury. In addition, women are encouraged to take care of their infants after birth so that they prevent them from brain injuries that could lead to cerebral palsy. There has been an agreement among scientists that cerebral palsy occurs when an injury to the developing brain interferes with the normal blood flow to the brain tissue (Goldstein 45). An injury to the cerebrum hinders normal blood and oxygen flow to the portion of the brain that is responsible for body movements. The injured cerebrum gets underdeveloped, and it does not perform its normal functions in the future (Goldstein 45).
Figure 1: A brain model showing the Basal Ganglia. The cerebrum is the principal area that shows defects in individuals with cerebral palsy (Goldstein 42).
Stem cells have been shown to develop into any form of cells in the body based on the growth signals exposed to them (Carroll and Robert 468). Previous studies have identified how stem cells could be handled and used for clinical applications (Koning, Walton, Shin, Chen, et al 323). The goal of the use of stem cells in the cure of cerebral palsy is to replace the damaged tissue with cells that could develop into functional brain cells. The nervous system has been targeted for transplantation using stem cells because the system contains certain cell lines (Daadi, Davis, Arac, Li, et al 517).
Mesenchymal stem cells found in the bone marrow and umbilical cords migrate to the brain after an injury to initiate the repair of the damaged tissue. However, the cells provide only nutrients but cannot develop into mature neurons in animals. Neural precursor cells are found in the nervous system of a human being only. Some drug substances can activate the cells, which moves them towards the affected cerebrum where they initiate the repair of the damaged tissue. Pluripotent stem cells can develop into many cell types in the body. They could be utilized in the cure of cerebral palsy being converted to precursor stem cells which move to the brain to repair the damaged tissue (Daadi, Davis, Arac, Li, et al 517).
Methods
The methods described here were used in a previous study aimed to derive neural stem cells from a laboratory animal with a neural degenerative condition (Koning, et al 323). Young female and male transgenic mice were utilized to yield NSCs isolation. Older males were used for in vivo studies. Standard handling measures were used to avoid the contamination of the mice prior to the killing. Mutants and wildtype (WT) male and female mice were used. Their brains were isolated and processed appropriately to prevent disruptions of normal physiological functions. Genotyping was conducted using a 3-primer design PCR. Adherent cell cultures (NSCs) were grown on a neurobasal medium enriched with supplements. Growth factors were added to the media (to promote growth) and antibiotics (to prevent contamination). The NSC cultures were monitored regularly, and the cell cultures were stopped upon confirming that they had grown to the required numbers. To ensure continuous growth of the cells in the culture media, the growth media and other components essential for growth were changed every 3 days. The cultured cells were injected into the brain of mice with neurological disorders and monitored for some time. The cultured cells were also injected into the brain of the WT mice. Proliferative activities of progenitor cells were compared in WT and mutant mice. Immunohistochemistry (immunocytochemistry) assays were used to examine the neurological growth patterns of the mice which were injected with the cultured mutant and WT cells (Koning, Walton, Shin, Chen, et al 323). The overall goal of the assays was to determine the numbers of neurons initiated to grow and their rates of growth.
Figure 2: Stem cell isolation to target neural cells in the brain (Carroll and Mays 467).
Results
The mutant neural basal cells produced more neurons at the beginning than the WT cultured cells. However, the mutant cells did not express adequate markers required for maturation. In addition, the neurons derived from the mutant cells showed abnormal morphologies and had higher levels of calretinin. The study also demonstrated that the neurogenesis induced by the mutant-derived cells was naturally programmed in mice, and was not a product of environmental manipulations (Koning, et al 323).
Discussion and conclusion
In vivo, both the WT and mutant mice produced many neurons that were initiated to grow by the cultured cells. However, the neurons did not mature to assume their physiological roles. The maturation markers were most impacted in vitro, but apoptosis was higher in the differentiating neurons induced by the mutant cells than in the neurons induced by the WT cells. It was concluded that the use of stem cells in the treatment of neurological disorders (including cerebral palsy) was an essential clinical step towards their management.
References
Carroll, James and Robert Mays. Update on stem cell therapy for cerebral palsy. Expert opinion on biological therapy 11.4 (2011): 463-471. Print.
Daadi, Marcel, Alexis Davis, Ahmet Arac, Zongjin Li, et al. Human neural stem cell grafts modify microglial response and enhance axonal sprouting in neonatal hypoxicischemic brain injury. Stroke 41.3 (2010): 516-523. Print.
Goldstein, Murray. The treatment of cerebral palsy: what we know, what we dont know. The Journal of pediatrics 145.2 (2004): 42-46. Print.
De Koning, Eelco, Noah Walton, Richard Shin, Quingfeng Chen, et al. Derivation of neural stem cells from an animal model of psychiatric disease. Translational psychiatry 3.11 (2013): 323. Print.
Stem cell research has been in existence for over two decades. Though a controversial topic, policies on the limits of Stem cell research are clear. Policies of governments across the globe vary on the legality of the prohibited and allowed research and use of stem cell embryos.
Despite the fact that most of research on stem cell is financed by the public fund, governing bodies are in place to monitor their outcome and purpose. Thus, this reflective paper attempts to investigate on the legality and views of the protagonists and antagonists on stem cell research.
Medical researchers are in the front line in championing for ethical guidelines on the limits of the international laws on stem cell research. From the United Nations to the World Health Organization, it is universally accepted that Stem cell research should lie within regulatory limits capable of containing hasty scientific development (Marzilli 120).
For instance, the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine Council of Europe has mobilized the members into signing a ban on embryo creations exclusively for research intention. In 2005, the United Nation agreed on a declaration against human cloning act.
In addition, The Hinxton Group, meeting in Cambridge 2009, presented an accord of declaration for flexibility of laws on stem cell research (Foerstel 103).
In the United Kingdom, stem cell research with the human cells was legalized by the “Human Fertilization and Embryology Act 1990” passed in the year 2001. However, the “Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority” acquiescence is a prerequisite for a legal research.
In United States, the “New Jersey’s 2004 SI909 act” allowed human cloning (Marzilli 140).In 2006, the “Missouri Amendment Two” permitted research on embryonic stem cell just as it is also legal in Indiana, Michigan, South Dakota, and Arkansas among other states.
Later, in 2005, President Bush accented into law the “Stem Cell Therapeutic and Research Act of 2005.” However, the Omnibus Appropriation Act of 2009 bans public funding of research on new stem cell embryos (Foerstel 63).
Primarily, stem cell research has numerous benefits on the fields of therapeutic cloning and regenerative medicine. As a matter of fact, stem cells modification may be a breakthrough in treatments of ailments such as diabetes, Alzheimer, cancer, Parkinson, and Huntingtons among others which are currently incurable.
Besides, stem cell research offers an opportunity to study origin, growth, and development of human beings (Marzilli 175). In addition, research has proven that uni-parental cells responds positively in experimental treatment of diseases in animals, and this can be extended to human beings.
Reflectively, stem cell research has vast potential in eliminating viral diseases if more funds are allocated for such projects.
However, opponents of stem cell research argue that scientific use of stem cells for research destroys blastocysts of human eggs which are already fertilized. On ethical grounds, destruction of fertilized human eggs also means killing of innocent lives.
From a Christian perspective, conception marks the beginning of life (Foerstel 48). Any human activity modifying or interfering with biological cycle of humanity is immoral and unacceptable. Thus, views of these antagonists seem to have weight. Interestingly, they are the majority of tax payers who are expected to fund these ‘murderous projects’ (Foerstel 131).
At present, funding by the federal government is limited to existing embryo cells. Many scientists have developed the option of extracting no-embryonic cells for stem cell research. Companies like ACT and Revivicor have embraced the technology of extracting stem cells from amniotic fluids. With better funding, an acceptable solution is achievable.
Works Cited
Foerstel, Hebert. Toxic mix? a handbook of science and politics. New York: ABC CLIO, 2010. Print.
Marzilli, Alan. Stem cell research and cloning. New York: InfoBase Publishing, 2006. Print.
In this century, the advance in knowledge has led to the increase in curing of many ailments. One of these breakthroughs is the advent of stem cell research.
This technology has raised the expectation of many medical professionals in treating people who have endured suffering or died prematurely because their diseases were regarded to be “incurable” some years ago. Stem cells are capable of growing until they form mature specialized body cells. They are found in embryos at the initial developmental stages in fetal tissues and sometimes in some mature tissues.
Doctors and scientists have proved that by the use of stem cell technology, it is possible for organisms to grow from a single cell. In addition, they have also discovered that cells that are in good physical condition are capable of restoring damaged cells in mature organisms. Nevertheless, the lack of adequate funding from the government has deteriorated the efforts of the researchers in embracing the benefits of this technology.
Since the first isolation of embryonic stem cells occurred during the last decade, stem cell technology has emerged to be a major advancement in the field of science.
Nonetheless, the breakthrough is a major public debate topic concerning its use in treating patients with “incurable” ailments (Korobkin and Munzer, 3). Throughout this period, the United States government has approved what is considered as the worst restraining policy in scientific investigation in modern times: it has refused to provide financial assistance to embryonic stem-cell research.
Some government officials hold the belief that the people encouraging this type of research are becoming deceitful in making known to the public this hope in medical science and affirm that adequate proof for the sustainability of this technology is still lacking. However, such sentiments are in themselves deceitful since people, who do not meet the criteria, make such ill-conceived statements.
The public does not have adequate information on this. For example, a recent public poll, conducted by the International Communications Research in Media, Pa, revealed that “47 percent of Americans oppose federal funding of embryonic stem-cell research, while 38 percent support such funding. Only 21 percent favored funding all stem-cell research, including research that involves killing embryos” (Catholic News Service, para. 1).
However, it is important to note that on scientific issues, the so-called “opinion polls” are less significant. In such cases, the public normally vote based on their tastes and preferences while disregarding the real impact of the issue.
Doctors and scientists, who are the authority in this field, have asserted several times that the implementation of stem cell research would bring many benefits to humanity, especially those who are suffering from diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injury, certain forms of cancer, or even ailments of the heart. So, who should make for us decisions in this critical issue, is it the ill-advised public or the scientists?
Some people who are opposed to this technology claim that the introduction of stem cell research in medical laboratories can result in the annihilation of human life. The religious community maintains that the life of a human being commences at conception; therefore, they oppose the use of such embryos in research.
However, it is of essence to note that the embryos used in stem cell research are mostly the left over ones kept in fertility clinics that eventually would be discarded if they were not used for the intended purposes. Those against the research assert that embryonic life is holy and necessary for the persistence of lives in this planet. Therefore, they are faithfully not willing to give up embryonic life, regardless of the numerous advantages it would bring to the medical field.
Or, should we let our loved ones to die of “incurable” aliments like the ones mentioned above simply because stem cell research is unnatural? Investigation into this field of study should be encouraged by providing more funds to assist the investigators. In addition, who knows, may be one day we will wake up and find ourselves living in a disease-free world thanks to the funding accorded to these investigators who work relentlessly to this end.
In conclusion, it is evident that the implementation of stem cell research can bring several benefits to the human race. The world is seriously in need of the treatment of medical conditions that has troubled it for a long time now.
However, the current political temperature and lack of adequate government funding is a major obstacle towards the realization of this dream. By looking at the whole picture, this technology should be adopted as long as some restrictions are placed upon it to prevent scientists from misusing the breakthrough.
This research is thought to be the most promising in curing ailments and the lack of funding continues to derail the activities of the scientists. To this end, we should continue to raise our voices and make sure that this great medical research breakthrough succeeds and saves thousands of lives from early graves.
Works Cited
Catholic News Service. “Poll shows opposition to federally funded embryonic stem-cell research.” The Boston Pilot. 2010. Web.
Korobkin, Russell, and Stephen, Munzer. Stem cell century: law and policy for a breakthrough technology. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. Print.
This paper will examine the article about stem cell applications in bone and tooth repair and regeneration. This is essentially a significant issue to explore because bones and teeth consider commonly fragile and non-regenerative or complicated to regenerate parts of the human body. Moreover, bones and teeth become thinner, weaker, and brittle with the years primarily. Interest in stem cells has increased significantly over the past 10-15 years. Stem cell usage is broadening every day, thanks to numerous studies and their positive results in practical medicine.
The article I chose to research, Stem Cells Applications in Bone and Tooth Repair and Regeneration (Abdel Meguid et al., 2017), is about the abilities and structure of stem cells. It provides examples of scientific research about the application of stem cells in the process of the regeneration of bones and teeth. Stem cells are able to generate any tissue throughout life because of the capability to self-regenerate. Stem cells were explored in many medical applications to fix and regenerate defective tissues or organs, e.g., bones, ligaments, and the heart. The goal of regenerative medicine is to recreate all the mechanisms and processes used by nature during the genesis of an organ. Tangentially, bone is a specialized type of dense tissue whose components are mineralized for strength and durability. The osteon is considered the building block of bone, and the major cell types are osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes. The integrity and strength of the skeleton depend on these cells.
The process of bone remodeling takes place throughout a person’s life. In this case, scientists are engaged in the identification of cells, including osteoprogenitor and other stem cells, which performed successive changes in their structure and functionality to restore and regenerate colloidal tissue (Abdel Meguid et al., 2017). One of the most difficult defects to repair are those of the skull and facial bones, primarily because of the difficulty in finding suitable bone grafts for facial landmarks. Current methods of treating such defects with stem cells have been successful.
As for dental reproduction, the periodontal ligament is a unique set of stem cells, many of them multicomponent. Tissue regeneration mediated by periodontal stem cells represents a rather promising method of practical treatment of various periodontal diseases that involve cells. Such manipulations are of particular importance for the ability to create dental structures under laboratory conditions. These performances require a precise understanding of the synergies of molecular and cellular assimilations that are involved in the structuring of various dental tissues, dentin, and enamel.
Over the past few decades, discoveries in the field of stem cells have led to multiple successful applications of such knowledge in dentistry. Ideas and concepts for the regeneration of teeth, tissues, and whole structures are still being developed. According to the article (Abdel Meguid et al., 2017), dental regeneration using stem cell knowledge will have an impact on the treatment of dental caries and tooth loss. Regarding cell transplantation, the article highlights autologous transplantation as the safest at the moment. However, its use is not recommended for certain age groups. All investigated strategies for bone and dental regeneration with the help of stem cells in tissue regeneration will make an invaluable contribution to medical approaches.
During the course, we observed the stages of mitosis, the process of indirect division of somatic cells, as a result of which two daughter cells with the same set of chromosomes are formed from one diploid mother cell, which includes the metaphase, anaphase, and the telophase. Then we identified the process of the differentiation of stem cells, which changes the cell’s function, size, shape, and metabolic activity. In the course, there were also some examples of the cures available with embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells appear to be more restricted than embryonic cells and can turn into a particular type of tissue. This topic interested me the most; that is why I decided to choose the article about the possibilities of stem cells in medical research and experiments. It is also valuable that such expertise is currently supported in many countries. As we figured out from the course materials, federal funding is essential to keep up with scientists from other countries. Fortunately, President Obama signed the federal budget to be provided for stem cell researchers. That will prevent the stem cells experiment and research from moving to the public sector or even abroad.
Knowledge of the importance of stem cells in medicine is of direct relevance to every person’s life, and the body renews itself more slowly as we age. Cell therapy helps the regeneration (renewal) of cells and nourishes them with beneficial substances. In addition, stem cells are used to create prosthetic heart valves, vessels, and trachea. Cell therapy also solves the problems of the musculoskeletal system, restoring bone defects. Additionally, cell therapy is used in dentistry. Working with new biological technologies requires high-quality scientific equipment and experienced biologists. It means that each of us will have the opportunity to cure diseases and problems that are currently intractable in the future. People will obtain faster and more comfortable treatment of such issues as cavities, fractures, loss of teeth, and more. Such investigations are significant for everybody, and we should be thankful and full of interest according to such topics and research which improve our life and lifestyle environment.
Reference
Abdel Meguid, E., Ke, Y., Ji, J., & El-Hashash, A. H. K. (2017). Stem cells applications in bone and tooth repair and regeneration: New insights, tools, and hopes. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 233(3), 1825–1835. doi:10.1002/jcp.25940
A lot of controversy from its critics surrounds stem cell research. The controversy in stem cell research concerns the embryonic source of stem cells, which is considered unethical. However, nobody denies the usefulness of stem cell methodology. Those who oppose stem cell research say it devalues human life because the embryos are alive and need protection. J.C. Willke, M.D., in the article I’m Pro-Life and Oppose Embryonic Stem Cell Research, opposes stem cell research in particular embryonic stem cell research.
He urges that it is unethical to do embryonic stem cell research since it requires killing a living human embryo to obtain the stem cell. It is ethical to conduct experiments on human tissue, however doing so in human beings is unethical. Human life begins on day one when an egg has been fertilized. Thus by sourcing stem cells from embryonic cells is tantamount to killing one human being to save another yet in normal life this would be unaccepted.
Embryonic cells have a potential of causing cancer and this is a concern that has been raised by researchers. Stem cells that come from embryos have the ability to cause cancer because they may become malignant. This means that more research needs to be done to understand the threat that embryonic stem cells pose to patients who may use them. Therefore, using these cells is not safe as it may lead to diseases that patients did not have initially.
The article goes on to criticize embryonic stem cell research because it is not supported by many people. In poll conducted by” International Communication Research showed that 70% of those polled opposed the use of embryo stem cells, 24% supported and 6% refused”(Willke, 2001).
Therefore, stem cell research should be done using other stem cells as research shows they are viable to avoid killing a human being in the initial stages of development because given time the embryo will develop into a human being just like every other human beings on earth who were once fertilized eggs. However, I support stem cell research because it has many pros that are offering hope to patients in the medical field such as those in need of organ transplants or those with diseases.
Rebuttal
However, in spite of the cons of stem cell research it has many pros, which outweigh the cons as shown in the article Pros and cons of embryonic stem cell research: arguments in favour vs. arguments against by Messinger. Adult stem cells can be used as well.
This are cells from the placenta and thus no need to ‘kill’ embryos to harvest cells. Stem cells harvested from adults have more advantages than embryonic stem cells. They cannot be rejected by the body when harvested from a patient unlike embryonic cells that are used on a different human being. They eliminate the problem of rejection (Willke, 2001).
In spite of the criticism that stem cell research faces as shown above, it continues to generate a lot of interest in the medical science. Many a times the critics of stem cell research have termed it as killing. They say so because life starts at conception and hence using embryonic stems is tantamount to killing because the blastocyst differentiates into many cells that later develop into features of a human being.
On the contrary, the blastocyst in stem cell research is used even before it begins to differentiate (Pros and Cons of Stem Cell Research, 2010, Para. 3). Some stem cells are taken from embryos that remain after Vitro fertilization. The unused embryos would eventually be destroyed.
Instead of destroying embryos why not, use them in stem cell research to cure patients who have diseases that stem cell therapy can cure. in addition, the bone marrow is also a source of stem cells. If successful, are the best types to use as compared to stem cells harvested from embryos and umbilical cord. They always match the recipient because they are an exact DNA match. Stem cells can also be sourced from the umbilical cord.
They can be harvested from it and preserved for future use by a family. These stem cells offer hope to patients with diseases such as cancer of the blood or leukemia as they are given bone marrow transplants and hence a new lease of life (Gahrton & Bjorkstrand, 2000). This is made possible by technological advancement and it may help to stop the controversy surrounding stem research.
Those who oppose the practice equate stem cell research to killing. This is because the blastocyst is not given a chance to develop. Conversely, many people’s lives have been saved through stem research. For example, in the United States alone about 100 to 150 million people suffer from diseases that are treatable using stem research methodology.
Thus by adopting stem cell research the lives of these Americans will be saved instead of them suffering until they succumb to treatable diseases. “Diseases that could become manageable with stem cell research are Parkinson’s disease, birth defects, heart diseases, Alzheimer’s, stroke and spinal injuries”(Stem Cell Research, 2008). This is because stem cells can be transplanted into the body to heal the above diseases if stem cell research is allowed to go in finding a cure for such diseases.
This will also make transplantation less risky as the doctors would use a copy of a patient’s cells to create organs to be transplanted thus eliminate the risk of organ rejection completely (Stem Cell Research, 2008). This is because if stem cells are harvested from a patient and grown into organs such as a heart, limb and so forth the body cannot reject such an organ as it cannot reject it own cells. This would also reduce the cost of transplanting, as extra medication is needed to combat the chances of organ rejection.
It may also be possible to develop organs that can be universal donor and this would be very good as such, organs would be like the universal donor and this would make it possible for any patient to receive an organ whenever they need without having to wait to find a compatible donor. On the other hand, the money used in drugs to prevent organ rejection can be used to further the knowledge in stem cell research to cover wider number of diseases that plague man everyday.
Those who are opposed to stem cell research can be said to be practicing double speak. This is because they do not oppose vitro fertilization. “During vitro fertilization a number of eggs are fertilized and about two or three embryos are implanted into the womb with the hope that at least one will survive and successfully be implanted” (Messinger, 2006). The other embryos clearly die and yet they do not help anyone.
The question that begs is why not use such embryos in stem cell research and save lives instead, because letting them die in labs is also killing them yet this is not the stand of those who oppose stem cell research. This is because many embryos are created during this kind of fertilization and left to die through defrosting in labs.
Therefore allowing such embryos to be used in stem cell research would go a long way in helping to improve the research in stem cell treatment for the betterment of humankind (Messinger, 2006).
The stem cell research is currently in the hands of the private sector. Some feel that the private sector may put all ethical considerations aside to ensure they make a profit in stem cell research. However, this is not always the case because the private sector is always willing to take risks and lead in invention.
Through this sector, we have many products that the government would have been reluctant to venture into because it would not have competition from anyone in looking for better ways of managing diseases. Therefore, it would be unfounded to demonize stem cell research just because it is in the private sector.
This is because the claim that the private sector is money minded does not hold water as the private sector also cares about human beings and strives to come up with the best products to improve or change the lives of their consumers. In fact, the stem cell research will reach great heights if the government offers it support to the sector through funding to ensure that the best methods are applied in developing stem cell research.
Stem cell research does not offer a solution to all the diseases that human beings suffer from. This tenet is true but stem cell research offers hope in the medical field because through this research man will be able to study the human body in detail without the fear of the risks involved.
This will increase safety in drug testing. This will make it easier to develop drugs that will be effective in treating the populations because scientists and doctors will use stem cells from human beings thus come up with accurate drugs with fewer side effects.
This is because they will study the effects of those drugs on “human pluripotent stem cells that have been developed to mimic the disease processes” (Stem Cell Research, 2009, Potential Benefits, Para. 3). This will help to eliminate the side effects of drugs by testing for toxicity in the stem cells before carrying tests on human beings and animals.
Furthermore, stem cell research will help to study the development process of the fetus and help to eliminate or treat developmental diseases (Pillai, 2010). This is because stem cell research will lead to a greater understanding of the process of human development and this will give insights into the causes of genetic abnormalities as well as birth defects.
Conclusion
Stem cell research debate will continue to rage on for decades to come between people in the opposite camps. However, the main point that cannot be ignored is the importance of stem cell research in helping to fight diseases as well as help to improve human life altogether.
The contentious issue in stem cell research is not on using it but on how stem cells are obtained. Due to technological advancement, doctors and scientist have discovered a way of harvesting stem cells without necessarily destroying the embryonic cells. Such methods will help to advance the research in stem cell for the benefit of humankind because the pros outweigh the cons by far.
The governments of various countries ought to support stem research fully because it has many benefits. The other stakeholders need to support stem cell research because it seems to be the answer to many incurable diseases. This will prolong life and add quality into the lives of human beings, as they will not have to suffer and die in pain from terminal diseases.
Reference List
Gahrton, G. & Björkstrand B., (2000). Progress in haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for multiple myeloma. Journal of Internal Medicine, 248 (3): 185–201.
Messinger, R., (2006). Pros and cons of embryonic stem cell research: arguments in favour vs. arguments against. Web.
Pillai, P. (2010)., Advantages and Disadvantages of Stem Cell Research. Web.
Pros and cons of stem cell research, (2010). Web.
Stem Cell Research., (2009). Web.
Stem cell research – pros and cons. Web.
Willke, J. C., (2001). I’m Pro-Life and Oppose Embryonic Stem Cell Research. Web.
The primary goal of this essay is to emphasize the importance of the research of the stem cells, provide a precise definition, and explain their functions in the body. Firstly, the stem cells can be defined as the cells, which can reduplicate and renew its population, and can produce several types of cells (Lanza and Atala 9). It is evident that stem cells can become any part, which is required for the complicated structure of the body. Their ability to transform into the other cells is necessary since; otherwise, the human body would not be able to recover from the damage.
The importance of the stem cells cannot be underestimated in the medical science. The primary reason for the concern lays in the major functions and qualities of the cells. Firstly, the cells are self-renewal, as they can recover (Lanza and Atala 9). Secondly, this kind of cells can produce different types of cells, which are necessary for the sufficient functioning of the body (Lanza and Atala 8). Lastly, the stem cells incorporate the culture of clonality, as only one cell is needed to reproduce the whole population of stem cells (Lanza and Atala 8). It is evident that a combination of these characteristics is unique, as they can be actively employed in the medical research to create various organs and tissues to save lives of the patients. Moreover, the stem cells can contribute to finding the cure to illnesses such as cancer, as they play a significant role in the production of the other types of the cells.
Nonetheless, it is evident that research of the active usage of the stem cells remains a necessity, and substantial attention has to be paid for it, as the cells have a unique combination of characteristics, which allow reproducing the cells and creating various organs. Moreover, it could be said that the research is essential, as the confusion is the definitions of stem cells have a tendency to exist (Lanza and Atala 40). It is evident that the research of this type of cells has a positive intention, as, for instance, the scientists were able to create insulin-producing beta cells, which are required for the treatment of diabetes (Press Association par. 1). Nonetheless, the further intentions of the research remain unclear, as the ability to reduplicate brain might lead to the creation of the human-like creatures, which can be used for various purposes and be dangerous for the society.
In it could be concluded that the research of the stem cells can have an impact on our future lives in different ways. Nonetheless, the research of the stem cells remains a necessity, as it contributes to finding the cure to the dangerous illnesses such as diabetes. Moreover, it allows the creation of the transplants, which can replace the malfunctioning organs. Consequently, the humanity will be able to be more resistant to the illnesses in future. It is evident that bright future with no illnesses is one of the case scenarios. Nonetheless, the research of the stem cells might have some negative consequences since it might contribute to the creation of human-like creatures, which can be used for the military purposes. In this case, the violent wars, which use biological creatures as weapons, might also be our future. It is evident that the research of the stem cells is an essentiality. However, high attention has to be paid to the intentions of the research, as it might be a cause of some negative consequences.
References
Lanza, Robert, and Anthony Atala. Essentials of Cell Stem Biology. San Diego: Elsevier, 2014. Print.
Press Association. “Type 1 Diabetes Breakthrough Using Stem Cell Research Raises Hope for Cure.” The Guardian 2014. Web.
