Category: Sports

The English Premier League stands out among football leagues in the world. It is widely known for fast paced football, it has some of the most skillful players from around the world and its clubs are characterized by passion for football. The English Premier League was established when a total of ten clubs split away from the Football League (Exall 2007, 11). Before the split, there were many revenue related problems associated with the Football League Management. Revenue management related misunderstandings prompted the split and eventual formation of the English Premier League.

There was a time when English players also, massively, went abroad as professionals. In the 1980s Serie A of Italy and La Liga of Spain were the most prestigious leagues in the world. It was until the 1990s that the English Premier League started it’s ascending to glory (Exall 2007, 16). Much of its successes could be associated with the aggressive incorporating of internationals into the team. The league clubs enjoy freedom of signing as many players, from anywhere in the world as they deem fit. The clubs are also free to pay their players as much as they wish; there are no squad restrictions of any sort.

The English Premiership currently enjoys a global following (Higham & Hinch 2009, 19). This following results, largely, from the presence of many foreign players in England. Arsenal has a great following in France and many French speaking countries because of the presence of many French men and Africans with a French connection. Chelsea necessarily finds great following in some African states because of the likes of Essien and Drogba. The Russians will closely follow and pride in the exploits of Arshavin at arsenal. The Chinese may easily follow Manchester United because of Park. The presence of foreign players generally have improved the standings of the English premier league.

The phenomenon of foreign players became prominent around the end of 1990s (Exall 2007, 26). It is around such time that many team managers started scouting and bringing in foreign players in droves. The option to scout for foreign players was pegged on the fact that English players had become too overpriced. Clubs keen on saving money found cheap alternatives in countries like Brazil.

Foreign signings continued until recent happenings started to raise eyebrows towards the practice. England, for example, did not qualify for Euro 2008. This angered many fans in England. It is ironical that the country that has the most exciting but also most expensive league in the world cannot play ball to match other boys. Close scrutiny shows that apart from the ageing many, England does not have any young talented professionals in its league.

Some analysts point out the inflation of foreign players in the English Premier League is the reason why the England national team plays dismally. In the recent past, according to Major League Charts (2009), arsenal has stood out as the team with least number of Englishmen. Recently, it is reported on the Major League Charts (2009) that they had a number of outings without any local or English player on the squad. Teams like arsenal no longer have more than three Englishmen in their squad. It is in the face of such like developments that a UEFA is planning to enforce a requirement that each team includes a given number of local or home players in its squad always. According to the Major League Charts (2009), the number of English players in English League games fell below 50% from season 2001 to 2002.

Globalization is put forward as one of the major drivers behind increased foreign signings in the European Leagues (Higham & Hinch 2009, 41). Globalization is driven by New Media technologies and transport (Higham & Hinch 2009, 3). New Media has enabled people in most countries to be able to access English Sporting Events either via cable television or internet. Globalization also means that people can travel around more easily. Therefore, although overpricing of English players was the trigger, easy access to information and places from where players could be found led to foreign player inflation in the English Premier League.

The inflation of foreign players in the English Premier League has also been exacerbated by foreighn ownership (Exall 2007, 22). Recently, the whole world was stunned when a group of Abu Dhabi businessmen bought Manchester City at a whooping two hundred million pounds. Apart from the Abu Dhabi consortium, Chinese, Russian, Nigerian and other international business moguls have continuously maneuvered to have a share in the English premier league clubs. According to Hutton (2008) England has not protected its sovereignty well enough. He explains that sovereignty is more profound than self governance; it has much to do with who controls the corporations or companies in a country (Hutton, 2008). English Club Ownership largely depends on free trade mechanisms. Free trade is one of the basic tenets of capitalism. As a result of free trade mechanisms, Chelsea ended up in the hands of Roman Abramovich, Aston Villa is owned by Randy Lerner, Manchester United is owned by American Malcolm Glazer and recently Manchester city went to a consortium of Abu Dhabi businessmen (Hutton 2008).

Free trade mechanisms provide that those who have control over means of production or economic apparatus continue to amass at the expense of the general public. This kind of culture lead to subverting of national interest to individual’s interests as is the case in football. There is no focus on developing talent but rather putting together the dream team that will bring in fans, fame, and money. The foreign owners are interested in business or profits i.e. the club has to win or play flashy football so as to attract fans. The huge focus on profits is likely to defeat other football concerns like developing talent. The foreign owner has little interest in the future of national teams or the clubs themselves. What they focus on are immediate returns (Stewart 2007, 48). Due to this continued focus on immediate returns, the youthful players are never given a chance in premiership matches. It is the usual ageing but trusted players that are fielded always. There are youth development schemes; however, the youths in the academies are never given a chance (Hutton 2008).

The foreign owners are not to blame for their focus on short term results (Taylor 2008, 66). The British set up is such that all companies can be taken over anytime by anybody. Most football clubs are listed on a stock exchange market where anyone with money buys any shares. There is always a tussle for ownership centered on share trade. The insecurity in ownership makes owners to focus on getting as much money and fame out of the clubs as soon as possible (Taylor 2008, 52). There is pressure on English Club Managers to deliver results in terms of wins or get fired. The pressure translates into overpricing of some players who are considered critical due to their flair and tact. The pressure also leads to shifting focus away from young talented players who may not be of immediate use or help.

The clubs earn from TV rights and the more a league has a global appeal, the higher the returns (Taylor 2008, 39). To gain the global appeal and earn more, foreign players are a crucial ingredient. The foreign owners can not let the opportunity to engage developed talents go for the sake of developing local talent. Even patriotic English managers cannot afford to let the ratings of their teams go down in the name of developing nationals.

In Marxist terminology, the described scenario of foreign ownership and inflation of foreign players leads to a state of alienation. Players no longer play for the enjoyment of the game but rather to win and earn the money. It is for this reason that cases of diving have been on the increase. Players of great import like Christiano Ronaldo are an infamous diver, which does not reflect their quality of game. It is not far fetched to associate his diving with the pressure to deliver.

The upsurge in internationals playing in the English premier league led to the Home Office introducing stringent measures governing work permit issuance to players (Beech & Chadwick 2004, 12). It is required that only players from country that stands at least position 70 in the world rankings promulgated by FIFA can be admitted. The player must have actively contributed to the success of his national team for a minimum two years prior to joining the premier league.

The fact that the English Premier League is swarmed by foreigners cannot be denied (Exall 2007, 14). Every big team in Europe or England is identified by certain famous players who contributed substantially to its success. All over the world, mention names like Ronaldo, Michael Essien, Drogba, Thiery Henry etc, and the names ring sweet bells. These are examples of foreign players who have been legendary in their game. Their contribution to the success of their clubs has been unmatched. To a great extent, it can be argued that foreign players have given the English premier league its coveted position. The challenge is, the number of English men being fielded in the English teams has been dwindling and in some teams, it is not surprising when they are not able to field any Englishman or a player from Europe.

To deal with the challenge of Englishmen not being fielded, some stakeholders have proposed a quota on the number of foreign players fielded by any premiership team (Exall 2007, 54). The proponents of the Quota argue that inflation of foreign players hurts local football. There has been dwindling interest in local talent because managers of clubs have their eyes focused on talents elsewhere around the globe. The access to other already polished talents from a cross the globe makes it difficult for managers to focus on local talent. The result of such like focus on the part of the managers is local talent neither being developed nor exposed.

The focus and access to foreign talent has led to club managers in the English Premier League thinking young Britons lack talent (Nicholson 2007). However, on close scrutiny, it would appear that the managers have developed a sort of attitude towards young Englishmen of talent. Placing a quota on number of foreign players a club can have, Braund (2009) argues would help in ensuring clubs have more players that understand and play the English football fashion. This would mean, many of the young Englishmen are able to fit into the fashion and can thus shine.

The other challenge or reason why managers go foreign players is price. It is observed by Braund (2009) that as soon as a talented Englishman is identified, clubs put a big sum as his price. The effort is to ensure that no other team poaches him. Although the high prices are well intentioned, the response is that the players are overlooked by managers who can access equally or even better talent around the globe at far much cheaper prices.

Nicholson (2007) argues that the argument that English players are expensive no longer holds water. He points out that although that was true a few years ago, many international’s prices have soared substantially to the extent there are fewer marching Englishmen. Everton in 2006 bought Arteta at a very low price compared to Englishman Darren bent’s price (Nicholson, 2007). Looking at the figures, it appears that truly the English players are overpriced. However, each transfer happens in given economic context. There are often instances when high profile players are transferred for free. This should be a clear indicator that player transfers are influenced by more than just money. Sometime back, it is true that English players were overly overvalued; however this has changed considerably over time (Nicholson, 2008). As per the current state of affairs, many foreign players could be considered overpriced. Recent transfers to Man city at voluminous amounts raised questions the idea that English players are overpriced. Robinho was bought from Milan by Manchester city at a staggering thirty two million pounds. According to Nicholson (2008), if Robinho had been an Englishman, the price would have raised extreme attention.

In 2008, Manchester United got Chevchenko but he could not adapt to English premier league. He did not contribute substantially to Manchester’s campaign. In 2007, Liverpool acquired Torres for a whooping 27 million pounds (Nicholson, 2008). At the same time, Everton acquired an Englishman Bent for ten million less what Liverpool paid for Torres. In that season, it could be argued that Bent was more fruitful at Everton than Torres was at Liverpool. Current pricing at the premier league seems to be more focused on a player being international and with a big name (Stewart 2007, 102). It would thus follow that the excuse by some managers that English players are overpriced has slowly but surely lost salt or grounding. Continued buying of overpriced internationals is beginning to raise questions. This means that the problem of overpricing is a general premier problem and should be looked at as such. If English players are valued fairly, against the internationals, there should be no point of not considering them on the pretense that they are over-priced.

Another excuse that is given by managers is that Englishmen lack tact. The challenge or real issue that needs to be addressed is the myth that non English players are of better value (Lonnie 2008). England over time has produced greats such as David Beckham. Manchester United has the likes of Rooney who are doing very well. Therefore it can not be that Britons lack tact. If that were the case, Chelsea would not be stuck with the likes of Lampard and Terry.

In 2008, FIFA pushed for a proposal providing for quotas on foreign players that can be fielded by teams in any game (Lonnie 2008). The proposal aimed at limiting the number of player that could be fielded by any team in a game to five. One of the reasons why a quota on foreign players remains plausible is the increasing economic imbalance between clubs. A lot of money has been pumped into teams like Chelsea and Manchester city in the recent seasons. Due to huge sums of money availed by billionaire Abramovich and Abu Dhabi brother respectively; the two teams could access any player from anywhere (Stewart 2007, 53). Teams like Manchester United have more economic muscle than many other teams in the league. Using their economic capability, they are able to attract any player from any part of the world. The economic imbalance coupled by unlimited access to players from across the globe does not work in favor of the game.

The stakes are against teams that rely heavily on nationals due to lacking economic muscle to attract best players from around the world. The described fact explains why the league has been dominated by a few teams (Exall 2007, 4). Since inception the English Premier League has only been won Chelsea, Arsenal, Manchester United and Blackburn. However, the big four teams, Chelsea, arsenal, Manchester United and Liverpool, have held to the first four slots since the inception of the League. Manchester United has won the premiership more than 50% times since inception (Exall 2007, 4). The dominance of the league by a few teams that are heavily infiltrated by foreigners plays wrongly on the psyche of young Britons playing in the other teams. To a great extent it feels like they are second rate against the big teams and the foreign players. This scenario does not work in favor of national football. It is one of the reasons cited for the continued failure or poor performances by the English National Team (Lonnie, 2008).

The quota proponents also point out that it is not just the England national team that is affected (Lonnie 2008). Many other national teams around the world are affected when the young and most talented are grabbed by the big teams in England. When young talent is taken away from a country at an early age, the country’s clubs miss or loose the services of such a player. The national teams also only get the player for crucial matches and for very few days. This phenomenon or state of affairs keeps the football in the clubs and nations down. If the talents were retained in the specific countries and thus clubs, football around the world would develop substantially.

The movement of young players to England in itself does not work in their favor. The players earn big money when they move however, most of them move when they are between age 14 and 16 (Braund, 2009). Migrating at such an early stage to start a kind of full fledged career life does not work in the favor of the players. Life is a journey that has to be covered gradually. Change often precipitates crises; for such young player it often means begin to take full responsibility of their own issues.

Despite the arguments put forward by proponents of quotas being worthy of consideration, the question of foreign players in the English premier League requires further thinking. The choosing of foreign players does not necessarily mean the Englishmen lack tact. However, it is a fact that the English Premier League has become a global attraction. As a global phenomenon, it should be able to attract global finesse. The best from England join with the best from around the world in clubs that compete for the most prestigious awards in the world. That should be a dream worthy envisaging by the whole world; more particularly the Britons. The Britons can continue owning the league as their own while enjoying pride that comes with its global appeal.

There is a danger that focusing on foreigner aspect of the issue could create racist or xenophobic attitude among Britons. The feeling that foreigners are taking over and denying Britons opportunities can only but serve to increase partisan sentiments. It is such like sentiments or fears that led to xenophobic attacks in South Africa sometime last year. Such like sentiments are not proper to Africans alone; actually racist sentiments or utterances have often been heard in football stadiums across Europe.

The application or use of the word ‘foreigner’ in itself is questionable. ‘Inflation of foreign players’ in itself is a loaded phrase that would only stimulate certain negative feelings, towards the ‘foreigners’, within a Briton. The issue of tackling the England national team’s failures should not be subsumed into the issue of intolerance. For a very long time, the English Premier League has thrived because of the presence of so called foreigners. Ferguson the Manchester United Coach is a Scot, Wenger is French; actually all coaches that have performed well in the League have been non Englishmen (Exall 2007, 6). Loosing or locking out these foreigners is not the option.

The best solution to the current challenge requires that stakeholders in English national football look beyond the English Premier League clubs in the development of young talent and national team. England has to become creative and devise other ways of ensuring it grows football talent for its national teams. The premier league is a good avenue but it is not the last avenue. The lower leagues for example offer a great opportunity of developing young talent. Definitely, superb talent in those leagues will be noted and picked by managers.

The team managers of the clubs will continue to seek out internationals who promise good immediate results (Beech & Chadwick 2004, 81). Theirs is to work in the interest of the clubs that have employed them. Instituting quotas will only make English players even more overpriced. Demand for English players will increase meaning that their premium also goes high. The likely scenario will be managers hanging on the players they already have until such a time when it is extremely necessary.

In conclusion, it is true that international players have swarmed the English Premier League. This poses a great challenge to the young Britons whose prospects of playing in the most prestigious league in their nations have been dwindling over the years. There is need to address this issue; however, quotas and racist sentiments may not work for the English Premier League. Quotas are likely to kill the vibrant aspect of the league. Instead of relying on the Premier League, English football stakeholders could focus on creating avenues like football academies to parallel those of the clubs. Another option would be to give as much support to teams that pick nationals e.g. tax relief etc. Allowing for the freedom that currently exists is good for the game because English nationals will continue to compete with the best from around the globe. If this positive is appreciated, then focus turns to making the English young talents more competitive so that they are able to stand against the tide of international professionals. Such an approach would not be easy; however, getting the first eleven for the national team from a competitive premier league is a better gamble than getting twenty two out of a league that is luck luster.

Reference List

Beech, J, Chadwick, S, 2004, the Business of Sport Management, FT Prentice Hall, New York.

Braund, A, 2009, Sports News & Opinion, Web.

Exall, K, 2007, Who Killed English Football: An Analysis of the State of English Football, AuthorHouse, New Orleans.

Hutton, W, 2008, Foreign Ownership May Be Fun, But Beware the Penalties. Guardian News & Media, Web.

Higham, J, Hinch, T, 2009, Sport and Tourism: Globalization, Mobility and Identity, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

Lonnie, 2008, FIFA Votes for Quotas on Foreign Players, Web.

Major League Charts, 2009. Web.

Nicholson, J, 2007, Why EPL Clubs Should Buy English Not Foreign Players, The Gaffer, Web.

Stewart, B, 2007, Sport Funding and Finance, Butterworth-Heinemann,

Taylor, M, 2008, the Association Game: A History of British Football, Pearson/Longman, New York.

Introduction

The USA Rugby Union was established in 1975 as an oversight body of the sport (Willing, 2000). Though Rugby is still gaining popularity in the USA, it still has tremendous potential as a viable profession of international standards. This study will seek to identify the areas of improvement USA Rugby Union could utilize in the achievement of this objective.

USA Rugby Union is already experiencing a surge in popularity with over 80,000 citizens registered with the union (Swartout, 2008). In addition, for a player to participate in rugby matches, he/she ought to have registered with the union. Plans to enhance the sport then becomes the primary objective of the union. Already, 18 teams have been registered in the Premier Domestic Tournament and the Super League in 2007. The USA Rugby Union already has 815 referees. Through the efforts of the union, the country has recorded a participation of 1,200 pre-teens already playing organized games. Female participation is however expected to pick with 197 of them playing in the pre-teen level against 1,097 males in the same category. Furthermore, there are 20,000 athletes playing at high school level and U19 clubs (Swartout, 2008). The realization of these statistics has been as a result of the contributions by the USA Rugby Union, but more can still be done by the body.

Already the USA Rugby Union has commendable players who could succeed because of their body fit and speed, which is needed for the sport (Slack, 2004). The union’s manager has identified tremendous potential in the world market and seeks to attract these players. International forums where the sport has flourished including Wellington, Dubai and Hong Kong have proved to be viable areas to showcase rugby performance (Slack, 2004). The USA Rugby Union seeks to attract more players through the same to improve the sport in the country. This study will provide a framework to which the union could use in doing so.

Problem

Problem Definition

USA Rugby Union is still grappling with enhancing rugby as a prominent sport in the country. Participation in the union is at commendable levels but more is yet to be done. The union could also realize more development if they undertook prudent strategies to enhance the sport. One of the biggest problem the union faces is the transition of the sport through elementary level into high school, college and subsequent years. The union is already gearing up for the World cup tournament in 2011and a change of tact to increase participation can’t be over-emphasized (Hoye, 2010).

With increased visibility of the USA in international tournaments, there is a need for the USA rugby union to increase participation. The union has specifically identified that a healthy future of the sport solely depends on getting young energetic players while in their youth. This should then be followed through the school system into college education. The union also identifies the importance of the country to start nurturing the sport at early stages in a players’ life. However, the means to attain this objective still remains unclear.

History of USA Rugby Union

Rugby was first introduced in America by the British. Clubs already existed in San Francisco by 1872. USA Rugby Union has always had a close relationship with American football; this is because hybrid games that entailed rugby and soccer were already being played in many American universities (Menke, 1944). American football had gained a lot of popularity in the American public though it was observed to have a lot of injuries to players. This actually led to the emergence of rugby as a viable, alternative sport. Rugby then became a game of choice thought its popularity was seen to dwindle during World War I (Hoye, 2009). Rugby wasn’t played much in America, up until a decade before 1912. The sport currently has more participation in California than any other state. USA Rugby Union has however played a number of games through the years with notable participation in the world cup events.

Literature on the Problem

Currently USA rugby union experiences participation from both male and female athletes. The rugby union stresses the need of having the best coaches to propel the sport both nationally and internationally. The union has however in the past had sterling coach performance from the likes of Tom Billups and Paul Keeler (Smircish, 1983). There is however more to be done in attracting the best coaches to further contribute to the efforts of the union. In a professional sport like rugby, there is tremendous pressure on coaches to perform. Coaches have been sacked in the past because of poor performance of the teams. It is therefore important the USA Rugby Union get the best coaches who can sustain the pressure to perform. The European Rugby union had to fire their coach in the 2003 season because Saracens lost in the tournament (Collins, 2005). This goes to show the pressure coaches have on delivery of good performance.

Problem Gap

Devising ways through which the union could achieve increased participation in the sports is still a mirage to most sports unions. Programs formulated to champion this course would experience challenges in terms of applicability and objections in some quarters of the society. For example, when American football was gaining popularity and many injuries witnessed, President John F Kennedy wanted to ban the sports on safety grounds (Garland, 2000). USA Rugby Union would still meet the same type of objections as it tries to entrench its popularity at grass root level.

Athletes have also been noted to have other commitments that might infringe on the goal of the union. It would be in the best interest of the union that athletes dedicate their efforts wholly to the positioning of the sport in international limelight. Rugby also demands a lot of physical energy from players regularly through exertion. It would therefore be difficult for the union to maintain peak performance week after week considering the high demands from players (Granville Management Syndicate, 1984).

Cause (Evidence)

Internal Organization Analysis

The USA Rugby Union has been able to qualify in many world cup tournaments. It has also established successful programs in high school and college such as College rugby which is played among all American universities (Menke, 1944). The union has also been able to collaborate with coaches in respective institutions to implement their programs at grass root levels. This goes to show the extensiveness of the union’s activities across America.

The rugby team has also shown exemplary performance in world cup tournaments. The IRB ranks the USA rugby team in the 18^th position worldwide. In addition, the Union has also championed the national team to exemplary world cup performance as could be witnessed in 1999 and 2007 (Mulholland, 2008). The men’s team has also won in previous world cup prizes like in 1920. The union therefore has international recognition from other tournaments as well, which have been played in Hong Kong, Dubai and Wellington. This improves the chances of the union to attract professional coaches and get the best players from the field (Nauright, 1999).

The rugby union however experiences challenges out of a growing popularity of American football in the American public. The union also hasn’t received adequate funding for its programs. It is faced with a crisis of sponsorship out of dwindling team performance in International tournaments. Other alternative sports have also limited the entrenchment of rugby in America. This has limited the Union’s efforts to entrench the sports at grass root levels. The union has also been faced with a lack of professional coaches that are able to meet expected union’s standards. The poaching of coaches and players by other unions has also facilitated the loss of key players and coaches. This therefore leads to weak team performance if players are not high performing (Skinner, 2004).

External Organization Analysis

A lot of opportunities still exist for the rugby union in terms of sponsorship. Proper alignment of the union’s strategies with corporate objectives would lead to improved sponsorships. An injection of cash-back into American rugby would lead to a surge in the number of jointly funded club initiatives that would be practiced in local authorities and rugby unions across the country. This would expand the extensiveness of the game at grass root levels.

More can still be done in promoting Rugby as a fun activity, to add on the efforts of the union in entrenching the sport in grass root communities. Providing quality and fun opportunities for America’s young population is vital for the success and spread of the sport in future. The union also identifies this approach as a backup to investments already done in improving the national team. An increase in community developments would enhance the development structure of the union. In addition, it will increase the opportunities young people might get from the sport and also improve coaching activities in clubs and schools (especially to communities not well acquitted with the sport)

More regional contact should also be established by the organization. This strategy would be easily complimented by school and club volunteers, supported by community club officers. This integration of efforts would create a more formidable force in enhancing the initiatives of the union. Provision of strategies by the union in localized planning and coordinated efforts would therefore lead to national growth and an increase in the participation of the sport (Skinner, 2005).

As an important initiative to improving youth participation, street tournaments should be encouraged by the union. Through this initiative a fun atmosphere can be created on a street or parking lot where youngsters can interact while playing the sport. In this forum, a non-contact version of rugby can be enhanced. A resultant increased uptake of rugby as a viable sport will lead to more club participation in future.

More forums should also be encouraged in exposing rugby to the youth because tournaments already in place are orchestrated for more established athletes. The USA rugby union should therefore create a fun-taster session whereby young people in junior high school and elementary levels can give rugby a try. The sessions should however be characterized with much fun, but skill based so as to command a high participation (Gersick, 1989).

USA Rugby Union has also in the past been noted to isolate women participation from the male participation (Smircish, 1983). Amalgamating the two entities would improve female participation and allow the female rugby faction to be part of an all-inclusive rugby family. It would also seek to portray female participation as an integral part in a rugby club. This initiative would then aim to eliminate the notion that female rugby is a separate entity. In light of a projected growth in the sport, it is high time the USA rugby union bring both male and female rugby factions together. An integrated effort would seek to expressly reflect the community it seeks to attract. It would also seek to appreciate the undivided support the union receives from the population and the community at large. An all-inclusive rugby body would express the participation of different athlete category including men, girls, boys, and women. Integration is therefore the next frontier to which rugby will be enhanced.

As the sport quickly gains popularity there’s more that the union could do to motivate the players in ensuring high performance is maintained. Players should be allowed to scale through ranks in club position. A youth organization should also be formed to educate players especially those playing under 15 –under 18 groups to recondition their lifestyles and give it more strength to sustain the pressures of the game. Nutrition and ball skills should also be emphasized by these groups.

The union is however faced with many threats that plague the effectiveness of its programs. The ageing of players in the game affects the overall performance of the team in that, aged players tend to perform poorer than in earlier years. Age also limits the participation of players in rugby tournaments. The union is therefore faced with the problem of sourcing younger players. This therefore stresses the need for the union to embark on initiatives and programs that would attract young players (Skinner, 2005).

Athlete personality would also affect the overall team building effort in that, when players get international limelight, they might fall into detrimental lifestyle traits that would affect the overall team performance. It is therefore important that the union identifies the need to properly educate players on proper lifestyle trends that would compliment their performance.

Competition is also another great factor that limits the overall performance of the USA rugby union. International rugby tournaments have observed the emergence of small but competitive teams across the globe. These teams include South Africa, Scotland and England. USA rugby union has therefore had to up its efforts in order to compete effectively. The union has therefore had to source effective coaches, invest highly in local rugby initiatives and also source for more funding

The union is also grappling with a strong command of other sporting alternatives in the country. The union would be better placed if it enhanced rugby as a fun activity but other sports such as American football already have a foot-hold in the youth. It would therefore be difficult for the union to realize adequate participation. Negative influence from the community also affects the uptake of the union’s initiatives in that, a good section of the population gets discouraged from stereotypes existing in the community. The portrayal of rugby as a male sport for example would affect female participation.

Cure

Competitive Advantage

In light of the challenges prevailing, the union could incorporate a number of competitive advantages including sourcing for the best coaches through high remuneration from the club. The union could use poaching as a tool to get the best coaches in the market. When coaches are remunerated highly, they would maintain the union, thereby leading to low chances of transfers to other unions. The best players could also be sourced through this method.

Integration would also be a good strategy to help the union become stronger, in light of increasing competition. Integration of the activities between men and women teams would be beneficial in pitting the union as superior to others. The union should also seek to get more funding from corporate sponsors by aligning their activities with the corporations’. Through improved sponsorships, the union would be able to finance its grass root initiatives. With strengthened grass root footing, the union would enjoy long-term sustenance of activities (Willing, 2000).

Strategies

The union should undertake to host rugby challenges around the country in a bid to enhance the sport. The USA rugby together with other rugby organizations should promote various rugby events that could be replicated around the country to promote the sport. The union should also try to market the sport through online means through initiatives that give first timers a chance to try out the game. The rugby union should also undertake efforts to sensitize youth rugby coaches in duplicating the efforts of the union at grass root level.

The USA Rugby Union should also undertake efforts in monitoring and evaluation of the team’s performance to enable it perform well in international tournaments. Exemplary performance would go a long way in increasing the power of rugby in the Nation. However determining the measure of performance and evaluation standards is not a clear task. It would also be easier to manipulate training dosages than carrying out monitoring and evaluation. It would however be beneficial for the Rugby union to carry out effective training and performance programs to help athletes achieve their peak performance (Skinner, 2005).

Funding is also necessary to carry out effective training programs and development initiatives. Getting adequate sponsorship from corporate bodies is however not an easy task considering stringent requirements the union has to reach for proper sponsorship. The union should seek more corporate partnership through a give and take strategy. The union should gain in financial sponsorship and the corporate bodies to gain in advertising of their products or services. This would go a long way in carrying out effective training programs and proper remuneration of athletes. Programs aimed at entrenching the sports at grass root levels also require enough financial support for effectiveness. Sponsorship however depends on performance of the union and in turn, it will mount pressure on proper monitoring and evaluation programs to enhance performance. The success at grass root entrenching programs would also aid in improved performance which will in turn lead to proper sponsorships.

Conclusions

Rugby in the United States is played at levels including high school, International, professional and semi professional. The union should embark on efforts to entrench the sports at grass root levels to secure the continuity and expansion of rugby in national platforms. These efforts would however require the union to formulate proper strategies that can propel the organization into realizing these objectives. These strategies will have to be backed by proper financial support from corporate sponsors. The best way the union could use to secure this financing would be to ensure constant exemplary performance. However more partnerships should be enhanced to increase the level of participation at all levels of the community. Integration of activities between male and female factions would also help to improve the overall standing of the sport in the community. It would also seek to reflect the un-divided support the union has received from the community regardless of gender.

These efforts don’t however go without challenges because the union would have to deal with social stereotypes like rugby being a male dominated sport. Such perceptions limit the participation of females in the sport. However, participation is also limited by other factors such as age of the players but the union could overcome this through entrenching the sport at grass root levels. Players’ lifestyles also affect the overall performance of the teams but the organization could use effective programs to educate players in running their lives in a way that compliments their performance in the sport. If the USA Rugby Union observes these factors, the level of rugby participation would be improved and a subsequent escalation of the sport in the national limelight will be witnessed.

References

Collins, C. (2005) Sport business management in Aotearoa/ New Zealand. London, Thomson Learning Nelson.

Garland, R. (2000) Rugby Fan Attraction Factors. Journal of Sport Management, 13, 78-91.

Gersick, C. (1989) Marking time: predictable transitions in work groups. Academy of Management Journal, 32(2), 274-309.

Granville Management Syndicate. (1984) Rugby league, the management ballgame: research report. Granville College of T.A.F.E.

Hoye, R. (2009) Sports management. London, Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hoye, R. (2010) Sport management: principles and applications. London, Butterworth-Heinemann.

Menke, F. (1944) Encyclopedia of sports. New York, A. S. Barnes and Company.

Mulholland, M. (2008) Beneath the maori moon: an illustrated history of maori rugby. Huia Publishers.

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Skinner, J. (2004) European sport management quarterly modeling organizational. European Sport Management. Quarterly, 4, 77.

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Slack, T. (2004) The commercialization of sport. London, Routledge.

Smircish, L. (1983) Concept of culture and organization analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28(3), 4339-358.

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Willing, J. (2000) Willing’s press guide, Volume 1. Michigan, Willing Service.

Introduction

The Super Bowl is one of the most popular sports in the United States. During major Super Bowl tournaments, it is necessary to tighten the security in order to ensure that all the attendants are safe. As a member of the security team at New Orleans, it is our responsibility to ensure that people are protected from any form of harm. It is only through this security assurance that the public will be convinced that they are safe whenever they attend major sporting events in this country. In order to offer effective security services to the attendants, it is necessary to identify specific segments prone to attacks and identify a unit within the team that will be responsible for managing security in those segments.

Risk Assessment

The security team will be working in different areas to ensure that all the people present in this game are safe. Our team will be responsible for offering security to the Halftime Entertainer in this game. In order to know the best strategy that can be used to offer security, it is necessary to identify the threats that may occur during this event. The following are some of the possible industrial risks that the team will be keen to identify and eliminate as soon as they are detected.

Terror attack

One of the possible attacks that this team will be keen to identify and neutralize is terror attack. Terrorists are now targeting public places to unleash their horror because they consider them soft targets. In order to manage this threat, this team will use drones to monitor any suspicious moves within and outside the arena. The team will also coordinate with an antiterrorism police squad to respond to any threat swiftly.

Cyber attack

Cyber attack is another possible security problem that the entertainer may face in this event. As Miller (2002) says, some of the terrorists have become technologically empowered. They have the capacity to interfere with the entire entertainment system, making it impossible to proceed with the program. To counter such a problem, our team will work with the entertainer to ensure that there is a backup system just in case the main system is breached. The security team will also work with the entertainer in any area that may help limit the possibility of criminals interfering with the system.

Unmanageable crowds

Rowdy and unmanageable crowds may be the biggest threat that the entertainer may face during this event. According to Chaker (2004), during major sports events, large crowds are the major threats that should not be ignored, especially when they get agitated. They can attack the entertainment system for various reasons. This is very common when the supporters of a losing team develop a feeling that the referee was not fair. To manage such eventualities, our team will develop a rapid response unit to help bring order. This team will work together with the police officers.

Electric power manipulation

Sometimes the entertainer may be sabotaged by criminals or ill-minded individuals through interruption of the power system. Our team will have officers at strategic locations within the venue to protect the power system, including the backup power.

Conclusion

It may not be possible to precisely identify possible threats that may occur in this system. However, the threats mentioned above may have a devastating impact if they occur. That is why strategies have been put in place to help in managing them.

References

Chaker, A. (2004). Good governance in sport: A European survey. Strasbourg: MacMillan Publishers.

Miller, D. (2002). Terrorism: Are we ready. Huntington: Nova Science.

Key stages in motor development

Motor skills development is an important issue in all age groups. Utley & Astill (2008) admit that all human fundamental movement skills emerge before a person is born, and certain attention should be paid to the development of skills during first years of life. The stages of motor development are:

1. stage – first two years of life,
2. stage – between two and seven years of age,
3. stage – from seven to puberty,
4. stage – puberty onwards, and
5. stage – postural development.

The session plan under analysis touches upon the third stage as the athletes are under the age of 11. The peculiar features of this stage are the following:

• Children have to elaborate upon the skills which have been already possessed;
• Children should be adapted to a variety of contexts;
• Children and tutors have to cooperate as any changes which take place during this period influence considerably further development of a child.

Types of movement behaviour and skills

There are four types of movement behaviour which have to be recognized:

1. Reflex movement is innate and lasts during the first year of life;
2. Rudimental movement is voluntary and takes place on the basis of predictable sequence;
3. Fundamental movement – is a kind of milestone of childhood development when a number of movement abilities take place.
4. Specialized movements are the types of movements which need to be refined in order to form specific skills appropriate for sport.

Skills which should be developed as also of different types: open (in changing environment) and close (in more or less stable environment), gross (large muscles are involved) and fine (small muscle groups are considered), serial (when skills are formed in order to make a complex movement), discrete (well-defined actions with a clear end and beginning), and continuous (when obvious end and beginning are hard to discover).

In the chosen session plan specialized movements which required the development of open, gross, serial skills are taken into consideration to promote successful training in rugby.

Nature of skills vs. abilities

There are a number of concepts which help to understand a true nature of skills and abilities. Schmidt & Wrisberg (2008) admit that the investigations of Fleishman and Henry have certain similarities as both of them believed that “abilities are independent of each other” (p. 172). Still, it is not always possible to understand how human abilities differ from skills. In fact, any ability is a skill, and any skill is ability. For example, the athletes have the ability to run for 10 rounds in 15 seconds. Such exceptional ability may be considered as a skill. Still, the ability to run cannot be changed, and the chosen skills may be improved. Professional coachers should take into consideration athletes’ abilities and improve the level of activities by means of development athletes’ skills.

Theories of skill development

Learning a new skill or ability is a complex activity, this is why it is better to use a certain theory and the already defined principles to understand properly the required process. Skills development may be characterized by several theories:

1. Fitts and Posner introduce several phases which people have to undergo (cognitive, associative, and autonomous). In the chosen plan, children should focus on the autonomous stage under which they have to continue the same skills in order to use them when it is necessary.
2. Gentile’s motor learning theory is all about the necessity to use specificinstructional technique that may help to learn a new skill.
3. It is also necessary to remember that performance cannot always predict amount of learning, this is why it is necessary to consider a number of variables while talking about the learning parameters and think about constant environment defining performance (Gallahue & Ozmun 2006). Performance is a kind of temporary change in child’s movement behaviour, and learning is a kind of permanent change in child’s movement behaviour.

Scheduling of practice

To choose the session plan properly, it is necessary to consider practice conditions:

1. Random or blocked, still, random activities usually promote better learning and transfer;
2. Whole or part, as a rule, certain attention should be paid to part activities which are considered as the components of the whole;
3. Massed or distributed, where distributed practice is more appropriate as it is short in duration and distributed by child’s efforts because massed practice presupposes few still too long sessions.

Considering the above-mentioned information, our session will be random, part, and distributed.

References

Gallahue, DL & Ozmun, JC 2006, Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Schmidt, RA & Wrisberg, CA 2008, Motor learning and performance: A situation-based learning approach. Human Kinetics, Windsor.

Utley, A & Astill, S 2008, Motor control, learning and development. Taylor & Francis, New York.

Introduction

Sports are an important part of any person’s life. The importance of sports in our lives touches all realms of life with valuable effects on health, psychological welfare, personal development and the like. Sports are specifically important to kids since they aid all aspects of development in children. Importance of sports in children is, therefore, a subject of great concern to parents since some parents may miss the importance of sports in their kid’s lives and deny them to participate in sports. This will make the kids to miss an essential ingredient of their development since with parents who do not value the engagement of their kids in games; it will be difficult for a kid to engage in the same. This paper is an in-depth exploration of the advantages of engaging children in sports at a tender age.

Importance of engaging kids in sports

There are a myriad of advantages that accrue with the engagement of children in sports at a tender age. First of all, the kids get physical practice and thus they are able to engage in other physical activities with ease. This way, the kids also become healthier since they help the children’s bodies to burn excess calories. Games also help kids to unwind after a tedious day at school. They forget all the stresses of school work and enjoy their time in the field. This enables them to relax and go back to school the following day with a refreshed mind which will translate to better performance in school (Pascual 1).

Among the most valuable benefits of engaging kids in games is the fact that the games help to keep the kids occupied and thus the kids will not be idle. This is a very valuable benefit since idleness in kids may have very serious repercussions. These repercussions include succumbing to influence from other kids and also keeping bad company. Idle kids are also prone to development of psychological problems which may prove to be a serious challenge. Such problems include autism which is mostly genetic but which can also be developed by idle children. On the other hand, bad company may make the kids develop undesirable characters like drug abuse at a tender age (Pascual 1).

As stated in the paragraph above, games are a very important part of a kid’s development process. While in the playground, kids learn very important concepts that have a life-long influence on their lives. Some of the skills developed by children in the playground include teamwork, acceptance of failure/defeat, ability to relate well with other people and development of skills for relating empathetically with other people and the like. These skills become very valuable as the kid grows since the kid encounters difficulties in life that he/she solves using skills gained in the playground. Most of these difficulties are social difficulties. The playground is bound to make children develop empathy since in each game there is a winner and a loser. In case the kid loses, he/she will learn how to accept failure (Pascual 1). In case he/she wins, he will learn how to handle success while at the same time being empathetic with other people.

Lastly, some people are highly talented in games and not in other aspects of life like class work and the like. Engaging kids in games therefore ensures that the kids are given a chance to explore their talents and thus they discover what they are highly talented in. This may fill the thin gap between the success and the failure of the kid in life. This is because if the kid is not talented in other things, it is unlikely that he/she will succeed in life, but if the kid is given the chance to discover and develop his/her talent in games, he/she may develop a very successful career in the games (Moss 1). For instance, if a kid is really talented in soccer and lacks other talents, it will be wise to engage the kid in sports and probably make the kid join an academy for the same. This is because soccer is among the best paying professions in the world.

Conclusion

As much as games are important in the lives of children, care must be taken to ensure that kids do not engage in unproductive games. For instance, computer games have been proven to do more harm than good to children. This is because they actually make children develop autistic characteristics and also make them perform poorly in other aspects of their lives like academics. Parents should therefore be extra careful to ensure that their kids are guarded against games that may affect their lives negatively. In the same way, parents should identify games that are bound to aid the development of their kids and facilitate their kids to engage in them. This will ensure that kids reap maximum benefits from their childhood bliss and also ensure that no opportunity for development of game skills is missed since some of these games may turn out to be very lucrative in the course of the life of the child.

References

Moss, Lauralee. “Sport for children”. 2008. Web.

Pascual, Karen. “School Spirit Can Boost Kid’s Health”. 2000. Web.

Introduction

The importance of lactic acid in human body as well as in food, plants, and animals is integral indeed. Several research have been done around lactic acid, its causes, and development in the organism. For a long period of time, lactic acid is behind sensation, therefore it is very important to support the research on different levels and take into consideration various perspectives. In this paper, some projects are based on biotechnological evaluation and the spreading of the bacteria throughout the body. To understand how it is possible to control the chosen compound, it is necessary to identify its causes and strategies with the help of which cessation of buildup is possible.

Research Statement

In this project, the attention to several academic sources will be paid to identify the causes of lactic acid, prove that it may be build up in any muscle after a certain portion of exercises is made, and introduce the strategies like biotechnological interruption or temperature change for cessation of build-up.

Annotated Bibliography

Cairns, S, P. (2006). Lactic Acid and Exercise Performance: Culprit or Friend? Sports Medicine, 36(4), 279-291.

The author of the article is the researchers from the University of New Zealand who try to investigate whether lactic acid determines the level of fatigue within a person. Information helps sportsmen as well as scientists to identify the issues which may influence human behavior and physical conditions. The evaluation of several research conducted at the end of the 1990s and at the beginning of the 2000s shows that lactic acid is only the deviant (Cairns, 2006) that may impair exercise performance. In comparison to other works, the chosen article is based on evidence from the research and may help to evaluate the causes of lactic acid.

Fischer, K., Hoffman, P., Voelkl, S. (2007). Inhibitory effect of tumor cell-derived lactic acid on human T cells. Blood, 109(9), 3812-3819.

The representatives from the department of hematology and oncology introduce their standpoints about the production of lactic acid and correlation between lactate levels in patients with cancers. Such approach differs considerably from other investigations in this paper as much attention is paid to T cells and the impact of lactic acid concentration with the ability to disturb metabolism and functions of the cells. The main finding of the work is all about metabolic pathway in tumors (Fischer et al., 2007) and the possibility to enhance tumor immunogenicity.

Makarova, K & Koonin, E.V. (2007). Evolutionary genomics of lactic acid bacteria. Journal Bacteriology, 189(4), 1199-1208.

Makarova and Koonin work in the sphere of biotechnology, this is why their ideas seem to be a powerful contribution for those who rely on comparative genomic analysis as well as meta-analysis of the chosen compound. In this paper, lactic acid bacteria are associated with such types of surfaces like gastrointestinal tract, milk, fruits, and wine. During their funding, it was discovered that multiple complete genomes may be the main causes of unprecedented conditions and supporters of evolutionary genomics of lactic acid. In comparison to past research, this work touches upon the idea of gene loss and evolution of Lactobacillales in the organism (Makarova & Koonin, 2007). In regard to the chosen topic, this paper helps to predict some new bacteriocins which may be produced by LAB and used as the main factors for cessation of lactic acid build-up.

Makarova, K., Slesarev, A., Wolf, Y., Sorokin, A. (2006). Comparative genomics of the lactic acid bacteria. PNAS, 103(42), 15611-15616.

The achievements of this group of people help to understand how the bacteria that produce lactic acid are associated with different plants and animals and perform the main functions in fermented food production. The peculiar feature of this project is the chosen phylogenetic analysis according to which lactic acid bacteria are defined as the part of class Bacilli. The central trend of the paper is the evolution of LAB due to loss of ancestral genes and a kind of metabolic simplification (Makarova et al., 2006).

Pfeiffer, J, Hort, J., Hollowood, T.A., & Taylor, A. (2006). Taste-aroma interactions in a ternary system: a model of fruitiness perception in sucrose/acid solutions. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics, 68(2), 216+.

Although a number of cross-modal effects are already investigated in the chosen filed, the authors make a decision to study thoroughly taste-aroma-viscosity interactions. And lactic acid is one of the materials chosen for the experiments. Though this research is not based on lactic acid evaluation, its role is integral. It has been identified that samples which are characterized by the chosen compound are not easy to differentiate, it was possible to observe that relative balance of other components is shifted (Pfeiffer et al., 2006). In comparison to other articles where lactic acid is the center of the investigations, this paper helps to identify the impact of the compound on food and other components. The results are helpful for the research: it was proved that the products with lactic acid are sweeter as the chosen compound provides more subtle taste sensation.

Pogacic, T., Kelava, N., Zamberlin, S., & Zamarzija, D. (2010). Method for culture-independent identification of lactic acid bacteria in dairy products. Food Technology & Biotechnology, 48(1), 3-10.

The sphere of food microbiology aims at investigating lactic acid in everyday use, and the authors of this article help the reader to identify the chosen compound in dairy products. The attention to culture-independent molecular tools differentiates this paper from the rest of the sources as the investigations are based on amplification of DNA that is extracted directly from the chosen samples. Taking into consideration the fact that lactic acid is usually observed in milk products, it was educative to define the role of compound cheese microbial community (Pogacic et al., 2010) in the development of lactic acid and to study microbial diversity of compounds thoroughly.

Prakash, E.S. (2008). Lactic acid is/is not the only physicochemical contributor to the acidosis of exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105, 363-367.

The investigations of this senior lecturer help to compare the peculiarities of lactic acid to the peculiarities of lactate. The point is that the use lactic acid is under the question, this is why the promotion of lactate is urgent. This author as no one else investigates metabolic acidosis in cells and makes use of different anerobic conditions which promote the decline of energy charge (Prakash, 2008).

Trontel, A., Barsic, V., & Slavica, A. (2010). Modelling the effect of different substrates and temperature on the growth and lactic acid production by lactobacillus amylovorus DSM 20531_T in batch process. Food technology & Biotechnology, 48(3), 352-361.

The authors of the article are the representatives of the University of Zagreb and contribute the sphere of food technology due to their investigations. This source captures the attention of future and current biologists and chemists as the authors focus on substrate consumption and its changes under different temperatures. In pharmaceutical and chemical industry, lactic acid is one of the most useful compounds. In comparison to other articles in this paper, the authors of this paper evaluate lactic acid from a pure chemical perspective and prove that the successful implementation of the product is predetermined by its friendly environment (Trontel et al., 2010).

Roth, S. (2006). Why does lactic acid build up in muscles? And why does it cause soreness? Scientific American. Web.

In this article, the author focuses attention on lactic acid buildup and its impact on the muscle soreness. Roth is the professor in the department of kinesiology; therefore, the chosen style and approaches should be interesting for the reader of different level. In this work, the evaluation of energy that comes from glucose as well as pyruvate substances and muscle cells is an integral point. Painful sensation makes most people reduce the number of movements and work to pass through the recovery period and clear the body from the lactate (Roth, 2006). This paper helps to understand how lactic acid influence the body and what strategies may be used for cessation of buildup.

Wells, J.M. & Mercenier, A. (2008). Mucosal delivery of therapeutic and prophylactic molecules using lactic acid bacteria. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 6, 349-362.

The author of this article introduces lactic acid as the delivery vehicles that have to be focused on the mucosal vaccine’s development (Wells & Mercenier, 2008). The peculiar feature of this project is that lactic acid is regarded as a part of delivery system with the help of which molecules may be transported through the body. The worth of this paper is all about the therapy with the chosen lactic acid bacteria that is possible in future.

Reference List

Cairns, S, P. (2006). Lactic Acid and Exercise Performance: Culprit or Friend? Sports Medicine, 36(4), 279-291.

Fischer, K., Hoffman, P., Voelkl, S. (2007). Inhibitory effect of tumor cell-derived lactic acid on human T cells. Blood, 109(9), 3812-3819.

Makarova, K & Koonin, E.V. (2007). Evolutionary genomics of lactic acid bacteria. Journal Bacteriology, 189(4), 1199-1208.

Makarova, K., Slesarev, A., Wolf, Y., Sorokin, A. (2006). Comparative genomics of the lactic acid bacteria. PNAS, 103(42), 15611-15616.

Pfeiffer, J., Hort, J., Hollowood, T.A., & Taylor, A. (2006). Taste-aroma interactions in a ternary system: a model of fruitiness perception in sucrose/acid solutions. Attention, Perception and Psychophysics, 68(2), 216+.

Pogacic, T., Kelava, N., Zamberlin, S., & Zamarzija, D. (2010). Method for culture-independent identification of lactic acid bacteria in dairy products. Food Technology & Biotechnology, 48(1), 3-10.

Prakash, E.S. (2008). Lactic acid is/is not the only physicochemical contributor to the acidosis of exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105, 363-367.

Roth, S. (2006). Why does lactic acid build up in muscles? And why does it cause soreness?Scientific American. Web.

Trontel, A., Barsic, V., & Slavica, A. (2010). Modelling the effect of different substrates and temperature on the growth and lactic acid production by lactobacillus amylovorus DSM 20531_T in batch process. Food technology & Biotechnology, 48(3), 352-361.

Wells, J.M. & Mercenier, A. (2008). Mucosal delivery of therapeutic and prophylactic molecules using lactic acid bacteria. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 6, 349-362.

Abstract

This paper describes the various types of endurance sports. Since there are many types of these sports, only a few have been highlighted, and, notably, endurance sports are demanding hence they need a lot of motivation. The main important tool required for success in endurance sport is the dedication to training and proper nutrition. This keeps the athletes in form and fits for the competitions which may take place once a year. It is, therefore, important for the participants to observe these instructions for a promising career in endurance sports.

Introduction

Endurance sports refer to games events that involve an immense deal of staying power, compared to short durations of physical activity. Though endurance sports are not clearly defined and classified, it is possible to tell between non-endurance and endurance sports. A simple example to differentiate between endurance sports is Marathon and short races. It is clearly shown that marathon is an endurance sport when compared to short races. These sports mainly involve individual efforts hence they do not attract much attention as compared to team sports. The sports are also based majorly on motivation and training, unlike other sports mainly based on action hence a wide range of possible results. There are various categories of endurance sports. Discussed below, are part of the categories.

Main body

Ultra marathons are types of endurance sports that involve running longer distances superseding the normal marathon. The normal marathon covers 42.195 kilometers while ultra-marathons cover between 50kilometers and 100 kilometers. This type of endurance sport is categorized into two fields, the first type involves activities carried over a specific distance while the other type involves activities in a particular time. These types of events may take place only once a year but require a lot of exercise and training for fitness and the ability to finish the race (Doyle 67). Ultra marathons are carried out in different forms ranging from cross country races, trail races to multiple loops.

Participation in ultramarathons is associated with harsh challenges mainly during training and competitions. These include competing on gravel roads, sloppy areas, and high mountains of rocky terrains. The main purpose is to bring out the endurance of the competitors and their ability to survive harsh conditions. The harsh conditions are, however, taken care of by the availability of aid locations that offer first aid and provide drinks and food in specific intervals for nutritional value and energy. There are several organizations administering ultra marathons that organize the events and competitions taking place all over the world. This is normally done to ensure the relevance of the sport (Dietmar 49).

Another type of endurance sport is road cycling. The event involves racing bicycles with competitors arranged concurrently. The race aims to complete a particular distance in the shortest possible period. The event is popular all over the world but has its main basis in European countries. This sport involves cycling over long distances. The most common type of this sport is coast-to-coast cycling without stop over’s. The competitors normally compete for almost 3000 miles without stopping (Dietmar 46).

This race lasts for almost seven days hence requires a lot of endurance. The winner of the competition is determined by crossing over the line of completion. However, the sports are more aerobic and need lots of tactics to win the race. The races, just like the ultra marathons need extensive endurance since there are harsh hurdles in the course of the competition. This entails riding up on mountainous regions, steep slopes and sharp bens. This enables competitors to show their skills hence lean advantage over the weaker racers.

Ultra man, also known as triathlon forms another event of endurance sports. The sport involves three sporting activities including running, bicycle competitions, and swimming which take place respectively until competitors are through at a specified time. The winners of these events are defined by covering most of the events and completion in the given time. The specified requirements of triathlons vary according to different organizations but share the same logic.

Success in this sport is achieved by extensive efforts in training all the events amounting to the competition and proper conditioning. Similar to other endurance sports, the rules for triathlon vary in different countries and different organizations. However, the standard distances used in Olympics 1.5/40/10 in the order of swimming, riding and running respectively. Iron man is a type of triathlon governed by the WTC.

Conclusion

Endurance sports require proper nutrition and exercise to enhance the participant’s performance. Proper nutrition rules dictate that an endurance sport athlete should balance the water intake. This is because the water intake may affect his competing ability due to overhydration (Eberle 33). The athletes should also use foods with complex carbohydrates to get appropriate amounts of calories. To enhance the performance of athletes, consumption of proteins should be avoided during long periods of training. This reduces the recovery time after training sessions and competitions, decreases soreness and keeps the athletes more healthy (Doyle 65).

Nutrition is an important tool for endurance sports athletes. There are many categories of endurance sports with different requirements of nutrients to the body. These sports also require dedication and motivation to keep fit for the competition though they are very few competitions of these events. The competitions are demanding and need extra time for training to enable proper fitness for participation in competition without suffering from fatigue.

Works cited

Dietmar, Luchtenberg. Supplementary Training for Endurance Sports: Optimize Performance – Avoid Overloading. California: Meyer & Meyer Verlag, 2007. Print.

Doyle, Dunford. Nutrition for Sport and Exercise, London: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. Print.

Eberle, Suzzanne. Sports nutrition. New York: Human Kinetics, 2007. Print.

Variety of values in forms of physical activity, sports and exercises in health promotion are acknowledged throughout the entire universe. The important findings were that human beings engaged in regular physical activities consider themselves as having personal growth, more autonomy, positive relations with others, self-acceptance, and sports competence; these are the qualities of much benefit to them. Hockey payers look at themselves as having a lot of positive relations with sports competence than others. The importance of these applications for health, findings, psychological sports research and interventions have been widely discussed.

The importance of this study was determined by the relationship between physical activity level and the domain. A high school student of about one hundred and sixty-seven pound, a male and a female about a hundred and one pound, from the western United States aged between 13 to 18 participated in the study. Pedometers was used for collection of the levels of the physical activity which was relevantly correlated with skills and body attractiveness (p <, 02). Quartile analysis of mean step count was relevantly higher PSW. Through the summary, the study showed that PA levels did not show a significant relationship with GSW.

Introduction

In the year 1946, World Health Organization’s research brought recognition of perceiving health not only as psychological state but the absence of illness. Nevertheless, mental health magnetizes components of physical, psychological, and social well being.

In recent years most investigators in the area of sports and exercise psychology have been working with fox and cabin (1989), as well as hierarchical model of physical concept. The use of Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) is largely applied to measure self-evaluation in the physical domain and is supported in a wide range of samples from table 1. The aim of this research was to examine the factor structure of PSPP and its invariance across genders. The number of campus students was 315, the number of males 131 and females 184. The expletory factors prove that PSPP assessed four aspects of physical self-concept. But the analysis confirmation only provided partial support of the male sample. According to the factorial invariance analysis, there were differences on the latent constructs of PSPP between male and female students.

Table 1: PSPP Items Scored

Subdomains affect concepts or self-perception at levels in hierarchy – affecting the first PSW and GSW. (March & Shavelson, 1985).

Through the history of education and social psychology, the importance of self-concept as a major determinant of behaviour has been largely witnessed. Since the year 1890 James was the first person to note the importance of self-concept in his original work. James published documents of studies regarding the nature of self-concept and their relation to another construct. Thus, the status of a person’s self-concept or perception of ability either enhances or diminishes the person’s desire to associate or continue associating in an activity. White (1959) proposed that self-concept relates with basic mastery of competence motive that impels the individual to participate in mastery attempts.

During the last decades, however, there has been a common agreement amongst researchers that self-concept is a multifaceted, hierarchical, and dynamic construct. An extensive review came with the findings that self-concept structure is a melted tensional and hierarchical, especially in findings with academic self-concept, social self-concept, emotional self-concept and physical self-concept considered as second-order factors.

In recent years most investigators in the area of sports and exercise psychology work with Fox and Cabin (1989), and hierarchical model of physical concepts.

Validity of PSPP was obtained by successfully predicting the physically active and inactive students as well as the low and highly active students with 70-75% accuracy (Cabin and Fox, 1989).

Age and gender differences in self-concept also need to be investigated in substantive research (Marsh, 1994). The most extensively examined topic among sports exercises is the gender difference. A result of this investigation shows that males have higher esteems of physical self-worth, sports competence and strength than females (White Head, 2005, Marsh 1988, Cubing 1997). On the other hand, ladies have a strong opinion on physical appearances compared to gents. However, a few researchers have employed separate findings analysis and compared the psychometric of the measured constructs across groups.

From the conflict findings, the relationship research between physical self-worth warranty and PA is said to be effectively powerful and has a strong domain within hierarchal structure of GSW (Fox & Corbin, 1989; Raustorp, Stahle, Gudasic H, Kinnunen, & Mattson, 2005; Kowalski, Crocker, Kowalski, Chad, & Hubert, 2003)

The youth were tested for PSPP, college students and adolescents and showed reliable and valid results in testing physical self-perception (Asci, F., Asci, A., & Zorba, E. 1999; Raustorp et al., 2005; Fox & Corbin, 1989).

Methodology

The number of participants was 315 (131 males and 184 females) present in the study who were undergraduate students enrolled in similar fitness and wellness courses at Midwestern universities. The students selected this course as an elective to fulfil one of their general requirements. During this course, these students were introduced to topics dealing with the components of physical fitness, the effects of exercise on well-being, management of weight, eating disorders, drug and alcohol effects, etc

In the instrumentation part, there are 30 items contained in the physical self-perception profile (PSPP; Fox and Corbin, 1989) which are written using Hater’s (1992) structured an alternative format that is designed to minimize the tendency towards socially desirable feedback. These instruments consist of four subscales (sports competence, physical conditions, attractive body, and physical strength) and one common scale (physical sell worth). Each category consists of items in which participants are presented with two different descriptions (those with attractive bodies and those with unattractive bodies) and they were asked which of the descriptions fits them and whether the description selected was half or totally true about them.

In the analysis part, the exploratory analysis factor was established in order to identify the important factors among the variables of the PSPP. The principal analysis component was done using oblique rotations. Through the second face of the analysis, a confirmatory factor analysis was done to test the four factors of the PSPP for both males and females. In the last phase, the invariance factorial of the PSPP was tested with the multiple-option group of the LISREL program.

In the results, the total participants (n = 167) included 101 (60%) females and (40%) 66 males. The steps for females were 10,095 and 9,990 for males. From most studies, findings revealed that girls demonstrate higher activity levels than boys. The age of participants was 14.9 that consisted of 119 freshmen, 39 sophomores, and 9 juniors/ seniors.

Physical level activity showed a small positive but relevant correlation to Physical self-worth (r=0.19, p=0.01). But PA didn’t show any correlations over global self-worth. The Quartile analysis counts the mean steps to confirm a relevantly lower PSW in the bottom quartile as contrasted to the top three quartile.

The 12 levels physical activity, PSW and GSW were compared to the first quartile. The leaner adjusted regression model predicts an increase similar in PSW scores for the second (=2.24, p=0.01), 3^rd (=2.29, p=0.01) and the fourth quartile ( p=0.02, =2.07) contrasted to the first quartile. No relevant differences were found between GSW quartiles.

Table 2: The PIP Variance

Table 3: The PSW Correlation Variance

Discussions

The importance of this study was to show the relationship between feelings of global self-worth and physical self-worth. Hypothesis of this is partially supported in the analysis showing positive relations of PA to one’s PSW ideas. The physical activity was correlated as stronger with skill and body attractiveness. The adjusted regression models showed PA to be related to PSW through the 4 subdomains, and most attractively through body attractiveness and skills. The physical activity was determined by a variable mediated of PSW through the 4 subdomain and could not have an exact effect on PSW by itself.

Body, skill attractiveness, fitness, conditioning and strength accounted for a 68 per cent of the variance total of PSW. Body attractiveness accounted for a 42 per cent over the entire half variance, giving more concrete evidence that physical self-perception is strongly linked in teenagers to their appearance in body. Self-physical perceptions of males and females was highly correlated to the body appearance and therefore body mass indexes, BMI, implied that teenagers today link physically.

As expected self physical worth is strongly correlated with relevantly all subdomains. Male fitness and conditioning is (r=64) and female body attractiveness (r=80), while male PSW was higher in correlation to body attractiveness (r=69) and sill (r+61). Attractiveness of body contributed to 42 per cent of the total variance, while conditioning and fitness, skill and strength accounted for a 10, 6, and 3 per cent.

Bibliography

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Fox, K. R., & Corbin, C. B. (1989). The physical self-perception profile: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11,408 – 430.

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McMillan, S. C., & Small, B. J. (2007). Nutritional Health in Sports.Oncology Sports Forum, 34(2), 313-21.

Introduction

Marketing has become an important aspect of this information age. This project focuses on the successful World cup bid that was in favor of Qatar. The world governing football body FIFA normally allows for bids so that the highest bidder or country hosts the World cup competition. The World Cup 2022 is to be hosted in Qatar for the first time. This will be an ample opportunity for businessmen to invest in Qatar during the competitions. This paper focuses on the Qatar World Cup bid by taking a look at the World Governing body FIFA. The paper will also investigate and analyze the probable promotional campaign medium such as brochures, posters among others. The paper then concludes by analyzing the target market and how the promotional materials will affect the target market. This discussion is tied to FIFA’s mission and objectives.

Background Information

In 2007, FIFA finalized its policy of continental rotation making African and South American countries disqualified for 2018 and 2022. FIFA World Cup bidding process for the year 2022 started in March 2009. The governing body received a total of eleven bids from close to thirteen countries. All the bids from Europe were canceled while other countries like Indonesia had their bid canceled for inadequate backing from the government and Mexico withdrew due to financial constraints. The hotly contested bidding process had voting rights taken away from two FIFA committee members due to allegations of bribery.

The final success of Qatar winning the World cup is seen by many people as a boost to the nation’s economic and financial growth of the country. Marketing becomes an important aspect during this competition since the world cup is a world competition that brings several countries together. FIFA is governed by the FIFA Congress, the Executive committee, and the standing committee. The governing body must ensure that the competition is well marketed. In an interview with the FIFA president, he cited several factors that must be considered for a country to be considered. These include the number of stadiums and their capacities, finances, government support, security, and other social amenities.

The Organization

The purpose of this plan is to create investment opportunities in Qatar during the year 2022 by putting in place the right promotional materials so that a large number of people can attend the world cup competitions in Qatar. The objectives of FIFA are to organize the world cup competitions in a free and fairway, to analyze the different technologies to be employed during the competitions, and the planning how the competitions will be promoted throughout the world.

Promotional Campaign

After the successful bids, Qatar has a very challenging task of promoting the world cup competition with the help of the FIFA governing council so that the competition succeeds. Jobber (2001) argues that a successful promotion plan should assess all the opportunities available for communication, the channels of communication to use, the objectives to use, the message to pass across, the budget to work with, and the campaign effectiveness. Several promotional materials are suitable for this competition.

The market for the world cup competitions grows from one season to another. This is because many countries have incorporated football as the main game for both the young and the adults. It remains that though the majority of the people may not be actively involved in playing the game, a large percentage of people like watching the game. A proper marketing plan is essential since the whole world has a role to play in the competition. The larger part of the promotions will be done using posters, websites, and brochures.

Brochures

A professional design of brochures for this competition is a good investment for FIFA since it will conceptualize the demands of the fans of the games. Brochures can post FIFA to a world of professionalism where their profile is well illustrated. The designing of brochures needs the designer to capture the psychology of the target market. The brochures are not overcrowded since in the world of designing brochures, the lesser the contents, the more the design of the brochure. Large fonts have been used to pull the attention of the audience. It is possible for someone who is far away to be attracted so that he can pay attention and capture the message. The message is clear, sporty, and takes into consideration the customer’s mind.

Posters

This material is used to capture a larger audience at a very little cost within a very short period. Research on the kind of players the fans will be looking for, favorite countries to lift the trophy and the audience must be considered. Diversification while using posters is a very important practice. The posters should be used in different places and different designs for posters used, messages varied, offers included, and other techniques included so that the posters are noticeable and clear in the customer’s mind. Striking colors are used to create a relaxed mood.

Websites

This is a very important promotional material for FIFA. Internet use has changed the way different companies reach their markets (Dinan, 2000). A large population can be reached through several channels that promote football, the blog spaces, and the social websites available through the internet. The FIFA website shall form the main location for the information concerning the World cup. Other websites are to be created to solve different issues and create a market for other activities during the business. Balanced fonts should be used and dull colors should be avoided.

Market Target

FIFA and other business partners spend a lot of resources on analyzing the existing market in readiness for the Qatar world cup. The changing needs of the target population are studied, the existing opportunities to be exploited, and the market trends. The market size must be analyzed so that the necessary evaluations can be made on the market based on the previous world cups and the customer surveys. The market for the competition is growing at an alarming rate with the games aiming for popularity across the world. Distribution channels are also important since they reach a larger market. The existing channels, emerging channels, and channel power can be embraced with the recent technology so that a larger percentage of customers can be reached. The use of images of footballers with a good reputation in football makes it possible to be identified by the targeted market. The messages passed are aimed at communicating a message that all the people throughout the world should come to Qatar and have an experience of football. This will help the organization to reach a very large number of clients.

Conclusion

Bidding for the World cup is a sign of success once a country wins the bid. Qatari has a responsibility of studying the market so that the information about the world cup can be reached. For the success of this world cup, FIFA and other football governing bodies should ensure that they produce the right promotional materials so that a clear message can be communicated and draw a larger number of fans and other interested parties. These include nations, individuals, and corporate who want to invest in the World cup in Qatar.

References

Dinan, C. (2000). Social Marketing and Sustainable Tourism – is there a Match? International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(2): 1-14.

Jobber, D. (2001). Principles and Practice of Marketing. New York: McGraw Hill.

Introduction

Weather conditions define the level and quality of life considerably in both, positive and negative, ways. That is why when the topic of the effects of extreme weather conditions on athletes training is raised, it is wrong to consider only positive or only negative aspects. It is more important to focus on the changes and needs that have to be admitted by athletes and those, who are involved in a training process. Athletes have to understand that many sporting events are held in unfavorable conditions (Maughan et al., 2010) and be ready for the environmental changes to succeed in training and achieve the required results. Athletes have to pay attention to choosing sports clothing, equipment, and even the time for training in order to develop various strategies as hydration, cooling interventions, or heat acclimatization to protect themselves and understand how to cope with the challenges created by nature.

Benefits

Heat acclimatization is the strategy that can help the athletes’ body to adapt to the hot environment and understand how to improve performance. The intensity and duration of training should be properly defined. Guy, Deakin, Edwards, Miller, and Pyne (2015) admit that 100 min of training per day in the heat is usually enough for athletes. At the same time, athletes should realize that as soon as weather conditions are getting worse (hotter), they have to reduce an amount of clothes and control the amount of equipment that can be allowed. A choice of an appropriate strategy is a chance for an athlete to avoid negative results of the heat on a human body. It has been proved that short-term heat adaptation protocols can be used by athletes to be satisfied with the activities that should be performed and the results that should be achieved (Guy et al., 2015).

Challenges

At the same time, the heat in sports may be characterized by a number of negative aspects that every athlete should know. For example, as any person in the world, an athlete may suffer from heat strokes or hypothermia caused by a too high temperature. It happens that some sportive events are canceled because of extreme weather conditions. Besides, the heat is the reason for athletes and their coaches to think about such strategies like hydration or cooling interventions to be protected against the possibility of harmful effects of weather conditions (Maughan et al., 2010). In spite of the fact that athletes are usually time-poor (Guy et al., 2015), they need to spend their priceless time on adaptation or isolation. It is one of the main challenges any athlete should be ready for. At the same time, athletes should realize that they are challenged not only physically but also psychologically.

Conclusion

In general, training in extreme weather conditions has to be properly organized regarding athletes’ possibilities, time, and equipment. To succeed in the chosen kind of sport, it is not necessary to sacrifice personal health. It is more effective to think about an appropriate strategy and realize what kind of work is better in a particular situation. Athletes’ adaptation to hot weather is not a new topic. However, with time, people are able to introduce more effective and captivating strategies to overcome weather challenges, choose the necessary clothes, equipment, and time, and organize training activities in the best possible way.

Reference List

Guy, J.H., Deakin, G.B., Edwards, A.M., Miller, C.M., & Pyne, D.B. (2015). Adaptation to hot environmental conditions: An exploration of the performance basis, procedures and future directions to optimize opportunities for elite athletes. Sports Medicine, 45(3), 303-311.

Maughan, R.J., Shirreffs, S.M., Ozgunen, K.T., Kurdak, S.S., Ersoz, G., Binnet, M.S., & Dorak, J. (2010). Living, training and playing in the heat: Challenges to the football player and strategies for coping with environmental extremes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(3), 117-124.