The Fourth Great Awakening has occurred recently and had an immense impact on American society; its grounds are crises of the 20th century and rising Native American religious consolidation.
Great Awakenings is a series of episodes in the United States history that led to the abrupt rise of religious feelings among the population. Awakenings are different from revivals that are organized by protestants, as they concern the matters of cultural rebirths (McLoughlin xiii). The three Awakenings preceding the 20th century have served as the constitutes of Early American identity formation. The Fourth Awakening is a controversial issue for scholars; it was marked by increasing believers after World War II and Vietnam War, as well as the recent Native Indian confederation.
The new wave of Awakening in the US occurred in the post-war period. People started to criticize Liberalism and participate in the organization like Youth for Christ after World War II (McLoughlin 187). Beat generation of poets were interested in Oriental religions and philosophies, introducing the new cultural element to American society (McLoughlin 202). Vietnam War, as a disastrous episode in the history of the US, produced numerous protests that were connected to religious prominence (McLoughlin 202). The events led to the synthesis of the traditional beliefs with imported cultures, being fixed in the minds of the generation that lived at the end of the 20th century.
Recently, the Indian Americans started practicing their native religion publicly. The Indian Americans regained the freedom of worship and now can exercise Peyote ceremonies (Barry-Bratcher). The Native American Church united various tribes and nations, obtaining numerous adherents (Barry-Bratcher). The cultural identity of the American Indians is in the process of restoration while their religion consolidated them, awakened the spirit of traditions of the yore.
The modern century culture of the United States is formed by the occurred Forth Awakening; meanwhile, the American Indians are currently entering the early stage of the similar movement.
McLoughlin, W. G. Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform (Chicago History of American Religion). Edited by M E Marty, Paperback edition, The University of Chicago Press, 1980.
The paradigm of communication between a patient and a nurse, to secure positive outcomes, should exist far beyond the discussion of one’s health condition and treatment options. The notion of care encompasses various aspects of interaction with a patient, including one’s emotional response to health status. Such a process is known as spirituality, or one’s ability to seek life’s purpose and answers through the connection to the universe.
When thinking of personal perception of spirituality, the most relevant definition of spirituality will be based on Christina Puchalski’s definition. It states that the phenomenon of spirituality exists beyond religious affiliation and describes the processes of people finding meaning in life through connections with the moment, oneself, and the environment (Ferrell et al., 2020a). Since 2014, the notion of integral spiritual care has been acknowledged as a significant contributor to the quality and meaningful palliative care, whereas some scholars promote the implementation of spirituality to all aspects of medical care (Ferrell et al., 2020b). Such a conception of spirituality, while focusing on the process of connectedness, plays a critical role in terms of nursing care.
Spirituality has been proven to positively affect patients’ well-being in several ways. First, spirituality has helped patients tolerate both physical and emotional demands for an illness (Rachel et al., 2019). Second, it is capable of decreasing stress levels, pain, and negative emotions associated with the health condition. Finally, spirituality positively affects the patients’ satisfaction with treatment and hospital stay, as they feel more connected to the personnel and, thus, confide in nurses (Rachel et al., 2019). Hence, it may be concluded that the perception of spirituality as one’s connection with the outer world in the pursuit of life purpose influences patient care considerably. Indeed, nurses are to pay more attention to patient’s emotional responses to any health condition and treatment.
Ferrell, B. R., Handzo, G., Picchi, T., Puchalski, C., & Rosa, W. E. (2020b). Spiritual care in the global sphere. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 60(6), e28-e29.
Dr. Gutierrez’s definition of a godly person does not differ from what I have always thought of because even in the past I have seen people live by the word of God and have obeyed it at all times. This is because persons that I see as godly are always ready to help other people during hard times. These people also know the holy bible and quote it with ease to signify that they have lived and practiced the word of God and they believe every word in the bible. These people depict the images of God because of the actions that they do and how they carry themselves in society. To be godly one needs to reflect God’s procedures and will. However, it is not easy to live a godly life due to the temptations that people face in life.
In chapter 3, I found the discussion about changing our ways so that we can appear holy in the eyes of God intriguing and very thoughtful. I chose to discuss this point. When I decided to make Jesus my savior I had a lot of difficulties because I did not have the kind of friends that are desired to live a virtuous life. They also did not embrace that I had changed my ways in life. I had to seek new friends who helped me to grow spiritually and I have to admit it was very difficult.
In chapter 4, I found the discussion about loving people and living in society as family thoughtful. I chose to discuss this point because I have come to realize that even in Christianity there are differences among Christians which are brought about by wealth and this is not how people are supposed to co-exist. We find that those with resources want to associate among themselves while those without are left out of major activities that are beneficial to everyone.
In chapter 5, I found the discussion about communicating with God interesting. I chose to discuss this point because I believe that every one of us has a purpose in life and it is upon us to discover what the purpose is. We need to communicate with God more so that he can give us answers to our questions. We need to ask God for directions and it is only then that he can grant us whatever we desire in life as long it is pleasing in his eyes. We also need to have time to talk to God and not make it a one-day thing. We also need to be patient with God to answer our prayers because he is faithful.
This book will change my future attitude by helping me be positive about life and see hard times as pillars to help me grow in faith and spirit. It will also help me grow emotionally so that I can develop a healthy spirituality. Spirituality will help me create a good relationship with God and also help me to know when God is communicating to me. A positive attitude will discourage me from judging others due to their actions because people do various actions for different reasons and also only God can decide whether their actions are right or wrong. It will also help me to seek forgiveness to other people and from God when my actions have hurt people’s feelings or when I feel that my actions have been wrong.
An individual sentence in the passage has a slightly different main point. In the first sentence of the prayer, Saint Paul explains why he bows his knees before the Father and how God would present each believer with the love they deserve. This love surpasses knowledge, and it is everywhere around every person. The second sentence explains that every person should go to Him and His Church to pray and show their love to God. The main point can be located accurately through a phrase – ‘God’s love is a universal force’. However, to fathom the verses’ full meaning and power, one needs to read the whole passage and try to grasp it by themselves.
The passage was included in the biblical book because it is a direct prayer aimed at God and understanding His love’s power. The purpose of this prayer was to uncover the passion He feels for humanity and how his love exceeds human knowledge. Moreover, Paul wanted Ephesus’s people to believe and attend the Church to regard the Gospel’s power (Goodspeed, 45, 2020). Since the saint was in a Roman prison at the time, he desired to save as many people as he could and bring them to God and His mercy. Paul wanted Ephesians to atone for their sins and ascend in God’s love as true Christians.
Considering the spiritual claims, the text makes upon its original readers, Paul promises them that God will dwell in their hearts through faith. Furthermore, they will be able to comprehend a fraction of His love for humanity. Considering that it is hard to imagine that Ephesians would write a response to Paul, it is left to the imagination to fantasize what their reaction would be. Christian people of Ephesus are most likely to feel the lift in their spirits forasmuch as Paul’s attention would bless them. At the same time, those, who drowned in disbelief, would most likely give their hearts in faith to God.
Bibliography
Goodspead, Edgar J. 2020. The Key to Ephesians. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers.
Like Christ said in Matthew 28:19, make Me disciples from the world; we are tasked to accomplish His assignment. This paper documents a program, Grounded to Worship, with the objective of focusing on people from Orania, South Africa, for kingdom growth and spiritual awakening by promoting individual and corporate prayer. Unlike many other African countries, South Africa is unique because it contains Afrikaans and Anglos groups with entirely different cultures (Wolff et al., 2017). Afrikaans practice high-context culture, while Anglos are known for practicing low-context culture. For this plan, Orania is selected because it is dominated by Afrikaans associated with high context culture, which places a higher value on relationships, tolerance for ambiguity, collectivism, and high power distance (Hornikx & Le Pair, 2017). For Gospel ministers, outlining and understanding ministry location, as well as the culture of the inhabitants, is crucial.
Activities
Once on the venue, the ministry will involve some pre-determined activities, outlined as follows:
The ministers will link prayer and evangelism through small group lessons and sermons. It is essential to connect prayer sessions to preaching in every meeting because it is the only way ministers will pass the main message to the audience.
Ministers will structure corporate prayer time for every ministry group, small group, and corporate experience. Scheduling every prayer session will be necessary, as it will prevent confusion, over-coverage, and under-coverage in every session.
Ministers will provide resources and training on the use of corporate kingdom-focused prayer, and this will be one for all small group classes.
Intercessors and prayer groups, including deacons, students, congregational care, will be identified and roles allocated to each to prevent confusion.
Components of the Ministry
Ministry planners play a pivotal role in outlining ministry components. The elements of Orania’s ministry are prayers and evangelism. From a prayer perspective, the targeted audience will be required to establish their identity as praying individuals by regularly participating in all kinds of prayers, including group, personal, or corporate prayers (Salisbury, 2018). The ministers will also be expected to crown daily meetings with messages related to the theme of the ministry, Grounded to Worship. In particular, the evangelism message will awaken the audience to actively pray while seeking God’s will for themselves and others, including praying for family members and friends.
Target Groups
Gospel has been ministered to four groups of audience in the past and today. The first group of people consists of those who love scriptures and prophesies of God. These are people who are likened to the Jews and like listening to one of their own. In Orania, the target audience comprises men and women, young and old individuals, well-informed on biblical knowledge or lacking the knowledge of God. It is important to have a combination of believers and non-believers in the Gospel ministry since each of them has a role to play (Davies & Thate, 2017). These individuals resemble Romans, and they need God who can powerfully meet their deepest needs.
Those who are knowledgeable biblically are vital because they will guide individuals who lack it. The essentiality of targeting children, youths, and adults is that everyone is called on to preach the Gospel irrespective of age.
The Implementation of Each Component
Aforementioned, in this ministry, two components are to be accomplished, namely praying and evangelism. The targeted audience will be expected to establish their identity as a praying team by participating in a group, individual, or corporate prayer from a prayer perspective. In addition, the number of prayer groups and intercessors will be increased regularly, everyone will be expected to pray for people they are connected to, and monthly prayer guides will be distributed to the team. From an evangelism point of view, ministers will be expected to break down the message into aspects such as praying ceaselessly, praying for friends, and praying for family members. Generally, the targeted audience would be encouraged to pray regularly by practicing practically or through scripture readings.
Host Country Receptive Conduct
Due to cultural differences, it is difficult for a minister from one culture to adapt faster and preach the Gospel in another culture. In this ministry, most ministers are American nationals by birth. As missionaries at Orania, leadership mistakes can stem from the mismatch between leaders’ background culture and Orania’s cultural expectations. For example, most ministers are expected to come from North America, where a low context culture is dominant, hence contradicting the host culture (Smedley & Smedley, 2018). As Hornikx and Le Pair (2017) stated, a low-context culture is characterized by a low tolerance for ambiguity, task orientation, avoidance of interpersonal relationships, and individualism. Ideally, addressing Afrikaans can be a challenging task because they continuously form new relationships as well as tolerate ambiguity and teamwork.
The only way to minister successfully in such a conflicting culture is by adopting cultural flexibility, whereby the ministers will shift leadership styles with changes in culture. However, ministers need to practice cultural flexibility in moderation to avoid cultural relativism in the ministry (Togarasei, 2017). A blend of cultural dynamism and biblical facts will be required to convey a successful Gospel message.
Assessment of the Fitness of the Plan
Fitting into a strange culture can be a difficult thing for ministers than can be expected. As a result, ministers are expected to be responsive to cultural differences during ministries since it enables them to embrace a suitable leadership style for a particular culture. The program documented here is a good fit for individuals informed or uninformed about scriptures because it takes care of their needs. Due to the existing minor disparities, as suggested by Serrano (2018), ministers need to flex their leadership styles to fit every audience group. Gospel ministers must adapt their teachings to the contextual culture.
References
Davies, D. J., & Thate, M. J. (2017). Religion and the individual: Belief, practice, and identity. MDPI-Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. St. Alban-Anlage 66 Basel, Switzerland.
Wolff, H. E., Maseko, P., Kaschula, R. H., Anthonissen, C., & Antia, B. E. (Eds.). (2017). Multilingualism and intercultural communication: A South African perspective. NYU Press.
The book “Practicing Greatness: 7 Disciplines of Extraordinary Spiritual Leaders” written by Reggie McNeal is a clear and accessible explanation of the path, purpose and challenges of being a spiritual leader. The author breaks down the practice of spiritual leadership to seven main elements. They are the disciplines of self-awareness, self-management, self-development, mission, decision making, belonging, and aloneness. The author notes that only practicing all of these disciplines may one achieve success at spiritual leadership and become an outstanding guide for those in need of guidance.
McNeal starts stating that to become a truly noticeable leader one automatically becomes a celebrity and that being well-known and being humble can go together without excluding each other. The author describes the discipline of self-awareness as the leader’s quest towards understanding of the self without which the leader would face multiple hazards likely to undermine their authority.1
Self-awareness provides the leader with confidence, purpose, values and recognition of success, and is a foundation for all the other elements of spiritual leadership.2 Self-management is composed of such sub-elements as expectations, emotions and emotional maturity, temptations, and financial management. The true leader is not to block their emotions or deny them, but to own them.3
Expectations also need management because otherwise one will inevitably face disappointment. Self-development stands for constant growth and improvement of the leader. This quality is highly important as only a progressive leader can provide wise guidance and address the needs of their followers. Besides, the leader is to be able to view their mission clearly and be able to make wise decisions. These two elements come hand in hand as they are the foundation of clever planning.
The discipline of aloneness represents the impact solitude makes on a spiritual leader, the clarity and confidence it brings. Each of the seven leadership elements is illustrated with the help of examples from the Bible, the remarkable leaders described there, their decisions, challenges, and views. The author concludes that the combination of the seven disciplines allows a leader to achieve greatness and become blessed by their followers, colleagues, friends, family, and by God.4 The great leaders are honored to partner with God and lead, yet being a great leader requires a lot of endurance, courage, strength, and determination.
Concrete Response
The part that touched me the most was the one about the discipline of aloneness and how it contributed to the spiritual greatness of the well-known leaders such as Moses, Paul, and Jesus.5 It has triggered a very distinct memory of my own experience of aloneness. Some time ago I found myself in an ultimate turmoil. Everything in my life seemed like a huge stress – I had issues with my family members, my friends and I had a lot of misunderstandings, a conflict after a conflict kept occurring at work.
The hardest part of it all was that even though many people were hurting me at that time, I could not find courage to speak up and engage into a dialogue, I would just silently suffer through the conflicts and let others attack me while inside I was screaming with frustration. Then, all of a sudden, I fell sick. I had rather bad tonsillitis which made me unable to speak. I had been in pain for days, yet I still consider that sickness a blessing because it gave me the precious aloneness. I lived in total silence and absence of human contact for at least ten days.
As a result, I got a lot of free time to think about my issues, analyze, write down my insights, read spiritual literature and find answers. One of the books contained an idea that when someone constantly gets angry and frustrated, but fails to let these emotions go, they start accumulating inside a person’s throat and may cause a throat disease. My tonsillitis seemed to fit this description perfectly. My ten days of silence helped me re-evaluate my relationships with family, friends and coworkers, so when I came back to my normal life I felt like a different person, stronger, calmer and more confident.
Reflection
What bothers me about the ideas presented in the book is the contradiction between the two of the disciplines serving as elements of greatness. They are aloneness and belonging. If the spiritual leader is the person that belongs to their family, friends, followers, and team; then how is he or she supposed to find aloneness? Besides, would not it be selfish for the leader who is needed by so many people to walk away and focus on self-search? On the other hand, does the leader ever actually belong? It seems like the leader is most of the time alone when it comes to making decisions, visualizing issues, planning for the future, solving problems.
The leader may have an excellent team, yet all of the responsibilities lie on the leader alone and nobody else. Finally, in theory, the list of the elements making a great spiritual leader seems rather universal and applicable to the leaders of other spheres. Yet, practically, it does not look like the discipline of belonging is practiced by any of the non-religious contemporary leaders as all of them are mainly focused on self-development, so I wonder if this selfless criteria simply does not survive in the leaders of other fields because their self-management does not include the element of temptation management since this mainly is viewed as a part of religious practice and is not appreciated outside of it.
Action
This reading and assignment helped me realize a number of things about myself. First of all, I came to a conclusion that my contribution to the society as well as my level of serving is very minor these days. To address this issue and make a change I plan to engage into volunteer work. I am considering starting to assist at an animal shelter or find a way I can help people in need on the regular basis.
I used to be involved in a number of volunteer practices some time ago, but lately things changed, my contribution minimized, so now I feel like I could do more for the world around. The second aspect the reading pointed out to me is the importance of self-management and the development of emotional maturity. As for my action in this direction, I plan to train myself to be present to what I say, how I react to situations, my communication with others, even my thoughts. I plan to add more critical thinking, but dial down the criticism and judgment.
Bibliography
McNeal, Reggie. Practicing Greatness: 7 Disciplines of Extraordinary Spiritual Leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006.
Footnotes
Reggie McNeal. Practicing Greatness: 7 Disciplines of Extraordinary Spiritual Leaders (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006).
Spirituality is a complex concept that has a unique meaning to each individual. I would define it, in the general sense, as an abstract aspect that recognizes the feelings or beliefs regarding the presence of something more than human that cannot be defined by sensory parameters, either within ourselves or around us. Spirituality is present in all people, in one way or another. It does indicate belief in a religious system or the supernatural, but rather all people have components of the ‘soul’ – their unique selves, influences, practices, and beliefs, a key component of personhood (Yard, 2013). Therefore, spirituality is vital in healthcare as part of holistic care; when illness creates problems in other aspects of personhood, such as physical or emotional well-being, spirituality can serve as a balance to maintain inner peace. That is why many patients utilize spiritual practices, both evident and more personal hidden ones, to attempt to keep an inner balance. This is known as eclectic spirituality, more prevalent in the modern world, where people are choosing not to be limited by narrow views of one religion but the perception that all aspects of the universe are intertwined, so they pursue spiritual practices they believe promote inner peace and harmony (Molloy, 2021).
The Trinity Model is an advanced practice framework that seeks to demonstrate the interconnection between beliefs, suffering, and spirituality. At the intersection of these concepts is the meaning of life and purpose, or the place where they are questioned, affirmed, or challenged. Wright (2008) argues that it is impossible to discuss one of the elements of the ‘trinity’ without bringing up the other two because of how closely they are interconnected. The underlying foundation is to conceptualize the reciprocity of the interaction among beliefs, suffering, and spirituality, and this greatly impacts how the patient and families perceive, react, and manage any given illness. Nurses can soften suffering by understanding spirituality and approaching patients’ from their spiritual perspectives, and attempting to engage in therapeutic, spiritual conversation with them in the attempt to soften the impact. One thing that I learned from this film and looking forward to utilizing in practice is being aware of my own spirituality in order to connect and motivate patients to explore their own. I agree now that spirituality, in whatever form or expression it may take, should be valued and built upon as part of holistic treatment, particularly to reduce suffering and improve outcomes.
References
Yard. L. (2013). Spirituality in healthcare. St. John’s, NL: Doreen Westera.
Molloy, M. (2021). Experiencing the world’s religions. McGraw Hill.
Wright, L. M. (2008). Softening suffering through spiritual care practices: One possibility for healing families. Journal of Family Nursing, 14(4), 394–411. Web.
Birth is the first of the main rites of passage in the vast majority of African cultures. Some of them also include rituals dedicated to the conception, the confirmation of pregnancy, and to prenatal period. The rituals related to childbirth differ for various African tribes and ethnicities. In African cultures, life is seen as the greatest gift. Therefore, pregnant women are treated with care and respect; they are secluded from the potential negative impacts to preserve the new life.1
Also, the care and support given by pregnant women include feeding them the best of available foods and surrounding them with protection. The failure to provide a pregnant woman with the required care is believed to anger the spirits of the ancestors that may inflict a stillbirth or a miscarriage.2
Naming Ceremony
In African cultures, the time when a child is given a name is associated with his or her becoming a member of the community.3 In that way, naming is the crucial procedure that does not only allow a newborn child to enter the community but also indicates that the child is now considered a person. Also, since it is believed that a child comes to our world from the world of spirits and carries an important and unique task in life; his or her name is usually chosen in a way to reflect the discovered or perceived reincarnation, mission and personality.4 Most African peoples (the Edo, the Hutu, the Yoruba, the Akan, to name a few) conduct the naming ceremonies a week or 8 days after the child is born; these ceremonies involve all of the tribe or community members since a new child is seen as belonging to the tribe for the first time and thus needs to be acknowledged by it as a human being.5
Coming of Age: Adulthood
Often, the rite of adulthood is the primary association with the entire concept of the rites of passage that are typically associated with maturation and coming of age. The rites of adulthood were designed to provide the necessary guidance and experiences for young people to learn and become productively functioning adults. The rituals of these rites usually included the young people in their puberty years, who are to undergo the transition. In many African cultures, the rites of adulthood include the rituals based on the isolation of the young initiates from the rest of their communities and testing their skills of decision-making and problem-solving, as well as their wisdom, practicality, strength, and courage.6 This is done because adult life is usually more demanding, difficult, and comes along with more responsibilities than that of a child or a teenager.
Puberty Initiation Rituals
Puberty is a period of multiple changes for every person. The changes are not only physical but also emotional. They can be rather overwhelming for a young individual, and as a result, the youths are educated about their transition with the help of puberty initiation rituals. They can differ from one African community to another, but the vast majority of them are associated with the death of a child self of a maturing person and the birth of the adult self.7
Also, puberty initiation rituals usually involve the interaction between the elders and the youth coming of age for the transition of important knowledge. The process of initiation may include shaving off the initiates’ hair, throwing away their old clothes, and receiving new names to re-enter the community as adults and obtain their new places in it.8
Circumcision Rites
The rite of circumcision is majorly associated with the traditions and rituals of Islam and Judaism; however, the history of this rite is much longer than those of the main modern religions. Circumcision was performed in ancient Egypt and penetrated many different African cultures in that way.9 Circumcision rite is held at different stages of life in various cultures. It is performed by the senior men on the young initiates, and the youths must endure the entire procedure without demonstrating any signs of pain or discomfort to show their strength. After the procedure is complete, the initiates are left alone for a period required for their wounds to heal. Further, they can return to their communities and are readmitted in their new social status.
Clitorectomy Rites
In the contemporary world, clitorectomy is viewed as a highly controversial ritual and is often criticized as a sign of oppression of women. However, the true meaning of clitorectomy in the African cultures was much deeper than just the mutilation of the genitalia. The procedure that is recognized as female circumcision may differ; its variations involve versatile techniques and strategies targeting different parts of the female external reproductive organs. Clitorectomy is intended as a removal of the parts of female genitalia that resemble those of males; and in that way, it is believed that femininity is strengthened and fertility is maximized.10 Similarly to the rites of circumcision, clitorectomy is carried out by the senior females of the community and is performed alongside the other initiation rituals such as the provision of sexual education and instructions as to the duties and responsibilities of an adult woman.
Ancestorship: Death
In African cultures, the concepts of life and death are tightly intertwined. Just like birth is considered as a child’s arrival to the world of the living from the spirit world, death is viewed as an individual’s transition to the spirit realm. The two worlds are perceived as real to an equal degree; in that way, humans are seen as comprised of both spiritual and physical elements. As a result, death is viewed as a separation of the body and the soul of an individual where the former is returned to nature through burial, and the latter moves on to the afterlife.
Burial & Funeral Rites
In many African cultures, burial and funeral rites are held separately. The funeral rituals take place 40 days after the body is buried; during this period, the family of the deceased is expected to collect funds and plan the funeral; and the relatives who live far away – to come and attend the ceremony. The funeral is usually much bigger a ceremony than burial. The mourning family would wear white and red colors (they are associated with funerals), change their hairstyles, or cut their hair.11 The personal things of the deceased are put in the grave; the remaining properties of the dead are not used for at least a year. The bereaved family is to have a ritual washing to get rid of the uncleanness inflicted by the death in the family.
Bibliography
Davis, Tasha. “Rites of Passage.” African People. Web.
The Yoruba people, an ethnic group from Nigeria and Benin, have a specific conception of spiritual care and how it should be performed. The rituals and processes vary, depending on the continent and country where Yoruba adherents live. While African Yoruba people remain, loyal supporters of the original Yoruba beliefs, the representatives of this culture in other countries show a considerable influence of Christianity on their beliefs and healing practices. As the Yoruba culture becomes more and more globalized, its people also change the initial beliefs and rituals, transforming them into new religious movements and subcultures that are heavily influenced by local religions. As of today, the Yoruba people live on six continents, bringing diversity and uniqueness into the existing cultural and religious discourse.
Introduction
The concept of spiritual care varies from religion to religion, from one folk to another. It can have different forms and is expressed in tens of practices that include certain specifics and rules. Spiritual care of the Yoruba people, represented by the set of religious practices and traditions called Orisha or Ifa (also Orisha-Ifa), is the primary theme of this paper. However, to fully understand how spiritual care is expressed in this tradition, other aspects related to religious practices will be addressed.
Yoruba people, also Àwon omo Yorùbá, are an ethnic group that lives in Central, North, and Southern Nigeria, as well as in Southern and Central Benin (Oduyoye, 1995). Their economy can be characterized as agricultural, they also pursue and develop their marketing skills; the group maintains constitutional monarchy (Oduyoye, 1995). The main and most important characteristics of this ethnic group are, however, the “non-material culture of religion and the ideologies on which human relations were built” (Oduyoye, 1995, p. 12). Their patriarchal culture is strongly linked to their religion and beliefs that evolved without the influence of world religions.
Spiritual Care
To critically evaluate the mentioned diasporan religious expressions, it is also necessary to understand what spiritual care is. Although definitions may vary, depending on the religion and traditions, spiritual care often goes hand in hand with healing practices and traditions: while the latter focuses on the physical processes, the former provides answers to questions that address spiritual areas of an individual’s life. Spiritual care is another dimension of treatment and healthcare that focuses on the mind and soul (if one believes in it) of a person (Mbiti, 2015).
Some of the most popular types of spiritual care include prayers, readings of the holy texts, singing or chanting mantras, etc. They can be used not only during treatment or healing but also when a person faces a loss or mourns somebody’s death. In this case, spiritual care turns to support during one’s difficult time. Spiritual care and activities related to it can also be used when a person wishes for something, e.g. to become pregnant or accomplish a task with success (Oduyoye, 1995). It can have various forms and aims, presenting amazingly diverse traditions.
Women, Children, and Death
In the Yoruba tradition, the three core parts of human existence are money, children, and long life without illnesses (Oduyoye, 1995). According to the author, “long life with good health… is most highly valued by the Yoruba”, while other religious communities can perceive money or children as more significant for the future of the community members (Oduyoye, 1995, p. 51). When describing several creation myths that are highly valued by the Yoruba people, Oduyoye (1995) notices that one of them explains how childless and pregnant women are perceived by the Yoruba.
Moreover, the myth called Ogboinba’s Destiny is also more or less directly linked to the women’s duty to nurture and care for the next generations that are growing up in the community. Ogboinga, a woman who was described as strong-hearted, had decided that she preferred having mystic powers to children. Ogboinga’s best friend, however, wanted to have children. Using her powers, Ogboinga helped her best friend to raise those in safety. However, Ogboinga later regretted her choice because she had realized she wanted to have both powers and heirs. After a long and dangerous journey, she finally arrived at Woyengi, the creator of humanity, the Great Mother, and decided to try her strength.
As the Great Mother was repelled by this decision, she defeated Ogboinga and eliminated her powers. However, Ogboinga’s mind escaped, hiding in the eyes of a pregnant woman; since the Great Mother had sworn that she would never kill a woman bearing a child, Ogboinga continued to live (Oduyoye, 1995). Out of this myth, a specific duty for childless women was created: today, they are expected to offer protection and help to pregnant women and their children, just as Ogboinga did with her best friend (Oduyoye, 1995). All children living in a community are to be protected and cared for by all women from the same community (Oduyoye, 1995).
Children and heirs are an important part of the patriarchal Yoruba culture; some of the tales and myths even include mention of male pregnancy (Oduyoye, 1995). However, women are the ones who are expected to care for children, even in polygynous marriages. Nevertheless, as death rates among Nigerian children can be high, folktales of the Yoruba people also demonstrate several taboos that are expected to save children from accidental death. When childless women who are unable to conceive ask the divine beings to give them a child, their wish is fulfilled, but these mothers need to follow specific rules (i.e. not to allow the child pound staple food, climb trees, etc.). If a mother breaks her promise, her child dies (Oduyoye, 1995).
Therefore, children are the center of women’s lives in the ethnic group; they are expected to agree to all demands so that their children can thrive (Oduyoye, 1995). Such admonitions result in other stories that describe how children turned to oil when they were left alone in the sun or were lost in pineapple fields because they wanted to return to their previous form (Oduyoye, 1995). Therefore, it is not only mothers that are expected to look after children, but other adults as well, including fathers, or women from the community. Another ritual of care that is linked to children is a burial. In the Yoruba culture, children are to bury their parents; therefore, this custom requires all families to have children (Oduyoye, 1995).
A specific attitude to mothers is also driven by the mentioned myths. Since men cannot be pregnant (and if they do become pregnant in folktales, they die), a mother is considered to be the source of life, and therefore must be praised. Mothers’ duties towards children and family are expressed in the following proverb: “mother is as precious as gold; father as the radiant glass” (Oduyoye, 1995, p. 71). This proverb implies that mothers are responsible for the stability and happiness of their children. Moreover, mothers’ care for their children (i.e. siblings) is more encouraged than care for other children, even if the father is the same. Siblings from one mother are expected to have closer relationships: ” True sibling relations are with those who are one’s mother’s children” (Oduyoye, 1995, p. 72). It remains unclear, however, what is the father’s role in relationships between siblings.
Husbands’ duties are discussed in less detail by Oduyoye (1995); nevertheless, the author still provides insights into their responsibilities towards wives. While some sources state that husband is obliged to maintain his wife, others indicate that a woman must support herself and her children (mostly when they are still infants) (Oduyoye, 1995). If a wife works in her husband’s enterprise, he is obliged to compensate her with presents and gifts (Oduyoye, 1995).
As can be seen, the rules and laws that govern the lives of men and women in Yoruba communities can be contradictory; they often are. However, as their folktales state, women are in charge of caring for children and other women as well. Although the Yoruba communities in Nigeria have particular tales that are focused on saving a child from accidents and early death, the world that the person enters after their death is equal to all. This world bears no similarity to heaven or hell but is rather a supernatural place where spirits reside. These spirits can then be reborn in the human world. However, not all Yoruba communities have the same view of the afterlife. Yoruba adherents in Brazil believe in rebirth as well, but some of the spirits can be reborn and die quickly, only to be reborn again (Olupona & Rey, 2008). These spirits are called abiku (“born to die”); in the African Yoruba culture, this definition was used to explain the high rates of child mortality (Olupona & Rey, 2008). However, Brazil representatives of the Yoruba culture perform specific rituals to prevent the death of an “abiku”.
Funeral Rituals
Funeral rituals of the Yoruba culture in different diasporas can vary; while the African Yoruba communities repeat the rituals that are performed after the birth so that they can establish the balance disrupted by death, Brazilian funeral ceremonies in Candomblé are significantly different from the African rituals. Candomblé is a religion that has its roots in the Yoruba culture but has transformed and creolized during the years. These funeral rites, called the axexê ritual, have opposite aims: they undo the rituals and initiations that were performed to deepen the religious ties of an individual after she or he was born (Olupona & Rey, 2008).
When a funeral ritual in Candomblé is performed, it releases the spirit from its bonds and liberates it. Although the African and the Brazilian rituals seem distant from each other, axexê is directly linked to the Yoruba’s ritual ajeje. Even the name of the ritual is a corrupted version of the African one. Ajeje is linked to the sacrifice of an animal that was made when a hunter in a community died; the adherents believed that the meat of this animal would be eaten by the spirit of the deceased. Axexê is a ritual that praises the one who has passed, and the ceremonies begin immediately after the person’s death. First, the head of the departed is washed with water and amassi, a sacral herbal potion (Olupona & Rey, 2008). It is a symbolic inversion of the initiation’s ritual that aims to break the spirit’s bonds with the world of the living. It should be noted, however, that the axexê can vary from nation to nation, community to community.
As can be seen, the ritual is capable of developing different forms, depending on the specifics of the community, people, and country. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that the Yoruba culture and rituals in different diasporas might be based on such detached beliefs that they become oppositions to the original African rituals. The axexê in Brazil normally includes five stages: music and dance are followed by “possession, with at least the presence of Oya”; later, sacrifices and offerings are made, but the possessions of the deceased are destroyed or sent away so that the spirit is not held back by any of the objects (Olupona & Rey, 2008, p. 443). Nevertheless, some of the objects still can be inherited by members of the group. Other objects that were destroyed or broken during the ritual are sent away in a basket. Religious belongings of the deceased should not remain in the temple and are sent away as well (Olupona & Rey, 2008).
Although the main aim of such a ritual is to destroy the bonds between the spirit and the living world, it is also believed that during it, the spirit can express his or her wishes. That is why when the objects of this person are broken, the priest who is also the supervisor of the ritual is obliged to use cowry shells that will help them understand which of the objects are to be inherited by friends and family (Olupona & Rey, 2008). The main problem of such rituals is their sophistication and the lack of priests and priestesses that can perform them. The adherents of Candomblé often have to engage other priests who are not familiar with this religion and not qualified enough to perform such rituals.
The price is often extremely high, and poor members of the community, no matter how religious they are, are not able to cover the expenses needed for the ritual. As Olupona and Rey (2008) state, Candomblé experts have become professional priests who are familiar with the details and specifics of the axexê (p. 445). Their work, however, requires to be paid, and the price is often unaffordable, especially for communities with no financial stability; priests and priestesses who can perform the ceremony do not agree to work for free even for the good of their community. Thus, the ritual of axexê, as well as other rituals and ceremonies, slowly fades from the daily life of diasporas.
Physical/Mental Health and Preventive Care in Yoruba Culture
In the Yoruba culture, the head of a person has an important role both as a spiritual and anatomical object. Yoruba people believe that spirits enter ahead through its scalp; moreover, any person also has a so-called “inner head” or destiny that can be foreseen with the help of a diviner (Bhui, 2012). The culture has various definitions for specific psychological distresses or illnesses, e.g. warapa (epilepsy or grand mal type seizures) or irewesi ocan (depression, fatigue) (Bhui, 2012). Although this culture recognizes the presence of illnesses, they are often stigmatized. For example, there is a belief that if a person experiences seizures, their saliva can transmit the disease to others. Therefore, people can refuse to help a person during seizures because they fear to experience similar convulsions (Bhui, 2012).
Alternative therapy is widely spread among Yoruba peoples in Africa; some of them suggest cow’s urine might be helpful during a convulsion, while others advice to place the feet of the person on hot coals (Bhui, 2012). Although the approach to and view of mental health are not as stigmatized in African diasporas in the USA as they are in Nigeria, they are still linked to the beliefs and superstitions of the original culture. Jegede (2002) states that 96.5% of the respondents who took part in the survey named the following major causes of illnesses: enemies (witchcraft/sorcery), gods or ancestors, natural illnesses, and hereditary diseases (p. 328). The diseases that were inflicted by gods are perceived as incurable and can only be treated with the help of a traditional healer (Jegede, 2002). A traditional healer contacts the Oracle (Ifa) to understand the reason behind disease or infection.
Although childhood diseases were perceived as normal and common, some of the respondents had noted that these could be a cause of gods’ wrath (Jegede, 2002). What is more, traditional healers also had the power both to heal or to cause diseases. The members of the Yoruba community also believed that diseases could be a result of a certain spell that enemies or witches cast upon a person. It is necessary to point out that spells are also used as a defense against sorcerers, providing a person with protection and decreasing the length of treatment (Jegede, 2002).
The fact that the respondents did not try to seek modern health care is raising concerns since particular diseases are impossible to cure with traditional methods. Even the most common illnesses such as cold and fever can result in significant complications if not treated correctly. However, the members of the group preferred consulting traditional healers rather than trying to ask for help in a hospital.
Aladura or The Praying People
It would not be correct to perceive the Yoruba culture as a phenomenon that is most widespread in Africa and the Americas due to colonization. The Yoruba culture has been globalized, existing on different continents, developing new forms, and gaining new adherents. The Aladura, translated as “possessors of prayers” or “the praying people”, have emerged among the Yoruba groups in the 1920s in Western Nigeria (Olupona & Rey, 2008). Various churches can be included in this category, such as the Church of the Lord, Aladura, Church of the Seven Seals of God, and others (Olupona & Rey, 2008). The rise of the Aladura churches in Europe began in the 1960s, when Nigerian students and business travelers came to the United Kingdom and eventually became permanent residents, introducing a new religious movement to locals (Olupona & Rey, 2008).
The adherents of the Aladura claim that they are ready to “throw open hands of fellowship to people of all races and colors” who want to become a member or are interested in joining the church (Olupona & Rey, 2008, p. 251). The mission of the Aladura Christianity is to bring Christ to all nations, as they state; this belief resulted in various social warfare programs that the members of the church-sponsored and promoted. The Aladura have thus provided rehabilitation to drug-addicted teenagers and young adults, have manifested vulnerable populations such as refugees, underrepresented, underprivileged, asylum seekers, etc. (Olupona & Rey, 2008). Their missionary work has developed into a robust social movement that provided solutions to social issues, helped with visa approvals and deportation orders (Olupona & Rey, 2008).
The concept of healing in the Aladura movement was influenced by the Yoruba culture, but it still preserves its special approach, similar to the Christian one. Aladura believes that sin is the main cause of illnesses and diseases. Therefore, repentance is the only tool capable of eliminating a person’s suffering (Oshun, 2000). The Aladura Pentecostals, a movement within Protestant Christianity, has an extended list of healing practices that include faith in God and Jesus Christ, repentance, prayer, fasting, use of candles, oil, water, a crucifix(es), ritual cleansing and bathing, chain-prayer, etc. (Oshun, 2000). Moreover, the Aladura also has spiritual healers who are capable of returning the balance to the life of an individual. As the Aladura relies on dreams and images during the healing, these healers are often perceived as visionaries or prophets who have second sight or can be gifted with messages from the Lord (Oshun, 2000). Other healers are called prayer vessels (those who can pray unceasingly); at last, some healers can “exercise all the gifts of the Holy Spirit” (Oshun, 2000, p. 248).
The healing process itself includes observation of symptoms, consultation with a prophet (a link to the Yoruba practice of consultation with a healer), diagnosis through trance, revelations, and dreams (Oshun, 2000). A treatment includes confession of sin, prayer during the interview, or chain-prayer during an altar call, observation of results, praise, and follow-ups to confirm faith (Oshun, 2000). Unlike Yoruba people, the Aladura regards healing primarily as a holistic and spiritual experience, while the Yoruba also engages physical healing (e.g. use of herbs, potions, specific foods, etc.). Here, one can observe the influence of Christianity that postulates the healing of a body is only possible if its soul is also free from any harm or malice (i.e. sin).
The Yoruba’s use of spells to treat an individual is substituted by prayers and visions, as well as the use of ritual tools such as oil, crucifix, and bells (Oshun, 2000). If the Yoruba people prefer being healed in their or the healer’s house, the Aladura’s designated places are the sanctuary, the powerhouse, and the mercy ground of a church, as well as desolate places like mountain tops or waterfronts (Oshun, 2000). As it can be seen, the difference between the Yoruba and the Aladura is significant, although the latter emerged from the former: while the Yoruba groups presume witchcraft and curse to be the main reasons behind health issues, the Aladura see both the natural and the supernatural (demonic) causes as sinful and stress the importance of confession and repentance.
Conclusion
The Yoruba culture has become globalized and transformed into various religious movements; some of those are so heavily influenced by other religions that it may be challenging to understand how they are connected to the Yoruba culture. Spiritual care in these movements can vary and includes chanting, spells, use of special potions, witchcraft even. Those movements that were influenced by Christianity use prayers, confessions, and other Christian practices to provide spiritual care.
References
Bhui, K. (2012). Culture and mental health: A comprehensive textbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Jegede, A.S. (2002). The Yoruba cultural construction of health and illness. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 11(3), 322-335.
Mbiti, J. S. (2015). Introduction to African religion. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Oduyoye, A.M. (1995). Daughters of Anowa: African women and patriarchy. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.
Olupona, J. K., & Rey, T. (2008). Òrisà devotion as world religion: The globalization of Yorùbá religious culture. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press
Oshun, C.O. (2000). Healing practices among Aladura Pentecostals: An intercultural study. Missionalia, 28(2/3), 242-252.
Initially, the article highlights that a significant number of people today call themselves “spiritual but not religious,” a phrase that tends to spark controversy in society (Burkeman par. 1). One of the followers of this movement is Sam Harris, who refers to the fact that spirituality, along with the assistance of meditation, helps him become happy and feel that the world is a part of him (Burkeman par. 2).
The primary difference between spirituality and religion is the fact that spirituality does not have a set of principles and dogmas that one has to follow during his or her life (Burkeman par. 3). It gives an opportunity for atheists to be “present” and experience different forms of life without any fear. Thus, the author of the article claims that Harris’ ideas might be egocentric, as the majority of religious believers rely on practice and he was “baffled” by the question of whether God exists and was engaged in rituals to feel “present” (Burkeman par. 4).
As for me, I believe that spirituality does differ from religion. I completely agree with the fact that religion requires one to comply with set dogmas and principles. A particular figure of God is a role model that one has to follow. On the other hand, spirituality is a self-centered practice since it focuses on the inner world of individuals and gives them the right to become close to the “present.” In this case, Harris’ argument is logical, but I also believe that he should not criticize religion in public. Overall, spirituality is strongly related to religion and disrespecting religion questions one’s ability to admire the beliefs and values of other people. In this case, modern society should allow people to represent their own sense of religion and spirituality, as these concepts contribute to the development of tolerance and personal growth.
Work Cited
Burkeman, Oliver. “Spiritual but Not Religious? You Are Not Alone.” The Guardian. 2016.