Geographically located in the Asia-Pacific region with a small population occupying large tracks of land, coupled with political and economic stability, Australia has played a key role in its success with space-related activities (Australia Government, 1999, P.1). Such programs as operation of satellite and its services, processing of signal and space data, space instrumentation, designing of ground equipment, tracking of space debris and GPS usage are useful in Australia just as it is in other countries in terms of socio-political and economic benefits that come with them. These programs are applied in national security-related issues, natural resource and environmental management, navigation, and communication like in broadcasting purposes (Australia 1999, P.1)
To begin with, Australia’s national security does benefit a lot through space-related activities. This benefit is seen in the way research on astronomy, specifically, space technology is used significantly in the management of security issues. For example, aerial surveillance is used to monitor borders, survey anti-terrorism programs, and maintain the insecurity of telecommunications (James, 1992, P. 129).
The meteorological data is also used in the prediction and timing of any probable security scare to the national defense department, hence the decision to put a budget of over $1 billion for the next generation satellite and ground station investment that began in 2006 and will run through to 2016, intended to boost its research (DITNR, 2006, P.1).
Space activities have so far also benefited the economic aspect of development in Australia. According to a policy paper on space engagement by the Australian government in the Department of Industry, Tourism, and Resources (2006), involvement in space activities is “user-and market-driven” with the main objective of getting inroads to economic advantages of space activities. The launching of satellites in the Australian space can benefit the countries in the Asia-Pacific that can get access to data on environmental monitoring and weather forecasting at a cost, hence boosting Australia’s economy.
In addition, the use of space-related technologies have increased tremendously within the past few decades with many private companies especially the broadcasting industry buying space products like satellite broadcasted airwaves, hence a potential of making a generally improved economy (Deeker, 1997,p. 4)
The education sector is also not left out in the benefits that accrue from space science study and technological innovations. The successful launching of the spacecraft is likely to attract more international students, scholars, and more space experts who will bring more benefits in terms of scholarly innovations in the Australian education sector as a result of more successful research and breakthroughs (Deeker, 1997, p. 7)
Socially, space-related activities have some social benefits too. The space science study in schools and colleges at the beginning of quite interesting career prospects in space science. Due to her non-proliferation credentials within the international community, Australia can derive social benefits by attracting more interest from other countries who are members of the international community organizations like the United Nations (Australia Government, 1999).
Again, the activities in space help the people of Australia and the world over can understand themselves, their solar system, the galaxy, and the universe (James, 1998, p.1). This is important for self-assurance and satisfaction in the general living standard of the people of Australia and the world in general. The people of Australia would also have confidence in programs that give them a simple understanding of scientific findings.
Reference
James, M 1998, “Australia in Orbit: Space Policy and Programs.
Technology Adviser”- Science, Technology, Environment and Resources Group. Web.
Department of Industry, Tourism and Natural Resources (DITNR), Australian Government Space Engagement, 2006. Web.
Statement by the Leader of the Australian Delegation (UNISPACE 111), VIENNA, 1999. Web.
Deeker, W. 1997, vision and perseverance, Space Industry News, CSIRO Office of Space Science and Applications, No. 77, Canberra, pp. 3-9.
James, L. 1992, History of Australia’s Space Involvement, Australia and Space, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No. 94, Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University, Canberra, pp. 122-143.
Space exploration is an integral part of the development of human civilization. One international law regulating states’ behavior in space is called Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, and was signed in Washington, London, and Moscow on January 27, back in 1967. Therefore, the Artemis Accords signing on October 13, 2020, by Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, Italy, Great Britain, UAE, and the US is a timely event. This agreement brings together many topics related to space exploration, including the naming of space objects and the use of space resources.
It is noteworthy that space exploration is regulated by numerous national laws, including the United States and the UAE legislation. It is also interesting that some of the new agreement provisions overlap with existing international and federal legislation. This paper aims to discuss how the new and old treaties complement and contradict each other.
Artemis Accords, US and UAE Legislation on Space Resources
How does Section 10 on Space Resources compare to space resources provisions in the US and UAE national space legislations?
Section 10 on Space Resources from Artemis Accords, a new agreement signed by eight countries, including the United States and the UAE, includes the following provisions. First, it states that the agreement aims to ensure that space resources are used in the best interest of humankind. It is further noted that this law and the Outer Space Treaty regulate the extraction and use of space resources, including any recovery from the surface or the inside of the Moon, Mars, comets, or asteroids.
It is argued that the extraction of space resources is not a national appropriation under Article II of the Outer Space Treaty but is governed by the Artemis Accords. Section 10 emphasizes that the signatories are obliged to “inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the public and the international scientific community, regarding the extraction of space resources activities by the Outer Space Treaty” (UAE Law on Regulation of Space Sector, 2019, p. 4). Therefore, Artemis Accords introduce new commitments, particularly the responsibility to inform the UN about the extraction of space resources, including resources extracted from the inside of the Moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids.
UAE Law on Regulation of Space Sector issued on December 19, 2019, also provides some critical regulations on space activities, including the extraction, operation, and use of space resources. In particular, Chapter 3, considering Space Activities and Space Debris, sets out important rules and procedures. Article 14 states that agents must obtain permission for any space activities from the government Agency. Further, Article 15 regulates the use of space nuclear power sources by banning the use without Agency authorization and obliges all operators authorized to use space atomic power sources to inform the Agency of risks or incidents involved immediately.
Noteworthy, Article 18 governs the exploitation and use of space resources, indicating that the UAE Council of Ministers Regulation governs any related activity. Such regulation applies to the extraction, exploitation, and use of space resources, including the ownership, purchase, sale, trade, transportation, storage, and any space activity to provide related logistics services. Article 19 of Chapter 3 aims to prevent the formation of space debris. Moreover, Article 30 of Chapter 4 of the Law regulates the handling of meteorites, defining ownership rights for stones that have fallen on the state’s territory. Therefore, the UAE legislation prescribes detailed rules for space activities and the use of space resources.
Finally, the US National Aeronautics and Space Act regulating national and commercial space programs contains three related sections. In particular, Chapter 513 sets out the rules for commercial exploration and the use of space resources. Section 51301 defines the terms ‘asteroid resource’ and ‘space resource.’ An asteroid resource is defined as a space resource found on or within an asteroid. A space resource is an in situ abiotic resource in outer space, including water and minerals. Section 51302 specifies that the President of the United States is required to facilitate the commercial exploration and commercial extraction of space resources by US citizens. The President should discourage government barriers that stand in the way of developing economically viable industries for commercial exploration and extraction of space resources. The President also has to promote US citizens’ right to engage in the commercial exploration and commercial exploration of space resources.
Further, Section 51303 governs the rights to asteroid resources and space resources, stating that “a United States citizen engaged in the commercial extraction of an asteroid resource or space resource has the right to any obtained asteroid or space resource, including ownership, transportation, use, and sale” (Title 51, National and Commercial Space Programs, 2010, p. 20). Interestingly, this provision differs from the UAE legislation regulating meteorites. According to the latter, any citizen who finds a meteorite that fell on the state’s territory must immediately notify the state authorities and that the state has the right to demand scientific information or samples of the found meteorite.
Section 10 on Space Resources pays more attention to international cooperation in the extraction and use of space resources. At the same time, national laws regulate more specific procedures such as resource rights, mining permits, and guidelines for space energy use. It is noteworthy that the UAE and the United States’ laws regulate the commercial use of space resources and prescribe compliance with the rules in the extraction, operation, use, storage, possession, transportation, purchase, sale, and trade of space resources.
Deconfliction Procedures
How does Section 11 on Deconfliction of Space Activities compare with Article IX OST on harmful interference?
Section 11 on Deconfliction of Space Activities, in a sense, duplicates Article IX OST on harmful interference. Clause 5 guarantees that the signatories will inform each other in case of suspicions of any signatory countries’ potentially dangerous in-space activities. In particular, the parties provide each other with the necessary information regarding the place and nature of space activities. Further, Clause 7 of Section 11 coordinates actions in space to avoid interference and defines ‘safety zones’ for the agreed activity. Signatories are expected to abide by several principles related to security zones, including notification of the environment and nature of operations and reasonable determination of the zone’s size and volume using generally accepted scientific and engineering principles.
The nature and presence of ‘safety zones’ can change over time under the status of the actions being taken. Signatories must notify each other and the UN of the creation, modification, or termination of any ‘safety zone.’ Besides, signatories must comply with the principle of free access to all areas of celestial bodies and other provisions of the Outer Space Treaty regarding the use of such zones. Therefore, Clauses 5 and 7 of Section 11 are the most important in defining consistent and cooperative outer space actions.
At the same time, the Outer Space Treaty (OST) provides regulation of the relevant procedures. Article IX of the OST states that in the exploration and use of outer space, states are guided by the principle of cooperation and consider each other’s interests. It is also noted that the states will conduct further studies of celestial bodies and strive to prevent harmful pollution or adverse changes in the Earth’s environment by extraterrestrial substances.
Article IX emphasizes that “if a State Party to the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its citizens in outer space will cause potentially harmful interference with the activities of other States Parties, it shall conduct appropriate international consultations” (Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States, 1967, p. 15). Therefore, this article and this law represent a completely similar solution to the problem of allegedly dangerous or harmful actions by a signatory party.
Critics of this agreement note it provides the need for consultations between the signatory countries and the possibility of diplomatic intervention if it is impossible to resolve the situation under international law. However, the signatory countries can only bring the case up for joint discussion, and OST does not offer other settlement methods, including a system of fines or punishments. It is typical for international legislation since the signatory countries are not always ready to sign international treaties. Besides, the inclusion of a definition of fines or penalties for non-compliance is not reasonable, given that not all existing countries are signatories. Otherwise, the signing of the agreement would put the signatory countries in a less advantageous position than the countries that did not express their intention to sign the deal.
Conclusion
Thus, this paper analyzed the new Artemis Accords Treaty compared to the Outer Space Treaty and national US and UAE legislation. In particular, it was presented how Sections 10 and 11 of the Artemis Accords overlap with existing legislation. The mentioned legislation determines interactions during the exploration and use of space resources and ways of resolving conflicts. Notably, both the Artemis Accords and the US and UAE’s national laws represent the possibility of commercial exploitation of space resources only subject to government notification and in compliance with the regulations.
However, US laws also stipulate that the President must facilitate the commercial exploration and exploitation of space resources by US citizens. It is also interesting that Section XI on deregulation of conflicts almost completely duplicates Section IX of OST, creating the prerequisites for international consultations if space activities of a particular country pose a threat or danger. Nonetheless, there is currently a need for further development of international legislation determining government agencies’ and individuals’ behavior in space.
The beginning of NASA was based on both military and scientific pursuit. After the World War II, United State department of defense started a series of research into the rocket and atmospheric sciences to thump their leadership in technology. The science was based on having better understanding of the earth through observation system, through research and exploration (Harvey, 2003). The plan involved data collection from the outer space. The Naval Research Laboratory’s Vanguard was selected to support this program afterwards but the technological requirements outweighed the funding and this jeopardized its success.
The US satellite program was put in crisis by the launch of Russian Sputnik in 1957 but she subsequently launched her own in 1958, the explorer. The launch of Sputnik alarmed the congress and they perceived this as a threat to their security and technological leadership (Madders, 1997). They later agreed to establish a separate agency to conduct non-military studies and research within the space and also to develop space technologies. The agency launched research into mercury to ascertain whether man could live in this planet, whether they could recover both man and the spacecraft safely. The agency issued guidelines on the technologies used and the existing equipment, and the approach to this task.
Since the inception of NASA, the society has had benefits ranging from public safety to industrial productivity. NASA developed fiberglass that was coated with Teflon which has been used for roofing in buildings and stadia worldwide. The agency had been responsible for the transfer of information from space to the community; it had improved the communication sector (Madders, 1997). NASA developed cooling systems for treatment of patients with medical ailments like spiral and sport injuries. This was from the garments that they wore that had the capabilities to protect them from high temperatures. They developed a lightweight breathing system for firefighters and subsequent reduction in inhalation difficulties for people in this sector. Every major petroleum and mining companies use data, pictures and images that are provided from space, courtesy of NASA research and explorations.
The benefits of space program can be grouped into
Earth surveying; the satellites launched into the space by NASA were responsible for this function. The benefits could be felt in the sectors such as agriculture, geology, geography and oceanography. The satellites had improved the remote sensing department globally with more and precious information concerning the earth system. Given that the dangers of famine, depletion of natural resources and permanent ecological changes were a challenge to all nations globally, the request for such information and data normally generated revenue for the agency. If the funding for NASA at that time could have been stopped, it would have taken time to develop such information and data (ABA, 1976).
Communications and meteorology; the benefits of communication satellites has so far overtaken the cost of their installation and development. They are generally used to provide transoceanic links for commercial purposes (Slaton, 2010). The satellites that provide direct delivery and broadcast television has the potential to provide educational, medical and remote services to areas that could not have received such services. The weather satellites that were launched provided constant and daily information to the global weather services, offering the platform for accurate long-term weather forecasting.
Technology utilization; the technology advanced by NASA into the space had a multiplier effect in the economy for the general public that had the capacity to solve certain categories of problems. Some of the facilities and equipment were being used for law enforcement, pollution control, air transportation, maritime port planning and conservation (Harvey, 2003). The successful of technology to fields such as industrial, medical and social problems demonstrated the productivity and improvement in the quality of lives of the global village.
The rule of law in space; since the inception of space program in the US, the program had been put to the concept that space should be the common heritage of the entire mankind for peaceful functions. The research and subsequent exploration of space should be of the common interest of all mankind. There should be mutual co-operation for peaceful functions, exchange and dissemination of information.
Given that the agency was formed to achieve among other things greater national pride, enhance the United States leadership in technology, there were very few/hardly any opposition to the creation of NASA. The agency’s goal was the emphasis on the value of partnership with both private and international agencies to enhance deeper understanding of the space (Harvey, 2003). However, the critiques point to the sometimes the lack of focus in its finding; citing the fact that sometimes the purpose for funding does not reflect the interests of the down to earth citizens of the United States thereby resulting to assumed wastage of resources. They argued that the amount of dollars that were allocated to this program could have been used to solve other problems affecting mankind. Some of the departments had shown deteriorations in their performance (ABA, 1976). By the year 1967, the tide started turning against the NASA with their budgeting dropping from $5billion by $600 million, although this was as a result of scheduled development goals being met rather than a budget cut. Their budget was later cut by President Kennedy, though he was one of the supporters of NASA.
The supporting institutions included the Ames Research Center. It was founded to conduct research on areas such as wind tunnel and the aerodynamics of aircrafts and aeronautics. It played major roles within NASA. They were responsible for the development of efficient and safer space explorations. The Army Ballistic Missile Agency was also an agency that became part of the NASA mission; led by Dr. Wernher von Braun they were responsible for the development and subsequent launch of Saturn V. This provided the platform for the development of Apollo program by NASA. The group organized a trip to the Antarctic wastelands in the summer of 1966-67 to verify the usefulness of the space trip. They were mainly interested in checking whether the experience they gained could be useful in space technology (Harvey, 2003)
Reference list
ABA (1976). Ecospace: The Economics of Outer Space- and the future. ABA Journal, Vol. 61, Issue 3, pp. 268- 395.
Harvey, B. (2003). Europe’s space programme: to Ariane and beyond. Springer Publishers. New York.
Madders, K. (1997). A new force at a new frontier: Europe’s development in the space field in the light of its main actors, policies, law, and activities from its beginning up to the present. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
Slaton, E.A. (2010). Race, Rigor, and Selectivity in U.S. Engineering: The History of an Occupational Color Line. Chicago. Harvard University Press.
Human access and exploration in space is not a matter of pride and prestige, as most people would say. While the USA and USSR fought to dominate space travel in its initial stages, contemporary researchers and scientists consider space exploration vital for human survival (Kelsey-Sugg & Fegan, 2018). This approach may lead to an exaggerated affirmation about climate change and potential human expansion into nearby planets and asteroids to avoid the devastated planet. However, these forms of fear are not far-fetched. Space exploration provides humans with a possible escape plan in case of unintended catastrophes (Kelsey-Sugg & Fegan, 2018). Novel companies such as SpaceX seek to make space travel faster and more cost-effective, enabling optimal movement to and from the earth. While the previously mentioned scenario concerning global destruction may be implausible, looking for an alternative to prevent human extinction is a prudent measure.
Additionally, space exploration leads to the widespread advancement of technology. NASA is continually developing new items that can survive the harsh conditions of outer space. Better navigation equipment and fuel development help other sectors of the economy, leading to future economic growth using limited resources. Improvement in materials such as jet fuel reduces fuel costs in the airplane industry (Green, 2019). Revolutionary technology such as tubeless tires that use materials other than rubber and are resistant to tear boosts the tire industry’s growth. It is further crucial to note space exploration is linked with light and sturdy materials that can withstand space. Space exploration enables faster development of materials used in many industries as scientists work to overcome new conditions in space, boosting local production in connected industries related to these scientists’ interests (Green, 2019). Therefore, these industries work together to develop cheap and efficient alternatives to local products with applications in outer space
Finally, space exploration takes on new meaning when it comes to expanding the boundaries of human travel. People have explored the deepest parts of the ocean and mapped every piece of land on earth, space is the next frontier of exploration. It offers an exciting possibility to understand our solar system and the universe immensely. Broadening our horizon could allow us to visit planets with relative ease in the future and discern novel planets (physically), gaining a better grasp of the solar system. Stretching the limits of possibility is a human endeavor that cannot be quenched until we explore space, as Da Vinci once said, if we can imagine it, we can achieve it.
Space travel is real and a dream come true for most individuals. When one puts themselves into the mindset of a space explorer, their perspective on space exploration changes forever. Arguably, space has been considered a vital element that has encompassed human actions of investigating the universe beyond the atmosphere with the help of crewed and un-crewed spacecraft. Historically, space exploration originated over 50 years ago when the first human-made satellite Sputnik 1 was launched into outer space. For instance, space technology and developments have marked the incredible journey to space, revealing the new exploration page currently at its peak. This paper will primarily focus on the analysis and fundamental elements of space exploration. An analysis of the physical and psychological effects of space exploration on humans will be discussed, in addition to spaceflight technology, and spacecraft technology. The main argument of this work is that space exploration is a necessity, while also being a personally and socially beneficial practice. It allows participants to acquire a unique set of competencies and experience emotions unlike any other.
Literature Review
To understand the subject of space exploration, it is necessary to cover it in more detail. In his article, Agha analyzes space exploration, particularly surgical insights, and future perspectives. The review aimed to investigate vital elements of space exploration processes. Agha’s discussion encompassed critical topics, including microgravity, risks, operating environment, astronauts, and prospects for future space exploration (Agha 265). The author adopted peer review techniques to carry out the analysis. Further, the findings indicated that space exploration has significantly improved technological adoption and advances. As a result of space exploration, numerous scientific innovations have emerged to sustain the human need to explore the universe. The study has also found that aspects of life such as business, hygiene, medicine, computer, and technology are positively impacted by space exploration. It was further revealed that numerous nations have institutional programs to support space exploration and to meet the desires attributed to the same. As for the future implications, the article pointed out a series of risks that were associated with the venture of exploring the universe. However, there were considerable benefits that had a wide range and implications for the life of human beings. Therefore, despite the risks and uncertainties within space exploration, technology, and innovation should be channeled to majorly focus on risk management and reduction to enhance the success of the space exploration exercise. Since the future relies on how thriving technology can be instituted to understand the universe better. Therefore, the study implies that effectiveness in coordination with critical elements such as industrial development, medical, and computerized technology would primarily result in desirable outcomes for space exploration.
Continuing the theme of technological advancement space technology, Maiwalk et al., divulge deeper into the intricacies of space technology. Space exploration technology is considered a function of space research and experimental studies. Maiwald et al., (1) discuss supporting sustainable development with spaceflight technology in this article. It is evident in the study that spaceflight was the most instrumental element that acted as the driving force and backbone of the exploration processes to the orbital surface. Peer review techniques are used to effectively evaluate the technology used in spaceflight while analyzing the subsequent improvement since the first development of the spacecraft. The article postulated a series of findings in support of the same. Firstly, it touched upon the efficacy of computers and power generation. It was revealed that computers played an instrumental role in pivoting the spacecraft operation. It was found that spaceflight technology was heavily reliant on computerized technology, which consistently improved since its first evolution. Secondly, the article revealed how aerospace developments developed modern technology to support spaceflights. It further pointed out the sustainable impact of aerospace engineering on the earth’s development. Furthermore, the findings indicated how the current application had impacted the existing technologies on the earth. As part of the observable areas, the article focused on the use associated with favorable space, ground, and resources utilized in the research, mainly on closed-loop technology.
An article by Maiwalk et al. has especially important future implications, and its examination is capable of deepening one’s understanding of the aerospace sphere. Further, this work was crucial as it revealed sectorial development, especially in the technology and aerospace engineering industry. Such would rapidly form engaging factors that would drive future improvement and innovation in aerospace and technology. The article had future implications as its applicability was limited to aerospace development and enhancement of the earth’s sustainability through aerospace. Therefore, the field of spaceflight as a result of aerospace would likely result in major development within the Earth hence improving the cause of Earth as a sustainable body. As a result, the article connects aviation and industries that mainly rely on the earth.
Support of the Argument
Observations have indicated that space exploration has increased instances of human interaction with strange matters in space. A study by Pagel and Chouker (1450) mainly relies on vital elements of isolation and confinement attributed to space exploration on human beings as they were seen to be detached from their loved ones while in outer space. As part of the analysis, the article adopted a peer review methodology which provided inferences for the work as a whole.
Secondly, the article’s findings revealed that the sense of loneliness resulting from physical isolation impacted the astronauts mentally as it was considered a form of exclusion, hence punishment. Further, the findings indicated that isolation and seclusion had worsening impacts on individuals’ stress levels and could result in diseases. The findings were essential in initiating corrective action to overcome uncalled-for scenarios. Therefore, the article’s future implications are influential since it can be adopted as a mechanism of change, particularly in the training component of astronauts on stress management. Further, the article can be implicated to provide inferences on best practices to be instituted by the aerospace department to improve the comfort of astronauts whenever they are lonely in space. Such would significantly improve the welfare and success of astronauts’ missions simultaneously.
The efficacy of space exploration has manifested in several areas. For instance, it has attracted limitless studies on the life and sustainability of the life of astronauts while in space. In support of space life, a survey on heavy-ion carcinogenesis and human space exploration aimed to investigate the link between carcinogenesis of heavy ions and human exploration and its impacts on human health (Durante and Cucinotta 465). The study was instrumental in focusing on astronauts and their actions in space missions. For instance, before the commencement of the astronaut’s missions, scientists must extensively examine and accurately estimate and minimize the risks of cancer and exposure to other diseases. The study adopted a peer review analysis methodology to gather adequate information and interpretation. The findings revealed that radiation in space was more harmful than the earth’s radiation, hence pointing out the need to protect the astronauts from the radiation impacts actively.
In addition, the findings revealed that the high degree and intensity of radiation in space were highly associated with two types of heavy ions, including heavy nuclei and high-energy protons. Due to the attained findings, a resolution on radiation controls has been instituted to improve the efficiency of space visits and enhancement of healthy lifestyle of the explorers. Most importantly, the study is instrumental in initiating deeper insight into radiobiology, especially cancer, to better support space exploration. Furthermore, the paper can be effectively adopted in place of the expedition on space-related cancer and mechanisms to manage the same. However, despite significant insights into space-related cancer, space cancer’s degree of impact on human health has yet to be thoroughly examined.
Moreover, vital studies have been conducted on deep space exploration (Weiren 6). The article primarily focused on the impoverishment of human civilization due to space exploration. This would rapidly result in the improvement of the space exploration program. In support of space improvement, the paper investigated how the process of space exploration has resulted in an increased understanding of the universe. The study adopted a peer review methodology in which limitless research was previewed to gather analysis insights. As part of the findings, it was revealed that space exploration has been in progress over the last 50 years. The duration has been a factor of continuous improvement, which has evolved. Further, the study revealed that humankind had made important achievements, mainly attributed to increased invention and innovation.
As a nation, China has been revealed to have been prosperous in its journey to space exploration. Recent observation has indicated its progress in space technology, where it successfully tested heavy thrust carrier rocket and deep space TTC network. Such indicators have significantly improved human capacity to enter and explore space actions that have enhanced basic disciplines for mechanics, astronomy and physics, material building, and information. Such has been perceived to be instrumental in spearheading space exploration. Also, the findings have revealed that the increase in space exploration has significantly driven technological innovations and scientific discoveries targeted at enhancing the space exploration experience. As part of future implications, engagement in space exploration has definitive impacts such as enhancement of expertise through equipping humankind with the ability to solve technology-related problems. Secondly, the study directly contributed to improving the Chinese economy. Finally, such involvement implies an improved future of space exploration as a form of civilization for mankind.
Astronauts have different experiences when they do space exploration. White (73) in his study focused on answering the question of why human beings should explore space. The findings revealed that astronauts entail different philosophies, which are functions of perceptions. The results suggested that many astronauts believed that the space experience altered their consciousness and feelings. The results further revealed that activities in space such as exercise, clouds, and weightlessness highly contributed to the astronauts’ feelings band perception of space.
Nevertheless, every experience was found to leave a stronger impression on the astronaut’s body. As a result, direct impact on their actions. It was evident that space exploration laid the foundation of human society in the external environment away from earth (White 73). This article will be crucial, particularly on improving astronomy and astronauts’ experience whenever in space. With all of the presented arguments, the article will avail adequately on the reader’s perspective regarding space experience.
This article aimed to investigate health risks associated with space exploration, particularly from the perspective of biological features embedded in spaceflight. The study by (Afshinnekoo et al. 1165) focused on the fundamental biological feature of spaceflight. The study adopted a peer review methodology as part of its analysis. The findings revealed the existence of six features of spaceflight biology. As part of the future implications, the article has resulted in a practical understanding of molecular changes within the scope of space travel. The experience will effectively improve the organism’s analysis of damage, allowing possible solutions as part of space exploration.
Counter Argument
However, it is important to note that some sources highlight the potential dangers and detriments of space travel. Costs, in particular, are a high concern, along with the proposed effects space exploration may have on the human mind. Pagel and Chouker (1450) proposed that loneliness and isolation negatively affect the mental well-being of astronauts. Spending prolonged periods without human contact can potentially be detrimental to one’s ability to exist in society The study found that space exploration harmed the astronauts, particularly their social life and ability to interact effectively. The research indicated that space exploration directly impacted an individual’s social behavior. Being a vital component of human relations, it can be understood as beneficial to human survival. Significant indulgence in space exploration negatively affected individual capabilities to express themselves socially. Several studies have been conducted on space exploration and settlement. Makaya et al. (5) focused on investigating the properties of materials needed for most ambitious space missions and described the adopted design and testing or incomes before incorporation into the exercises. The analysis adopted an analytical methodology to evaluate the respective materials effectively. The findings indicated that due to the scarcity in the attainment of materials for spaceship production, the sustainability of astronauts was highly jeopardized. Similarly, it was revealed that an insufficient supply of the materials for spaceship production limited the continuity of space exploration as only a limited number of vessels could be produced. Further, the study revealed that space exploration resulted in emissions that directly altered the environment and sustainability of the astronaut’s life. High emissions from spacecraft technology resulted in the depletion of the ozone layer while endangering the Earth as a result threatening the existence of species on the Earth.
To control the adversity associated with space exploration there is a need to improve the technology for the spacecraft. Future spacecraft propulsion systems are other aspects of space exploration under study that should be revisited equitably. In their book, Czysz and Claudio (284) focused on investigating the appropriate enabling technology for space exploration. The text adopted a pragmatic approach to effectively analyze a series of technology adopted in the future to facilitate space travel. The findings indicated the visible expansion in technology and advance in rocket engines and rocket propulsion technology, which were limited to technological uncertainties that negatively impact the capability to develop sophisticated spacecraft systems. This aspect posed a more remarkable change in the progression of space exploration. Hypersonic could be highly instrumental in space exploration, the inability to incorporate the technology in spacecraft limits the ability and continuity of space exploration. In addition, the findings showed a flaw in multidisciplinary integration between the spectrums of hypersonic vehicles’ orbital capabilities and propulsion systems.
Conclusion
Space exploration is an important part of the modern world, bringing with it several technological and social benefits. The review provided the importance of space exploration concerning the earth and the environment, especially in the global economy. In addition, the examined works indicated spaceflight technology’s various qualities, with the ability to affect the lives of astronauts being chief among them. While certain issues exist, particularly regarding the deterioration of interpersonal skills and costs, space exploration undoubtedly produces more benefits. With the proper introduction of sustainable systems, as well as mental safeguards for astronauts, it is possible to make space exploration far less strenuous. Adequate understanding and materializing of the spacecraft in terms of materials used proved vital. It enhanced the security of human lives and the success of the actual space exploration process. This study was objective in that it provided inferences for further research. The direct repercussions of the importance attributed to the radical change in space exploration would significantly enhance the emergence of space travel agencies to the benefit of the whole population.
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Space exploration is one of the most rapidly developing science which is known for its high financial implications and advanced cutting-edge technologies. Life beyond the planet was always an object of researches and investigation. Many new developments, equipment, and discoveries from space are notably useful and efficient for improving the level and the quality of life on the Earth. The history of that kind of researches started in ancient times when philosophers tried to investigate the night sky to find out the system of stars arrangement. Since then, studies in this field have progressed in a significant way, and now people even have their own space station in Earth orbit. Nowadays, there are specialized organizations such as the Aerospace Industries Association or American Astronautical Society the goal of which is to explore space. The purpose of this paper is to describe the particularities of space exploration, taking into consideration its advantages and disadvantages for humanity, ethical questions, and predictions about the future of this industry.
Space Exploration
It is an erroneous belief that the exploration of space does not have any impact on the life of ordinary humans. It improves the quality of the life of millions of people every day: the technologies designed for space studies are now used in the medical sphere and for conducting other experiments (Rai et al., 2016). Nevertheless, space research also poses many ethical questions to society concerning colonization, financial resources, and ecological issues. With the advancement of this science, increasingly more questions rest without any answers. For many people who are not very familiar with the topic, it seems to be a complete waste of the governmental budget and just a way for experts to entertain themselves.
In the era of Gagarin and first trips into space, being a cosmonaut was considered to be highly prestigious, respected, and, at the same time, romantic. At the present moment, this science went too far away frthe om basic understanding that people regret that their taxes are spent on the exploration of the place that they would never visit. The attitude of the researchers in this field is rather ambivalent; the main beneficial and negative points of space exploration would be covered in the next parts to make the argumentative and clear statement.
Benefits of Space Exploration
The investigation of space has many advantages for society despite the fact that they are not highly notable for an ordinary person. For example, space researches encourage studies of different types of science (Panesor, 2009). What is more, the young specialists in chemistry, biology, or engineering become interested in the space sphere (Panesor, 2009). It is profitable for both sides – students provide innovative ideas, and the research centers help the new generation of scientists to get the job and to be well-paid. The benefits of space exploration cannot be counted only in money because the impact on society is non-quantifiable. According to Jacksona et al. (2019), a woman plays a crucial role in space studies. Thanks to women-cosmonauts, the level of social inequality declined rapidly in the last decade of the 20th century. A variety of studies show that women and men think and act in contrasting ways. It helps the industry of space exploration to function in a more efficient way considering several distinct points of view.
Negatives of Space Exploration
Space exploration is often claimed to be the sphere for wasting a large sum of money. This industry is one of the most expensive because of the intellectual resources and high-priced equipment details (“Cost of Space Exploration,” 1961). Nonetheless, Baum (2009) proposes the idea of cost-beneficial analysis; from his point of view, it is necessary to keep in mind the ethical risks and the alternative options of the distribution of the budget. In his other study, he raises the issue of the problem of colonization (Baum, 2016). According to his research, if people cannot save nature on the planet, there is no use to attempt to find other places to live. Moreover, the ecological situation becomes significantly severe because of the desire of humans to leave the Earth.
It is important to mention that the cost of space explorations is not always high. It generally depends on the type of research and its goal (“International Space Exploration Coordination Group,” 2013). If the data of previous experiments were used, it would help to make the price for the surveys lower (Battat, 2012). However, it requires more time and effort from the staff and makes this task, not an easy one. Another disadvantage is that it takes years or even decades for inventions and technologies to be a part of the life of ordinary people. The negatives of space exploration are highly notable for society because they cannot see the real impact.
Increase in Space Exploration and Possible Future Impacts
The industry of space studies plays an essential role in the political, social, and economic spheres. If there were more money invested, it might result in a financial crisis in the country. Even though space exploration is supposed to have many non-material benefits and unexpected advantages in the nearest future. For example, the recent developments would be directly integrated into different fields of science. The robotics like the mechanic hand or neurotransmitter are now saving and improving thousands of Roboticsnks to space technologies. The level of intellectual needs in this sphere would encourage cultural and cognitive growth for many people interested in this area of study (Crawford, 2019). If the specialists would not find any place for colonization, it may influence the attitude of the society to the planet and its beautiful nature. People might become more accurate and carrying about the ecological situation on Earth.
Ways of Space Exploration with the Least Damage
First of all, the previous experience and results should be attentively analyzed to make the price of the new inventions lower. Secondly, there should be specialists in public relations who would explain the society why space explorations are too crucial and what are the benefits of it. Finally, space study should become a global issue for developed countries (Krichevsky, 2018). It would reduce the cost for each separate country and would make the process more efficient.
Conclusion
In the modern world, space exploration has its benefits and negatives. The advantages are mostly non-economical and concern the social sphere of life, while the disadvantages are centered around the high costs of the researches. Nevertheless, there are several ways to improve the financial situation and to make the price lower: by using the experience of previous generations or by optimizing the process. Ethical questions should also be taken into consideration and make humanity reflect on ecological and moral questions. Space study is one of the fascinating spheres of science in the 21st century.
References
Battat, J. A. (2012). Technology and architecture: Informing investment decisions for the future of human exploration [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Baum, S. (2009). Cost-benefit analysis of space exploration: Some ethical considerations. Space Policy, 25(2), 75–80.
Baum, S. (2016). The ethics of outer space: A consequentialist perspective. The Ethics of Space Exploration, 2(1), 109–123.
International Space Exploration Coordination Group. (2013). Benefits Stemming from Space Exploration.
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1961). Cost of Space Exploration. Science, 133(3470), 2055–2055.
Crawford, I. (2019). Widening perspectives: The intellectual and social benefits of Astrobiology, Big History, and the exploration of space. Journal of Big History, 3(3), 205–224.
Jacksona, M. S., Knezek, P., Silimon-Hill, M. D., & Cross, M. A. (2019). Women in exploration: Lessons From the past as humanity reaches deep space. International Astronautical Congress, 1(1), 1–15.
Krichevsky, S. (2018). Super global projects and environmentally friendly technologies used in space exploration: Realities and prospects of the Space Age. Philosophy and Cosmology, 20(1), 92–105.
Rai, A., Robinson, J. A., Tate-Brown, J., Buckley, N., Zell, M., Tasaki, K., & Pignataro, S. (2016). Expanded benefits for humanity from the International Space Station. Acta Astronautica, 126(2), 463–474.
The new space mission is a European-built probe destined for an interplanetary journey with the overarching purpose of finding signs of life. Since the project required an immense amount of funding and collaboration of multiple countries, it is critical that it passes the initial stage – the rocket launch without any aberrations. In the baseline scenario, the launch is smooth, and this is to be expected as per recent statistics. As stated by Kyle (2019), who provided raw data on the subject, the manned failure rate was at 1.64% while the unmanned was at 8.08%. However, since science has been developing at a rapid rate, refining existing technologies, in the last 20 years, the unmanned failure rate was down to 6.68% for manned and 0.79% (Kyle, 2019).
It is estimated that the mission will last no longer than a few months, given that everything goes according to the plan. The tentative duration is in line with the average space mission duration. NASA (n.d.) reports that typically, the ISS (international space station missions), also commonly referred to as expeditions, do not exceed six months. From the case description, however, it becomes apparent that the current space mission is likely to be unmanned and controlled remotely, without an actual crew on board. In this case, an average space probe lasts around 90 days, or three months, which is close to the initial estimate.
One of the primary targets of the mission, measuring the atmospheric composition of the new planet, is expected to be achieved without major problems. Today, there are well-defined, thoroughly developed tools for determining what elements compose the atmosphere of a planet. They employ the light-absorbing characteristics of elements for generating the so-called “light signature.” Mapping the composition of the surface with a 100-m resolution is considered to be a medium characteristic of the most commonly used sensors put in use as early as 1999 (Ose et al., 2016). The baseline scenario implies that the mission will yield medium-resolution visual data whose collection will not be impeded by any natural phenomena.
The difficulty of surface observations will depend on the unique characteristics of the planet. For instance, surface observations on Venus have long suffered from its extremely dense atmosphere and natural occurrences such as strong winds whose velocity easily amounts to 80m/s (300 km/h) (Tinetti et al., 2013). Nevertheless, since even Venus has since been thoroughly researched, the baseline expectation is that there will be a way to observe the surface of a new planet.
The mission team does not raise their hopes too high regarding discovering signs of extraterrestrial forms of life. The same goes for water: with 71% of its surface covered with oceanic water, Earth is the only known planet with a stable water resource. As of 2015, it has been established that the volume of water inside the solar system is roughly 25-60 times the volume of water on Earth. Based on this piece of statistics, having at least water on its surface, be it ice or liquid, is not exactly a rarity, but at the same time, it does not mean that it is conducive to the emergence of life.
The Best Case Scenario
The best-case scenario for the current case includes the attainment of all the goals on the agenda. It goes without saying that the best-case scenario leaves no possibility for a failed launch, which, as it has been mentioned before, is not likely to happen in the first place based on the available data. The atmosphere composition of the planet will be so those surface observations will be easier than expected, and the shuttle will be able to collect probes for further analysis. Apart from it, the picture quality will advance from medium (100-1,000m) to high resolution (<100m). The mission will not be confronted with any of the extreme natural occurrences akin to those that take place on planets such as Venus.
What differs the best-case scenario from the baseline scenario is its groundbreaking discoveries and breakthroughs on issues that have long haunted astronomical, physical, chemical, and other sciences. The primary, overarching goal of the present mission is to discover extraterrestrial life, for which it is critical to come across natural conditions that are conducive to its emergence. Hence, the best-case scenario implies that such a discovery will be made, rendering the venture worthy of time, money, and human resources invested.
This year, Clash (2020) interviewed Story Musgrave, an astronaut that was on board of all five of the Space Shuttles – Endeavor, Discovery, Atlantis, Challenger, and Columbia. As cited by Clash (2020), Musgrave shared that statistically, there are millions if not billions of planets that have biological life. At present, the Habitable Exoplanet Catalog (HEC) maintained by the University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo (2020) counts as many as 55 potentially habitable exoplanets. According to the newest calculations, the closest one, Proxima Cen B, is in 4.2 light-years from Planet Earth, which means that the journey would take far longer than the tentative duration for the mission. However, in the best-case scenario, the exoplanet that the current space probe seeks to investigate turns out to be habitable – a trait that has gone unnoticed for years.
At present, there is a consensus that the habitability of any planet is contingent on the presence of liquid water (Sellers Exoplanet Environments Collaboration, n.d.). The chances that the investigated planet has water are moderate to high: for instance, as of 2015, it had been established that water is present in as many as 23 places in the Solar system alone (Hsu et al., 2015). As told by Hsu et al. (2015), there is good evidence that Enceladus, Saturn’s sixth-largest moon, has a hot hydrothermal environment – similar to the one that led to the emergence of life on Earth. This might be the case with the current exoplanet; however, there is still a possibility that the mission will discover new environments that can sustain life. In the best-case scenario, not only the exoplanet will be found habitable, but its natural conditions will also help to redefine the requirements for habitability. All in all, the mission will make a significant contribution to the modeling of diverse planetary conditions.
The Worst-Case Scenario
Even though in the last twenty years, technology has significantly improved, worst-case scenarios still cannot be completely excluded when planning a space mission. There are three ways according to which the space probe might fail and sabotage all plans. Firstly, as shown by Kyle (2019), unmanned shuttles are more likely to fail than those that are manned. Looking at the available data, it is easy to notice a striking difference in failure rates: 6.68% against 0.84% accordingly. Therefore, as per the worst-case scenario, the space probe faces an engineering disaster that compromises the whole mission.
To better understand what could go wrong, it may suffice to look at the history of failed missions, especially those that took place not so long ago. In 1986, the space shuttle Challenger lost control and broke into pieces barely a minute after its launch. It crashed into the Atlantic Ocean from an altitude of more than 50,000 feet, never making it to its destination (Grush, 2015). The 1960 Venera operation ended in failure the first two times: shuttles were flying by the orbit of Venus without entering the atmosphere (Grush, 2015). The way back might be as dangerous: the 2003 16-day “Columbia” space mission ended in a disaster when the shuttle broke apart when reentering the Earth’s atmosphere (Grush, 2015). Alternatively, the 2004 Genesis carrying the particles of the solar wind shuttle was not able to descent properly as its drogue parachute did not deploy on time. The failure to reenter the atmosphere or descend may lead to the loss of valuable samples.
Secondly, even if the launch itself is successful, in the worst-case scenario, none of the targets set by the international team are attained. For instance, akin to what happened to the 2009 NASA’s Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), the probe might be sent into a crater and slam to its destruction (Grush, 2015). The exoplanet is an unfamiliar environment, hence, surface observation might present such unexpected turns of events. Apart from that, in the worst-case scenario, the probe will not be able to take pictures with the required resolution due to unexpected natural occurrences in the atmosphere of the planet. It could be that the atmosphere of the planet would be so dense and prone to the formation of winds with extreme velocity, that any attempts to capture images would be rendered futile. Yet another tragic possibility is losing communication with a shuttle altogether.
Lastly, no matter which of the aforementioned events happens, the worst-case scenario implies the loss of an immense amount of money. If the mission proves to be an utter failure, some of the participating institutions are likely to be defunded and withdraw from participation altogether. The European Union is a powerful scientific hub, and yet, the quality of research and availability of funding vary from country to country. For instance, a recent paper by the European Union (2019) shows that Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands are the most research-intensive countries while others are barely mentioned. The worst-case scenario might lead to the growing discrepancy in scientific development within the EU.
The Unthinkable, Almost Impossible Scenario
When realizing a project as big as the current space mission, it still makes sense to entertain the most unthinkable, nigh-on ridiculous scenarios. The present mission set the discovery of new forms of life as its primary goal, and it does attain it as per the best-case scenario. However, the question arises as to what happens if the newly discovered forms of life are intelligent, aggressive, and do not have the best intentions. The presence of extraterrestrial civilizations has now been a mind-boggling issue for many decades. A statistical approach that allows us to measure the possibilities of encountering intelligent life outside Planet Earth is authored by the astronomer Frank Drake and embodied by the Drake equation (see Image 1). The equation entails the main concepts that scientists need to take into consideration when approaching the question of extraterrestrial radio-communicative life.
As for current approximations, using low estimates, it appears that humans are alone in this galaxy and, potentially, in the observable universe. On the other hand, with the proposed higher values, N may be as great as 15,600,000, meaning that there might be innumerate intelligent civilizations. Scenario D, the unthinkable, almost impossible scenario, entertains the latter version and suggests that on its space search, the shuttle starts communicating with an intelligent, technologically developed civilization.
Image 1. The Drake equation where N stands for the number of radio-communicative civilizations, R* is the average star formation rate, fp = the fraction of the stars that have planets, ne = the average number of habitable planets per star, fl = the fraction of habitable planets that do develop life, fi = the fraction of inhabited planets that have civilizations, fc = the fraction of civilizations that harness radio-communicative technologies, and L = the length of time for which such civilizations release detectable signals into space (Information is Beautiful, 2020).
The thought of contacting an extraterrestrial civilization is as hopeful as it is unsettling to the scientific community. The “dark forest” theory that can be traced back to the 2008 work by the hard science writer Cixin Liu, suggests that civilizations from different planets seek to avoid one another (Omoregie, 2019). The author compares the dynamics of such “cohabitation” to a walk in the dark forest (Omoregie, 2019). The exploration of a previously untouched, unfamiliar area makes one assume that anyone who he or she encounters does not have the best intentions. If two predators become aware of each other, each of them grows increasingly cautious about whether the other one plans to do any harm.
According to the unthinkable scenario, the “dark forest” theory proves to be true. The intelligent civilization that the space probe detects during its journey is easily provoked and sees the foreign object as an aggressor. The space probe is unmanned, and, therefore, the team is unable to communicate with the newly discovered civilization in a timely manner. Since the inhabitants of the exoplanet see the probe as a threat to their security, they capture it for further analysis. The team soon understands what happened to the probe and comes to a realization that the consequences of this contact might be dangerous to earthlings.
Process Description
In any business case, developing scenarios that range from the most optimistic to almost impossibly pessimistic requires taking several thoughtful steps. Essentially, to entertain possibilities means to explore different futures: writing scenarios allows for more clarity and, in turn, preparedness for any turn of events. The first step that I took to before writing any of the four scenarios is defining the issue. It was critical to understand what the international astrophysics team wanted to achieve as well as outline the timescale within which it needs to happen. All scenarios are primarily driven by the scale of the plan offered for examination. Fortunately, the case description was detailed enough to allow for singling out the primary goal and minor stepping stones. From the description, it became clear that the scientists had hoped for discovering signs of extraterrestrial life. Yet, more realistic targets included collecting probes from the atmosphere and the surface of the newly discovered exoplanet.
The second step was collecting data since previous experience often informs current decisions. For the baseline scenario, it was only reasonable to explore what typically happens during space missions such as the one in question. I operated the data on average mission duration and success rate for manned and unmanned shuttles. The extremities were included: I was only interested in the normal flow of events. Throughout the entire analysis, I was separating certainties from uncertainties and focusing on the latter since they are what can make or break the entire mission. While the baseline scenario revolved more around minor stepping stones, the best-case scenario assumed that the overarching goal will be somehow attained. To ground this assumption in data, I looked up the requirements for planet habitability and their existence in the observable universe. I made a point to show that the best-case scenario ends up in a scientific breakthrough that changes the way we see some issues in astrophysics and beyond.
The worst-case scenario was the one with the greatest numbers of the possible development of events. It was for this scenario that I did the most of historical research. To me, it made sense to understand the failed missions of the past to project them onto the future. I was especially interested in the most disastrous of missions since I was developing the worst-case scenario. It seemed only fair to embark on the topic of the state of research in the participating countries. The success of the mission would affect the reputation of some countries and potentially hurt those that were disadvantaged, to begin with.
Lastly, for the unthinkable scenario, I turned to science fiction. Space exploration often concerns itself with the questions of intelligent life outside our home planet, so this was the idea that I decided to develop. The “dark forest” theory ignited my interest in what dynamics between earthlings and extraterrestrial beings might be, so I used it as a foundation for the scenario. All in all, this assignment required rigorous data analysis and independent research as the key steps toward successful completion.
Reference
Clash, J 2020, Is there extraterrestrial life, and has it visited Earth?, Web.
Grush, L 2015, When space probes crash — for science and otherwise, Web.
Hsu, HW et al. 2015, Ongoing hydrothermal activities within Enceladus, Nature, vol. 519, no. 7542, pp. 207-210.
Information Is Beautiful n.d., Are we alone in the universe? Calculate the chance of intelligent alien life with the Drake Equation, Web.
Kyle, E 2019, Space launch report: orbital launch summary by year, Web.
The European Union, European Research Ranking 2019, Web.
Tinetti, G, Encrenaz, T & Coustenis, A 2013, Spectroscopy of planetary atmospheres in our Galaxy, The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review, vol. 21, no. 1, p. 63.
University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo 2020, Habitable exoplanets catalog, Web.
In the twentieth century people learnt to use the outer space and enjoyed the benefits of this use. However, in the twenty-first century many states are more concerned about the fact that “the same technologies that benefit humanity are pressed into service as weapons” (Johnson-Freese and Nichols 2007, 159). The development of space technology in the USA and the U.S. Space Policy brought these concerns to the fore.
It is important to note that nowadays the outer space is already inhabited by more than 500 satellites which are used for military purposes, e.g. for communication, imaging and meteorology (jonlottman 2008). The USA is one of the leaders of the space technology and it is trying to find new ways of exploring and using the outer space.
In 2006 National Space Policy (NSP) was unveiled. Reportedly, it can be regarded by other states “as highly nationalistic at best and aggressively militaristic at worst” (Johnson-Freese and Nichols 2007, 161).
In fact, the new NSP “treats space as one more potential battlefield” and is aimed at defending the US national security. Nevertheless, the line between military defense and attack is almost absent especially when it deals with the outer space.
Admittedly, all states try to develop their space technology to keep up with such countries as the USA, or Russia and China. For instance, Iran launched Omid satellite in February 2009 (Ballistic Missile Defense Review Report 2010). Such projects are often regarded by many states as a potential threat to the security of each country and the peace in the world.
For instance, at the 2002 Carnegie International Nonproliferation Conference scientists and specialists from many countries discussed the issues of space weaponization. Weaponization is defined as “the active application of force in space to either terrestrial or space based targets” (Johnson-Freese and Nichols 2007, 166).
The participants of the conference revealed their concerns about the development of space technologies and their use by the USA and other countries. It was also mentioned that the U.S. policy makes other countries develop their own space technologies.
Admittedly, this can lead to space weapon proliferation and can become a real threat to humanity. In spite of the fact that the US administration officials declare that the USA is against weapon proliferation, when it deals with the space the US policy is quite inconsistent since the state “explicitly voted against” treaties “banning space weapons” (Johnson-Freese and Nichols 2007, 166).
The major claim of the US officials can be expressed with the help of the statement of Christine Rocca, U.S. Ambassador: “…we continue to believe that there is no arms race in space, and therefore no problem for arms control to solve” (Johnson-Freese and Nichols 2007, 167). Such position leads to certain tension.
It goes without saying that weapon proliferation is a potential threat if at least one state is developing space technology in military purposes. For instance, the US policy is a kind of stimulus for other countries to develop their space technology to defend themselves from potential threats. There can be no balance in the world where some countries go further in weaponization.
In conclusion, the use of space technology by the USA is often an example for other states to develop their space technology. Whereas several decades ago the outer space was used for imaging, communication and entertainment, now it is regarded as a potential battlefield.
It is important to state that many countries express their concern about space weaponization and try to work out strategies aimed at diminishing weapon proliferation. Nevertheless, it is necessary to stress that each state should follow the principles of nonproliferation and disarmament, since otherwise proliferation cannot be stopped.
Over the last few years, space power has received significant attention from the military. According to the military experts, space power can be a great asset to the military if it is fully utilized. Space power theory is regularly evaluated through sea, land, and air theories (Robertshaw & Bergin, 2004).
Through this, the theory’s development can be illustrated. It is commonly argued that space theory resulted from the advancements in air power theories. Some military experts argue that the difference between air power and space power is negligible.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that space power is a unique field in the military sciences. During the Gulf War, the use of space power gave the US and the allied forces an added advantage over the Iraqi forces. During this war, the space power was utilized for the first time enabling its users to gain victory over their foes.
Currently, it is acknowledged that the future of the military success lies in the ability of the forces to exploit the space power. In this regard, the US military should realize that an extensive knowledge and understanding on space power is very crucial to the future of the country and the world at large.
This paper focuses on the developments in space power and its impacts on air power, sea power, and land power.
Body
As compared to sea power and air power, space power is a new concept in the military. According to the military history, land power has been exploited for thousands of years. However, in the 16th century many improvements in the military power were experienced.
During this century, renowned advocates of land power and strategic theories emerged. Among these individuals are Jomini and Clausewitz. On the other hand, the sea power has been in existence for thousands of years. However, new theories were introduced in the 19th century enhancing the efficiencies of sea power.
Among these theories were Mahan, Callwell, Rauol, and Julian theories. According to most scholars, land, sea, and air theories have played key roles in the developments of space theories. According to Mahan theory, advancements in land theories led to sea and air theories. Similarly, advancements in air theories led to space theories (Kearsley, 1992).
In the 20th century, the air power emerged. Because of its utilization, much advancement was realized in the military. It is believed that improvements in air power inspired the development of space power (Mueller, 2010).
As such, the developments in space power were realized after the World War II. According to the US military, advancements in radar and jet technologies led to the creation of satellite and rocket technologies. During the Cold War, military enmity between the Soviet and the US led to the improvements in space power.
With these advancements, the US military became more concerned with human orbital activities owing to the risks and opportunities presented by the activities.
Following the Sputnik launch in the year 1957 by the Soviet, the US felt threatened by Soviet’s military advancements (Sheehan, 2007). To counteract this initiative, the US military launched Explorer I in the year 1958. From then on, the space power advanced simultaneously with the Cold War.
In the 1960s and the 1970s, space power realized tremendous developments in its skills, infrastructures, and plans. During the 1980s, the US and the Soviet’s military spending and dependence on space power increased significantly. During the same decade, the US military mandated its air force to oversee its space power operations (Mixon, 1988).
It was not until the Gulf War that space power was used for the first time in the warfare to enhance land power, air power, and sea power (Swofford, 2003). Using the space power, the US military together with the allied forces gained a considerable lead in the war over their foes (Nardo, 1991).
During the war, the use of satellite enhanced accuracy in bombing, navigation, and communication. With GPS, the US soldiers and the allied soldiers were able to navigate through the Kuwait and Iraq’s deserts with ease.
Other advantages gained with the use of space power in the Gulf War were operational timing, tactical underground operations, and precise underground targeting. After the Gulf War, great militaries in the world realized the effectiveness and the potentials of space power (King, 1991).
In general, the use of space power in the Operational Desert Storm is considered as a breakthrough in the history of the space power advancements. In the 21st century, space power has been employed by the US military in Iraq and Afghanistan wars (Darity, 2008).
With the developments in space power, decrease in the land power, air power, and sea power applications in the current warfare has been realized (Ritzer, 2011). Despite the decrease, land, sea, and air operations have been enhanced by the developments in space power.
As illustrated during the Gulf War, the use of space war boosted land operations (Bellamy, 2009). Air power theories assert that warfare can be won through the ability to control air operations. In this regard, advancements in space theories have enhanced air operations through satellite communications and dominant maneuver.
On the other hand, advancements in the space power theories have boosted sea power theories. Space power theories attributed to Jomini and Mahan, believe that superiority over the sea can allow the interested countries to have control over water bodies for peace and war initiatives.
Therefore, advancements in space power have enhanced sea power theories by easing naval operations through better maneuvers and communications (Bailey, 2012).
References
Bailey, D. (2012). The future of warfare: what’s next?. Mankato, MN: Creative Education.
Bellamy, A. J. (2009). War. London: Routledge.
Darity, W. A. (2008). International encyclopedia of the military sciences (2nd ed.). Detroit, Mich.: Macmillan Reference USA.
Kearsley, H. J. (1992). Maritime power and the twenty-first century. Aldershot, Hants, England: Dartmouth ;.
King, J. (1991). The Gulf War. New York: Dillon Press.
Mixon, B. R. (1988). Concentration of Military Force in Joint Operations: Applying Theory to Reality . Ft. Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Center.
Mueller, K. P. (2010). Air power. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
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Ritzer, G. (2011). Globalization: the essentials. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Robertshaw, A., & Bergin, M. (2004). Warfare in the 20th century. Columbus, Ohio: Peter Bed- rick Books.
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Over the years, individuals have been baffled by the nature of both time and space. Kant was the first philosopher to doubt the existence of both space and time. He conceptualized that they (time and space) were mere ‘intuitions’ or perceptions invented by our own minds.
Later, in 1900s, Minkowski and Einstein were back at it again and found that time and space can be interchanged. For painstaking systematic reasons, they swapped time with ‘spacetime’.
In 1986, Szamosi delved into the subject again this time round detailing how the perceptions of space and time developed from earlier attempts of primitive life forms to understand their world to become the modern impression we have of space and time.
In this paper, I will show that dominant conceptualizations of Time and Space do not just exist, but are produced; I will base my arguments on 2 articles and two films which will be relevant to the understanding of space and time perceptions.
Everydayness
The “Mystery of the Everyday”: Everydayness in History is an article build around an object of modern intellectual history. Harry Harootunian’s work on “the everyday” presents the reader with a strict definition of concept of time and space. Harootunian’s work is a critique of everyday life.
He wonders how people situate and frame the everyday as something to be experimented, thought, and to be analyzed critically. Lefebvre views modern artwork as not just obscure objects desiring explanation but rather as explanations. Under capitalism, modern artwork is nothing but multiple responses to the condition of everyday life.
Lefebvre focuses on political time. For example, he wonders why modernity, tradition, and postcoloniality are labeled as interventions in the field of political time. To him, modernization theory and post-colonial discourse are a group in the historical continuum.
This article, which looks at modernization in Japan, argues that “modernity is a specific cultural form and consciousness of lived historical time that differs according to social forms and practices” (Harootunian 62).
Lefebvre opposes the various descriptions of modernities such as alternative modernities, divergent modernities, competing modernities, and retroactive modernities. According to him, this term is wrongly used to the existence of an “original”.
The terms were mere creation in the “west” but due to a series of “copies” and lesser variations, the terms acquired new meanings. These conceptions of modernities were only built upon transmuting a temporal lag into a qualitative difference.
The idea that Japan and other societies transforming into a modern order at different paces reveals that modernity is an idea of western capital. On the concept of space, Lefebvre refers to a unity called “West”.
To him, space is inexistent. He looks at the dyad term west and non-west and wonder exactly where is west on the world map. This idea invented by western capital tends to determine the geographical location of other places in relation to modernity.
“Split-space”
In the article The Discursive Space of Modern Japan by Karatani Kojin, sheds light on how the concept of time and space is produced. His theory of “split-space” emphasizes inflection of certain terms and or concepts that brings the complex relation of philosophy and history into clearer focus.
Kojin argues how periodization and history are inseparable. Societies mark of a period by assigning a beginning and an end so as to understand the importance of events occurring in their life. Kojin begins by demonstrating how the Showa period began.
He says that the word Showa and the dissertation concerning the Showa period began in 1987 during the time of the emperor’s illness. By the start of 1989, the Showa period came to an end. Afterwards, it came to be known that a “Showa period” existed. This is what he calls “periodizing history”.
Karatani in particular criticizes Japan for neglecting the possibilities present during its inception that were instead replaced by modernist ideology and the nation state system. According to Kojin, comparative history is not fit for measuring Japanese historical trajectory against another build upon European-based model of development.
Such a move, he advises, is likely to yield problems as it may endanger productive discussions. The Japanese ‘feudalism’, connected to Tokugawa political system, put Japanese history in a relative framework and pitted Japanese historians with those from medieval Europe.
Such a formulation suggests a comparison without connection; labeling Tokugawa Japan “feudal” imply placing Japanese development with events happening in Europe and in a different era. Terms like “Early Modern Japan” means an entirely different thing.
Karatani points to the Christian calendar and Japanese periodization saying that “both serve to make explicit the fact that each nation’s ‘era/world’ is only a communal, illusory space, and that a plurality of worlds (eras/worlds) exists simultaneously, maintaining relations with one another” (Kojin 77).
To Kojin, history relies on the marking of a period so as to understand the importance of events and occurrences. History is all about the question of periodizing and periodization has the tendency of altering the importance of events!
Kojin’s split-pace theory of reception as it appears tends to suggest that in the future, his own theory will be split and decentered. To kojin, centers and margins are a play of transposition. We cannot entirely argue that margins and centers do not exist.
The center is somehow blind and the peripheral or the margins do not necessarily need to cope with. Kojin fail to understand that the west has been marginal itself. Karatani focuses his theory towards the west rather than being post-colonial. It tends to get lost in concepts of time and space it is supposed to analyze.
Three Times
Hou Hsiao-hsien’sThree Times is the only of his many movies that delves into historical material. This is a triptych of stories of love that are narrated in different time periods but stared by the same actors.
In this movie, Hou Hsiao-hsien combines the past and the present in a way that he creates free floating narratives that are not tied to any chronological progression.
Hou Hsiao-hsien puts a lot of effort in the development of these semi-related tales and at no one time in the movie does he succumb to straightforward duplication. The film is entangled with its director’s conviction in the powerful influence of history on here and now (Three Times 2007).
The ‘Three times’ has a 1966 introductory segment titled “A time for love”. The plot however shifts backwards in time and tell of an actor named May’s maiden arrival at the pool-hall.
This is a way for Hou Hsiao-hsien to make his audience to revisit and reassess through their memory what led to the current situation. It is worth noting that this is only a primer to the following stories that are full of historical shading.
Part two of the movie-“A time for freedom” is yet another rumination of historical episode. The scene is set in 1911 in Taiwan reflecting the difficulties, and unbalanced realities facing mankind during the start of the century. Qi’s performance in this part reflects Taiwan as she struggled to free herself from imperial Japan rule.
The final episode – “A time for Youth” is a depiction of modern day Taipei youth mixed in the millennium Mambo’s pop music and juvenile aimlessness. When Hou Hsiao-hsien displays a suicide note on the monitor although having said so in narration, he makes his audience revisit the past again. This is a plea to the Taiwanese to embrace their history.
Hou Hsiao-hsien is a puppetmaster. “A time for Love” happens when Hou Hsiao-hsien was about the same age as two of the lovers. This could only be taken to mean that his age may not be the same to that of the youth of the present. However, he is looks more at ease in the future than in the past. With Hou Hsiao-hsien, time and space do not exist – they are notions created in the peoples’ mind.
Sabu’s Monday
In Sabu’s ‘Monday (2000), the scene is a hotel room and a man, Takagi, wakes up not knowing how he got there in the first place. Takagi reaches over the table and pick a newspaper, checks the front page and realizes that it’s Monday. The last day he can remember is Saturday.
Takagi has no recollection of what occurred between Saturday and Monday! Sabu leaves the audience to work out the puzzle with him as he leads them through Takagi’s scrappy memory of his missing 48 hours. When a packet of sanitizing salt falls from his pocket, he starts recollecting what occurred.
We are taken back to a funeral scene, a graveside; the conversation turns out to be a shoot-out after Takagi disagrees with his girlfriend. The audience then shifts from the unsteady weekend of Takagi to the hotel scene. This makes flashback gain relevance. Outside the hotel, Takagi learns from a hotel TV that he is surrounded by police (Monday 2000).
From the story, we learn that after the quarrel following the burial, Takagi got angry and armed with a gun from a Yakuza club, he embarks on a vigilante killing orgy. Takagi not only killed the boss of the yakuza gang but also some street punks in the process. Takagi shifts from being sober and at times he becomes murderous.
The goal of Sabu’s movie is to show how the world is capable of drawing out the dark side that each of us possess. The movie lacks the aspect of time. To Sabu, we are capable of traveling anywhere in the notion of time.
Conclusion
The four works have demonstrated how time and space are creations of the mind that help mankind understand the world. In the Mystery of everyday: Everydayness in history, Harootunian clearly demonstrates how the west created the term modernity and industrialization in the process of marking Japan and other slowly developing countries as lagging back in time.
He criticizes labeling japan underdeveloped in the sense of time because of its peripheral location on the world map. Karatani Kojin in The Discursive Space of Modern Japan argues that periodization – creation of time – is inherent in history, to mark the beginning and the end of a certain period of interest.
In Three times, directorHou Hsiao-hsien tells a story devoid of both space and time. His film is set in three different times and places.
Hou is capable of making his audiences traverse between different times with ease. He is not in any way restricted by timing in the setting of his movies as both are notions to him. Sabu’s Monday, is similar to Hou Hsiao-hsien’s ‘Three times’. Sabu makes his audience traverse between the past and the present in the process erasing the notion of both time and space.
Works Cited
Harootunian, Harry. History’s Disquiet: Modernity, Cultural Practice, and The Question Of Everyday Life. Columbia: Columbia University Press, 2000. Print.
Karatani, Kojin. The Discursive Space of Modern Japan. London: Duke University Press, 1991. Print.