There has been an increase in the number and frequency of complains concerning the poor allocation of federal funds in the United States. The issues raised include funding of NASA and spending a lot more on space technology. Highlighted herein, are the health issues as pertaining to the astronauts and critics are demanding for possible solutions to these problems. These issues have over the years escalated to worrying levels due to the governments neglect to impose strict policies to these corporations so that they can yield expected results. This is partly due to their need to protect their status as pioneers of space explorers and to save face among rival governments. Consequently, an increased interest by policy makers has developed towards the transformation of the rules and regulations that govern the implementation, sustenance and protection of these workers (Miller, 2007).
Statement of the Problem
The space exploration program has been in existence for a very long time but the results from the same have been disappointing. As such, debates from different concerned groups have ensued regarding the extent to which these programs are applicable. The “naysayers” contend that these programs are a waste of valuable resources that could otherwise be useful in addressing other more pressing issues here on earth. These issues include but are not limited to crime, hunger and diseases. Those in support of space exploration insist that it is a way forward. They claim that space mission’s gears towards safeguarding the future of the human race. This study sets out to investigate to what extent this statement holds true with regard to the Chinese workers.
Introduction
Space exploration may be regarded as one of the most ambitious projects of the humanity, as it requires essential human, financial and time resources. People study the surrounding space, observe the space objects, try to find out whether we are alone in the universe, or whether there are other planets that may be suitable for life etc. The actual aim of these researches may be explained only by the natural curiosity of the humanity, as practical use of these knowledge is highly doubted by some researchers. On the other hand, people have an opportunity to study the processes which could be useful for understanding the origins of planets, galaxies and the universe in general. Miller defines space exploration as “the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space” (2007, p. 49). It is one of the controversial topics in America because it is a very expensive affair with little progress recorded each year. Arguably, it is a venture worth undertaking because it is all about the future of the human race.
Origins, History and future of Space Exploration
The process of space exploration was started in the ancient times, when people were observing various objects from their observatories on the Earth. Hence, the first astronomical principles and rules were found out. Nevertheless, this knowledge was not of any scientific value for the ancient civilizations, as the main aim was the communication with gods, creation of calendars, defining of seasons, etc.
The deeper exploration was started when the first optical systems were invented. Hence, the researchers found new planets, some new stars, and had an opportunity to observe comets and meteors.
The first flights of the man-created space objects were initiated during the World War II, when German scientists launched V-2 rocket to outer space. Nevertheless, the main aim of these launches was the military attack but not the scientific exploration of the outer space. Anyway, this was an essential step forward in space technology development, as the humanity had an opportunity to launch the research equipment to the orbit, and research the space, including Earth, moon, sun and other space objects.
In accordance with Blair (2002) it should be emphasized that the discovery of such grounds would not only provide habitable lands but also an array of untapped resources. Metallic asteroids are rich in metal components utilized here on earth. As an example, he uses the 2km asteroid discovered in 1986. The metal components contained in that single asteroid amounts to $25.7 trillion in today’s market. Nova Publishers, which has a proven record of accomplishment in providing credible and quality literature, published this book. In addition to this, the author has done other extensive research on this topic and his works features in other literature dealing in the same subject. It is a very resourceful book when it comes to understanding the economic benefits of space exploration.
Zimmerman (2009) dwells on the future of space exploration. It is highlighted that the best way of managing this area to ensure that it yields the expected results. In fact, the success of any space program depends on the ability of the staff to communicate and coexist with little to no conflicts. Hence, it is suggested that good leadership and managerial skills will ensure a successful and bright future in this important field of study. The respective authorities should put in place strategies to enhance global relations since the world is rapidly becoming a global community. Using research rather than firsthand studies to support his ideas, the author insists that promoting international relations will increase the possibility of developing and establishing an international space station that will see experts from different countries work together towards a common goal.
Space exploration has been a very important aspect in many countries. This importance comes from the fact that there are many benefits (educational, scientific, economic and technological) that emerges from such exploratory missions. BNSC (2009) reflected on the plans that UK had in regards to the future of its space program. In page 57-65 of their article titled “Space Exploration Review”, the authors highlighted the fourth option that they have tabled to the minister, which was the human and robotic option. This option covered a wide range of activities including the tiniest shred of involvement to the big agendas such as the human spaceflight program. The authors stated that two viable possibilities presented gear towards the evaluation of the costs and benefits of such programs to the UK. The first option (4a), BNSC (2009) aims at highlighting the minimum investment that the UK requires to have a hand in human spaceflight.
On the other hand, the second option (4b) offered an unbiased and combined method that would ensure that UK had the highest possibility of yielding the most from this program in terms of economic returns. BNSC (2009) recommends that investment on both the human and robotic activities is a worthwhile endeavor. As regarding to the first option, the authors recommend that UK could extend their broadband lunar communications the UK scientists get included in the early human expeditions that would occur in the early 2020’s. To further support their claim that a viable investment as regarding to space exploration should include both human and robots, the authors gave an example stating that humans have a rational mind and can make quick and rational decisions when faced with some problems unlike the robots which are programmed to follow certain commands without questioning them (BNSC, 2009). For example, a human being has the reasoning capability that enables him to repair any malfunctioning equipment appropriately. On the other hand, it would take a long time to program a robot so that it can perform the same task (BNSC, 2009).
The reviewers acknowledged that space exploration is an expensive ordeal for any one country. In the second option (4B), BNSC (2009) inferred that these technologies in 4A could be used as an advantage against other countries until the UK astronauts were allowed to contribute in the lunar drillings and the installation of telescopes around the moon (BNSC, 2009). In addition to this, this section has also highlighted the various benefits that come from utilizing both human and robotic activities in space exploration.
Literature Review
According to Johnson-Freese (2007), the most suitable tool to use while evaluating situations is analyzing the correlations that exist between the aspects presented. As such, the study shall use the descriptive correlation research method. This is because it seeks to identify the relationship between two variables, which in this case are the costs, and the benefits of space exploration. The data collected will consist of testimonials from some selected workers and reports from various sources related to the policies governing these programs, foreign and local investments in the country. The data collected will then be put in comparison to data generated by other related studies to evaluate the efficacy of space exploration in America as regarding its contribution in enhancing the welfare of all. To answer the questions designed for this study, the establishment of key concerns geared towards the provision of guidelines for the interviews and the criteria used in data collection will be discussed.
Data Gathering Procedure
As earlier mentioned, an evaluation methodology shall be used to design the procedures through which the purpose of this study can be realized. The participants for the interviews shall preferably be selected from industries located in NASA. Questionnaires shall be distributed among the citizens, workers and employers from various regions in order to gauge whether the situations are similar. Appropriate diagrammatic presentations in form of charts and table shall be provided and narrative explanations of the same offered. The proposed methods shall suffice in addressing all the questions posed in this study because they provide credible data from the one on one interviews and the answers posted on the questionnaires. In addition to this, the mean obtained after compiling the data, shall provide accurate information regarding to the topic and the correlation shall be used to identify the causes of problems that are faced in space exploration.
The data collected will consist of testimonials from some selected workers and reports from various sources related to the policies governing these programs, foreign and local investments in the country. The data collected will then be put in comparison to data generated by other related studies to evaluate the efficacy of space exploration in America as regarding its contribution in enhancing the welfare of all. To answer the questions designed for this study, the establishment of key concerns geared towards the provision of guidelines for the interviews and the criteria used in data collection will be discussed.
The psychological effects of space missions to the astronauts is described by Freeman (2000). In fact, this aspect of space explorations deserves particular attention, as the influence of the circumstances and factors which can not be created on the Earth should not be ignored. Freeman claims that isolation (from family and friends) may lead to anxiety and depression. The fact that the astronaut is away from his family and put in an unknown environment is not easy and may have detrimental effects on the person. The author also reflects on the importance of privacy to a human being. He claims that privacy is a psychological need and lack of it may cause serious mental issues to a person. The author is a professor of electrical engineering at MIT. He has written other books on this topic. Most of his work has been review and accepted by various scholars. All these factors make this book a credible source of information. This book offers an elaborate overview of the challenges faced in space exploration. It helps in this research because it provides a greater understanding of the psychological implications derived from outer space missions.
Another important aspect of space explorations is the existence and operation of the International Space Stations. In fact, this may be regarded as the unique tendency for Defining the actual importance of the space explorations with resorting to human resources. Hence, the key research is held by Haskell & Rycroft (2000). The concept of the international space station is regarded from all angles (political, social, economical and technological). It is claimed that the ISS is an increasingly important issue in the modern world due to the heightened efforts by many countries to do more research in space. They argue that the development of an international space station has a high commercial potential to the participating nations. In addition to this, they assert that it presents many countries with an opportunity and viable grounds to carryout more scientific research, achieve technological and educational development. The authors have provided a great number of references that collaborates their opinions as regarding to the establishment of the ISS. In addition to this, the book extensively reviews previously written literature, compares, and contrasts the main ideas to the preceding of the symposium. The book is applicable in this study because it explores the benefits that come from the implementation of the ISS.
References
Blair, E. (2002). Asteroids: overview, abstracts, and bibliography. USA: Nova Publishers.
BNSC. (2009). Space Exploration Review. UK: BNSC publishers.
Freeman, M. (2000). Challenges of human space exploration. NY: Springer.
Haskell, G & Rycroft, M. (2000). International space station: the next space marketplace: proceedings of international symposium, 26-28 May 1999, Strasbourg, France. NY: Springer.
International Debate Education Association & Trapp, R. (2009). The debatabase book: a must-have guide for successful debate. USA: IDEA.
Johnson-Freese, J. (2007). Space as a strategic asset. USA: Columbia University Press.
Makemson, H. (2009). Media, NASA, and America’s quest for the moon. USA: Peter Lang.
Marshall Cavendish Corporation. (2005). Explorers and Exploration. USA: Marshall Cavendish.
Miller, R. (2007). Space Exploration. USA: Twenty-First Century Books.
Rau, D & Higgins, D. (2005). The International Space Station. USA: Compass Point Books
Sears, J & Moody, M. (2001). Using government information sources: electronic and Print. USA: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Zimmerman, J. (2009). Approaches to Future Space Cooperation and Competition in a Globalizing World: Summary of a Workshop. USA: National Academies Press.
Apart from the looming climate change and global warming, the world is facing a disaster in her space infrastructure, if space debris continues to fill the orbit. Records from NASA shows that, over 19,000 of debris, which are more than 1 cm in size, have been tracked, but more is believed to exist that cannot be observed.
Areas of great concern to astronauts are the Lower earth orbit and the geostationary earth orbit. This calls for hastening of mitigation measures to stop their increase and remove the space debris (Remer 1).
Introduction
The modern world stands to face various challenges if manmade objects orbiting the earth are not safeguarded. It is in this spirit that space surveillance networks have been established to track space debris or junks that may cause collisions to space orbits.
The United States has been credited with space debris tracking as the world tries to elude repercussions that may be associated with the ever increasing space junks (Remer 1). The world has witnessed several cases of space collisions, for example, the collision between a privately owned U.S. satellite (iridium) and a dead Russian satellite, on the 12, February, 2009.
This collision led to destruction of both satellites and subsequent creation of more debris in the earth’s orbit. These additional junks are of great concern to astronauts as they can lead to further collisions with orbiting satellites. This research paper will explore space debris in detail, by defining it, why and where they are a problem, as well as how to track and mitigate their growth (Remer 1).
Space Debris
Space Debris, also known as Space junks are objects made by man that orbit the earth and are of no use in space. These particles usually orbit the earth and may cause concern when they meet a functioning satellite of spacecraft. The most recent estimation pieces of space debris as of 22nd March 2011, by NASA is 22000. This is quite frightening as these are the traceable space junks, and gives a clue on how much is untraceable.
Such facts show how much the world is at risk of witnessing more collisions, which would worsen the situation (David 1). Another recent occurrence was the destroyed Chinese satellite which nearly caused collision with ESA’s (European Space Agency) satellite. It is claimed by orbital debris experts that the two mentioned collisions alone increased space debris by about 50% (David 1).
Space debris refers to the various particles that get discarded in the earth’s orbits by manmade objects. They include bolts, nuts, collision discards, slag, rocket motors, paint flakes, dust and coolants from satellites, among other materials that litter the earth’s orbit. These materials orbit around the earth and pose great danger to satellites. These particles also have the propensity to erode parts of spacecrafts and satellite, leading to more fragments in pace.
Probability of collision with spacecraft tends to increase as more objects are discarded in the orbits since they overlap spacecraft trajectories. The earth’s orbit is divided into two, the high and low earth orbits. These orbits are all polluted by space debris and flight engineers are tasked with the responsibility of tracking them to avoid further collisions (Remer 1).
Why space debris is a problem
Space debris, as has been stated above consist of the fragments, and discards from objects such as satellites and spacecrafts in space. These particles can erode parts of the spacecrafts and satellites on collision and have the capability of causing damage to the body of the objects traversing space. Since these particles cannot be traced all as may be desired, let alone taking them out of the orbit.
They cause collision dangers to other satellites and spacecrafts in the orbit and have the potential of increasing debris in space, which would increase the likelihood of collision and hence affect the normal operation of space objects that are of great importance to the earth. Weather and satellite information received from space are important to science, communication, aviation and astronomy (Remer 1.
Areas of concern
Several countries are already exploring ways of removing space debris from the orbits; this is because of rise in concerns on their space infrastructure. One of the areas of great importance in space is the (GEO) geostationary orbit, which is uniquely place for satellites that can orbit at the same rate as that of the earth.
In essence the satellites tend to be stationary, relative to the earth’s rotation. This makes it unique for weather and communication satellites which are the basis of space science (Remer 1).
Another area of concern is the pollution of LEO (Low Earth Orbit). This is mainly because the universal orbits are few and it is these universal orbits that can keep spacecrafts on specific rings.
The layout of LEO satellites also make it difficult as they are place in numerous orbital planes. In addition, even though high altitudes tend to have fewer satellites, orbital decay is very slow (in millennia), and this makes it a prospective cause of concern in the future as the debris reaches their threshold (Whipple 517).
Tracking space debris
Given the high risk caused by space debris, several measures have been taken to ensure they are observable so as to help in avoiding collision. To achieve this, various technological researches have been carried out and special detectors developed for tracking purposes.
These equipments include optical and radar detectors such as lasers and transit telescopes, among others. However, the use of these devices is limited as they can on trace objects of limited sizes. Another problem facing tracking of space debris include stability of such tiny debris in the orbit, this makes determination of orbits for (re-acquisition) difficult.
Furthermore, these tracking devices cannot track debris of less than 1 cm in size, making their traceability more complicated. It is believed that the smaller debris is numerous and still remains unobserved. According to ESA Metroid, over 600,000 of objects bigger than 1 cm are in the orbit. Other ways used include measurement campaigns, done by radars (Whipple 517).
Another way used to track debris is through measurements done in space, in this method, researchers use returned debris hardware, which act as an information base regarding orbit environment. Examples of such satellites used are the EURECA satellite which was recovered by STS-57 Endeavor. Moreover, debris can be tracked using Gabbard diagrams.
When satellite breakups occur, the group fragments that break are usually studied using Gabbard diagrams. Gabbard diagrams are scatter plots which use the altitudes of debris against orbital period to ascertain the points of collision as well as the directions taken after collision. These, method have limitations, especially with smaller space debris which are unstable in the orbits and tiny (Whipple 517).
Mitigation
Various countries such as the United Kingdom, United States, Russia, France and the like’s have made several steps to counter the increasing danger caused by space debris increase. These steps include research studies on how to reduce manmade objects from the orbit, campaigns to raise awareness of the danger posed by these space junks, steps to mitigate growth of space debris, designing satellites that are capable of moving out of the orbits after use, also known as self-removal orbits.
The other method is external removal, which is currently underway in its five-year implementation plan. In external removal, several ideas are still emerging with in-depth research being conducted to come up with the best way of removing space debris from the orbit.
The current close call events tracked weekly is estimated at 13,000 and is expected to increase. According to Lewis, a researcher, the coming decade will present another 50% rise in space debris, with another estimation of four times increase by the year 2050 (Remer 1).
Mitigation of debris Growth
These research findings have made it a priority to unearth ways of mitigating space debris. In growth mitigation, a number of proposals have been studied, some of which were successful, and these include change in Delta boosters, which eliminated their debris contribution. In 2007, United Nations Committee (COPUOS) published guidelines that were voluntary to countries wishing to minimize increase in debris.
Several agencies such as ESA, NASA and ISO, among others have also implemented ways that would mitigate on debris creation. Robotic capture has also been proposed in this line, to mitigate growth (Remer 1).
Self removal
Requirements for GEO satellites to have the capability of removing themselves once they become useless have been proposed by ITU, to achieve this, adequate fuel would be required to power these satellites to their decaying orbits. Suggestions have also emerged to de-orbit satellites and tethering them for rolling after its lifetime has ended (Whipple 517).
External removal
It is in this method that there have been proposals to remove the debris from their orbits by various methods such as aerogel, unmanned space vehicles, laser booms and space shuttles among others. Most of these methods are still under studies, and their implementations are yet to take stage. Furthermore, the space shuttle accident that occurred has contributed heavily to the slowed development this process (Whipple 517).
Summary
Space debris has increasingly caused concern to most countries of the world, such as United States, European and Asian countries, among others. They have the propensity to erode body parts of spacecrafts and satellites when they collide as well as create more debris in the orbit which would increase the chances of other collisions.
These objects are usually manmade materials discarded in the orbit or dead satellites. Areas that require high alert are the LEO and GEO which have many satellites and stationed targets respectively. Flight engineers and space agencies have stationed various tracking devices like optical and radar detectors, among others, used to track space debris.
These devices are however limited to debris of sizes1cm and above, leaving several tiny debris unchecked. Various methods have been proposed to help mitigate growth of debris, as well as remove them from the orbit. Much effort still continues to be placed on space safety (Remer 1).
Conclusion
Space debris is increasingly filling the earth’s orbit, with prediction putting it at four times its present value by 2050. To avoid rampant collision, much should be done to mitigate its growth and remove the existing debris (Remer 1).
In 1969 NASA succeed in bringing astronauts to the Moon. As a result, many were convinced that someday space tourism would become a reality. This is because the successful mission was evidence that man can conquer outer space. When the NASA mission demonstrated its capability to break away from the pull of Earth’s gravity many saw the possibility of space tourism. In the 21st century, the ability to innovate and discover new things fueled the ever-popular idea that someday space is accessible to ordinary human beings. Many believed that space tourism is indeed possible. But using Inayatullah’s model to predict the future, one could argue that space tourism is not yet possible.
It is easy to understand why space tourism is such an important topic. There are many thrill-seekers on Earth and they want more than the customary roller coaster ride. They dream that someday ordinary mortals can also travel to the Moon and beyond. This is space tourism. It is also easy to understand why the dream to travel like astronauts is still alive. Consider for instance the number of rich people that are willing to pay a hefty price just so they can travel outside the Earth’s atmosphere.
If rich people today are willing to pay a great deal of money to bring them to the top of Mt. Everest, then these same people are not going to let any minor hindrance from stopping them to experience the ultimate ride (Aramberri & Butler, 2005, p.245). However, using Inayatullah’s model in future studies one can see that the pull forward is the mental image of the future (Inayatullah, 2003, p.35). However, the weight of the present reality can easily weigh down any space tourism program.
One of the major problems of space tourism is the fact that human bodies cannot adapt quickly in outer space as it does on Earth. High altitudes and extreme weather within the Earth’s atmosphere can be dealt with. Outer space on the other hand is different. There are forces out there that can easily destroy human life (Pelt, 2005, p.37). For instance, a small problem on Earth can be a major catastrophe in an environment that has no gravity.
Take a closer look at the idea of space weather and according to the U.S. Department of Defense, it is defined as “adverse conditions on the sun, the solar wind, and in the Earth’s magnetosphere, the ionosphere, and the thermosphere” (Goodman, 2005, p. 2). Aside from that, there are other factors that “can influence the performance and reliability of space-borne and ground-based technological systems and can endanger human life or health” (Ondoh & Marubashi, 2001, p. viii). Although many are optimistic space travel is not going to be a reality shortly.
Using Inayatullah’s triangle one can understand why many are optimistic when it comes to space tourism. This is exacerbated by the fact that people can imagine what is possible based on what is known today. However, using the same model of predicting the future, one can also see reality. There are problems that at this point are insurmountable. The safety of space tourists cannot be assured. Thus, space tourism is not going to happen in the next few decades.
References
Aramberri, J. & R. Butler. (2005). Tourism Development: Issues for a Vulnerable Industry. New York: Channel View Publications.
Goodman, J. (2005). Space Weather & Telecommunications. New York: Springer.
Inayatullah, S. (2003). Teaching futures studies. Journal of Futures Studies, 7(3), 35-40.
Ondoh, T. & K. Marubashi (2001). Science of Space Environment. VA: IOS Press, Inc.
Pelt, V. (2005). Space Tourism: Adventure in Earth’s Orbit and Beyond. New York: Copernicus Books.
The task of limiting an arms competition in outer space has been at the center of the international community’s attention since the really start of space activities in the late 1950s. Space exploration is a new and extremely specific area of human activity. On the one deal, as a direction of scientific and technological progress, it should objectively become one of the most potent means of determining global difficulties. On the other hand, space can become a new sphere of military confrontation and a source of threats to all humanity. In the international peace and security sphere, the problem of reducing the placement of threats of any variety occupies a special place. On a broader scale, this concerns restricting the utilization of space for the commission of any hostile acts.
A prohibition of such activities would stop outer space from becoming a danger of war and a launching pad for an armed attack against other states. There, as in any other sphere of human activity, nations must be guided by the basic universally accepted principles enshrined in the UN Charter, including the principle prohibiting the warning or application of force. Thus, under the existing general norms of international law, states are obliged in their space activities to refrain from any hostile actions and to resolve conflicts and disputes by exclusively peaceful means. Moreover, there are also other international legal norms which are regulating this sphere. Still, at the same time, they were adopted quite a long time ago and whether they can control all current issues remains unclear. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the issue of regulating activities in space, particularly the possibility to use weapons and to conclude whether the existing acts are sufficiently responsive to the challenges.
Analysis of International Agreements
The Outer Space Treaty of 1967
The main instrument of international space law is the 1967 ‘Outer Space Treaty,’ which describes this matter as ‘the province of all mankind’ (Article I), in whose exploration and use ‘for peaceful purposes’ all humanity has an interest. However, this did not contribute to a consensus on whether space could truly be practiced for aggressive targets. Outer space, customarily understood to include anything more than 100 km from the Earth’s outside, is becoming a field for demonstrations of technological power (Darwin). An example is the launching of reconnaissance satellites to test weapons (China destroyed one of its old climate satellites with a model anti-satellite rocket).
From the legal point of view, there is no specific prescription in the Treaty. The 1967 agreement regulates a wide variety of matters relating to the examination and regulation of outer space and celestial bodies. In particular, it contains a prohibition on their state appropriation by proclaiming their sovereignty and an obligation to provide all reasonable support to astronauts, ‘humanity’s messengers to space’ (Article V). However, there is no common primary injunction against the ‘militarization of space. Instead, there is only an embargo on the deployment of threats of mass killing (including atomic weapons) and a provision on the application of the Moon and other celestial bodies solely for peaceful goals. The only substantive statutory norm of the Outer Space Treaty that specifically refers to the use ‘for peaceful purposes is the second part of Article IV (Darwin). It is that paragraph that establishes the fundamental legal regime concerning the Moon and other celestial bodies. However, other articles contain a number of legally binding principles and regulate the expansion of space as a whole.
The point is, in particular, that the research and practice of outside areas should be carried out for profit and to the advantage of all nations. Article I state that they must be conducted in accordance with international law, including the UN Charter. That is, space exploration must be implemented in the interest of promoting international peace and security and advancing international cooperation and understanding. At the same time, the States Parties to the Treaty must be guided by the policy of collaboration and mutual aid. They should also manage all their projects in outer space with due consideration for the respective affairs of all other States Parties to the Treaty (Article IX) (Darwin). Article VII establishes a special regime of international liability for damage caused by a ‘space object’ of one State Party to the personalities or property of another State Party. This regime is elaborated in more detail in the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972. These provisions indisputably restrict the activities of countries in outer space, but the question arises whether they are sufficient.
Today the issue is becoming relevant of whether it is reasonable to stop the militarization of outer space and whether the 1967 Treaty is a suitable instrument for this purpose. There are problems associated with the interpretation of the restrictions imposed by the Outer Space Treaty on the utilization of space for aggressive goals (Darwin). To begin with, the question of their utilization in wartime must be resolved, and then the content of the above-mentioned norms must be clarified. The space law treaties do not explicitly mention their relevance in times of war. Although their drafting may have envisioned that they would regulate peacetime relations, a close examination of them reveals that their implementation does not cease even in situations of conflict. For example, the formulation of Article IV of the Outer Space Treaty practically leaves no doubt about its utilization in wartime. However, most if not all the principles established by the Treaty as leading sources in exploring and using outer space can justifiably be considered general and universal. Accordingly, they are thus appropriate to all projects of States parties, including during armed hostilities.
Considering that there is no outright ban on all military activities in outer space, it is also hard to discover what these principles actually provide for. The requirement spelled out in Article IX is of a universal nature (Lyall and Larsen 87). According to this requirement, States Parties, conducted by the opinion of cooperation and mutual assistance, must manage all their actions in outer space, taking into account the respective interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty (Darwin). Although this phrasing does not convey the same sense as ‘peaceful uses,’ it can be interpreted as requiring a commitment not to use outer space to use violence against other States. At the same time, such an obligation is not absolute and does not, in fact, prohibit the very presence of military objects or servicemen in outer space. Nor does it explicitly regulate the duties of military personnel in space, which could potentially have a war mission. In this aspect, the requirement in Article III is the most significant.
In UN General Assembly Resolution 69/32, adopted in 2014, the international community appreciates that the existing legal order is not in itself a guarantee of stopping an arms competition in space. Nevertheless, the resolution repeats the view that preventing an arms competition in the outer area would eliminate a dangerous threat to global peace and security (Liu and Tronchetti 65). Thus, the significance of Articles III and IV of the Outer Space Treaty is once again noted. It then follows that the global community attaches equal importance to the extremely broad formulation of Article III and the absence of a clear interdiction against the position of threats of mass damage in space.
Problems of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty
Perhaps the main problem is not the definition of what is meant by ‘peaceful purposes,’ but preferably the definition of ‘militarization’ (the latter is also sometimes practiced in this meaning). The treaty also does not answer this question. If an outright ban on the practice of celestial bodies for aggressive goals were extended to all of outer space, it would prevent satellites from being allowed to target certain kinds of weapons on Earth. Lawyers actively campaigning for peace should be careful when campaigning for such a ban. It is because, as a practical matter, the application of satellites aimed at certain weapons could increase the accuracy of strikes. Therefore, it may lead to a reduction of ‘collateral damage’ – civilian victims (Dennerley 281). Thus, this nuance should be considered into account in the formation of new legal rules of the space sphere.
To analyze, it is very challenging to observe in the Outer Space Treaty a warning about a common prohibition on the militarization of space. However, one could argue that the militarization of outer space, especially when it comes to the deployment of threats, would threaten world peace and security under Article III (Darwin). This interpretation suggests that all participating states should avoid such acts, even in the lack of more explicit legislation. When considering the militarization of an area, its environmental impact should also be taken into account.
China has been criticized for the aforementioned weapons test, in particular, because it resulted in 800 more pieces of debris in Earth orbit. In fact, Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty requires states to avoid conflicting adjustments to space or celestial bodies. Considering that weapons testing in space could be viewed as complying with and violating this provision, this is yet another reason to hold to work on a new treaty as quickly as possible (Darwin). Today, many states no doubt want to begin negotiations on these issues. Nevertheless, the prospect of the rapid emergence of a treaty on space does not relieve lawyers of the moralistic and unquestionably humane duty to continue to investigate the acceptance of a more comprehensive interpretation of current norms.
The Environmental Modification Convention
A major step toward limiting the aggressive use of space was the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques. It enshrines the obligation of state parties not to resort to military or any other hostile use of means of influence on the natural environment that have widespread, long-lasting or serious consequences (United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 1976). It is imperative to remark that the requirements of the Convention include outer space.
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water 1963
This is an international agreement aimed at halting the arms competition and removing incentives to create and test all varieties of threats, including atomic weapons. The treaty’s signing was preceded by lengthy negotiations between the USSR and the United States, Britain, and France on completing nuclear weapons examination and by negotiations in the Committee on Disarmament in 1962-1963. As a result of negotiations through diplomatic channels, it was decided that special representatives of the U.S. and British governments would visit the USSR to exchange views on these issues (Abbas and Javaid 88). These meetings with advisors were informal, and after each meeting, a brief communiqué was published that reflected certain stages in the exchange of opinions among the conference participants.
At the opening of the discussions, the Soviet government submitted its draft treaty banning nuclear tests in three environments. Representatives of the United States and Great Britain presented their drafts. The negotiations process produced a treaty text that included the provisions of both drafts, with some new articles and clauses. At the perseverance of the Soviet party, the following phrase was incorporated in the text of the agreement. Declaring as the primary goal an early agreement on general and complete disarmament, it emphasized the future direction and the main objective in the field of arms control. An essential detail of the negotiations was the inclusion in the treaty of Article 3, which stated that it would be open for signature by all states (Abbas and Javaid 88). This formula was the first time in the post-war period that the United States and Great Britain introduced it into an international treaty. On August 5, 1963, the agreement was signed in Moscow in the attendance of the UN Secretary-General, specially invited by the three governments.
Parties to the Moscow Treaty promised to ban, restrict, and not carry out any atomic threat test explosion or any other nuclear detonation. Such actions are prohibited in the atmosphere, outside the atmosphere, including outer space, underwater, and in any other environment if such an eruption causes radioactive fallout outside that state’s borders. The Moscow Treaty effectively banned nuclear testing in three environments: the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater (Ballamudi169). The treaty rules did not apply to underground nuclear tests, for which a special decision was to be taken. The confirmation of compliance with the agreement was to be carried out through national means.
Neither were parties to the treaty to cause, encourage, or participate in any way in the conduct of said explosions. The Moscow Treaty did not eliminate all possibilities for improving nuclear weapons-underground nuclear explosions remained permitted. Nevertheless, it was a successful international agreement. The treaty improved the environment by stopping dangerous pollution. It was a step toward subsequent arms control arrangements. The three nuclear powers were not joined by France and China, which, without accepting the obligations of the Moscow Treaty, began their programs with atmospheric explosions. They mastered underground testing technology relatively quickly and began to de facto fulfill these obligations. The Three-Way Test Ban Treaty is indefinite; however, Article IV provides for the right of each party to withdraw from the treaty (United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 1963). In case a country decides that exceptional circumstances relating to the title topic of this agreement have risked the highest interests of its country. At the same time, it requirement giving three months’ notice thereof to all other parties to the treaty.
The Three-Way Test Ban Treaty includes a preamble and five articles. The goal of the parties to the Treaty, as stated in the preamble, is to achieve as rapidly as practicable the understanding of general and complete disarmament under strict observance of international control. Parties to the Treaty must not induce, encourage, or participate in any way in the conduct of explosions. Any participant may propose amendments, which shall be circulated by Governments, which have undertaken to keep the original Treaty, to all other participants to the Treaty. If one third or more of the Parties to the Treaty request to consider the submitted amendments, the Depositary Governments shall convene a conference to which all Parties to the Treaty shall be invited to consider the improvement (Ballamudi 170). A majority vote approves the amendment of all States Parties, including the votes of the primary participants. This Treaty is the first global statutory tool with the principal goal of reaching an agreement on comprehensive and total disarmament under international control. Its signature contributed to a meaningful reduction of the risk of radioactive contamination of the environment.
Full Demilitarization of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies
The legal structure of partial demilitarization applies only to near-Earth space. The Moon and other celestial bodies of the Solar system are subject to an international legal regime, the main feature of which is their complete demilitarization (Bernat 52). Thus, according to part 2 of article 4 of the Outer Space Treaty, the Moon and other celestial bodies are exclusively utilized by all the states-parties to the Treaty for pacific purposes.
The same Treaty rule prevents the establishment of army authorities, installations, and fortifications on celestial bodies, testing any variety of weapons and aggressive maneuvers. The involvement of military personnel in scientific research or other peaceful aims is not prohibited. The operation of any material or facilities necessary for the pacific use of the Moon and other celestial bodies is not permitted. The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of December 1979 confirmed the full demilitarization regime for the Moon and other celestial bodies of the Solar System in its rules. It even slightly expanded the spatial scope of this regime (United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 1979). Thus, the Agreement extends its validity not only to the celestial bodies but further to the orbits around the Moon. Additionally, it applies to other celestial bodies and the flight paths to them, i.e., to certain areas of outer space (paragraph 3 of Article 1 of the 1979 Moon Agreement).
Paragraph 1 of this article declares that the Moon is utilized by all States Parties exclusively for peaceful goals. According to paragraph 2 of Article 3, the threat or use of force or any other hostile actions or threat to commit hostile actions is prohibited on the Moon. It is also banned to use the Moon to commit any such acts or apply any such threats against the Earth, the Moon, rocket, spacecraft personnel, or artificial space objects. States agreed not to place objects with atomic threats or any other threats of mass killing in orbit around the Moon or on any other trajectory to or around the Moon (De Man 95). The rules of the 1979 Treaty prohibit the establishment on the Moon of army bases, installations, fortifications, testing any type of threats, and the organization of armed actions.
As in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, the 1979 Agreement contains a provision that the application of armed personnel for scientific investigation or any other peaceful purpose is not banned. The operation of any machine or facilities required for the peaceful research and use of the Moon is not prohibited (Grimal and Sundaram 55). Thus, establishing a regime of full demilitarization of the celestial bodies of the solar system should be recognized as the key achievement of international space law in forming a legal regime of demilitarization of outer space. It appears that the further progress of space law should be aimed, among other things, at establishing a system of full, rather than partial, demilitarization and neutralization of all outer space.
International Legal Regulation of State Responsibility to Comply with the Demilitarization of Outer Space
NATO wants to recognize outer space as the fifth theater of combat operations along with land, air, water, and cyberspace. In such circumstances, the question of legal responsibility for non-compliance with the demilitarization regime of outer space arises. Establishing responsibility is a preventive means of avoiding states’ self-dealing and influence that could undermine international peace, security, and stability (Johnson-Freese and Burbach 137). When considering the issue of State responsibility for failure to comply with the demilitarization regime and the principle of the nonviolent application of outer space, the main international treaties on space activities should be examined.
Thus, the first to be noted is the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, specifically Article 4, which establishes a ban on placing any objects with atomic weapons or other threats of mass destruction in orbit around the Earth. There is also a standard not to put such armaments on celestial bodies and not to put such threats in outer space in any other form. Non-compliance and violation of this norm lead to applying Article 6 of the same treaty, namely, the international responsibility of countries for national space actions (Darwin). This has become a source of international space law that all States are internationally responsible for their actions in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, whether carried out by national bodies or non-governmental entities.
Consequently, the activities of state governmental entities in space must be carried out with permission and under the constant supervision of a specific country. It is up to those states to ensure that federal actions are carried out according to international law. When an international organization causes an injury, the states participating in such an organization are also responsible (Johnson-Freese and Burbach 139). It would seem that the treaty regulates all the provisions on space activities and liability well. Still, given the state of modern development, it has long since failed to regulate several important issues correlated to the weaponization of space.
The agreement does not prevent the deployment of weapons in space in usual, only atomic and mass destruction ones. That is, any state can place conventional weapons, missiles, or lasers in Earth orbit and will not bear any responsibility for this under this treaty or violate it in any way. The second important instrument in this area is the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 1972). The launching country has the absolute obligation to pay restitution for injury produced by its space object on the surface of the Earth. It also regulates certain liability for related acts. In analyzing this convention, however, it can be seen that it deals with two cases in which joint and several liabilities arise. These occur when damage is caused to a space object by one state launching and by another country simultaneously to a third state or its natural or legal persons (art. 4) and when two or more States concurrently start a space object.
A Gap in the International Space Law
The leading nations of the world are developing their weapons and military equipment for the purpose of their use in outer space. They create lasers, hypersonic missiles, drones, and much more, making it possible to conduct combat operations in space. Registration of such objects takes place under the 1972 Convention (United Nations Office of Legal Affairs 1972). It stipulates that each state that launches a space gadget enters information about it in the appropriate national registry and reports to the UN Secretary-General as soon as possible. However, not all countries document this data because they do not want to disclose the amount of technology they have. Every developed state wants to get the upper hand in the space race while withholding information about its developments from the opponents.
According to statistics, the number of space launches per year averages about 140 (120 were successful and about 20 were damaged or destroyed). The years of the twenty-first century are becoming increasingly intense in the militarization of space, and this amount is growing at an unbelievable rate. The governments continue to improve developments and have many opportunities due to the lack of full-fledged legal regulation of the issue. For example, the United States former President Donald Trump announced the conception of a sixth model of armed force, the U.S. Space Force, in 2019 (Kim 261). China President Xi Jinping has also been discussing creating a Strategic Support Force (SSF) designed to integrate space in joint military operations since 2015, seeking to turn the PRC into a space state.
The 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, regulates weapons. Still, these norms do not prohibit the placement of non-nuclear armaments. That is, any country can locate conventional weapons, hypersonic missiles, or lasers in Earth orbit and will not be held liable for doing so under this treaty and will not violate it in any way (Darwin). Consequently, there is a necessity to control the use of any armaments in outer space and establish states’ responsibility for failure to comply with the demilitarization of space under international law.
Given the law ambiguities, the inhibition of potential battles between states and the assurance of the rights of actors in space relations are vital. Taking advantage of the gaps in international norms, many of the world’s leading countries are independently developing areas of legal provision for spatial relations. For example, employees of the Dubai International Financial Center of the UAE propose reforming the national judicial system in 2021 and creating a support network that can review complex commercial agreements related to space (Kostenko 57). The UAE plans to create the world’s first space court to resolve commercial disputes in the space industry. Such approaches would disrupt the established system of international law as some countries, ignoring existing international treaties, proclaim the introduction of ‘their’ regulation in the development of planets.
All this can lead to the destruction of the existing international order, the world economic system, conflicts, and a significant deterioration in humanity’s quality of life. That is why the UN should initiate a systematic review, supplementation of existing international treaties, and the adoption of a universal international legal instrument on the development of outer space (Ballamudi169). Otherwise, shortly, there may be a legal collapse in almost all issues of space relations. The lack of regulation of non-nuclear weapons is one of the most significant problems that threaten the international legal order.
Gray Zones
Under the existing norms of international law, activities related to space usage for some military purposes are usually divided into three categories: permissible, prohibited, and non-permitted. Currently, there are serious legal restraints and several international obligations protecting space vehicles from negative effects. However, no restrictive international legal norms exist for a whole range of current and potential military space activities. There remain so-called ‘grey zones’ that are not subject to legal acts, which can seriously threaten international security (Sheer and Li 103). Military space activities not covered by international agreements can be roughly divided into two types. These are primary activities related to creating and using space support systems and actions linked to weapons-usable ones.
The space operations of the first type usually include those intended for the early detection of signs of preparation and beginning of the aggression on the ground, at sea, in the sky, and in outer space. They also include those that provide operative information about a threat of aggression, control over observance of worldwide conventions and protocols in the reduction and limitation of armaments. Navigational support of military units and means of armed forces anywhere on the Earth is also under their control. These systems are aimed to provide permanent stationary and mobile monitoring to control the location of various objects.
Existing standards of international space code do not prevent the creation, experimentation, and installation of such systems. They significantly reduce the element of shock in the behavior of other countries, contribute to better predictability of the international environment and ensure the prevention of dangerous incidents related to the activities of armed forces. Collectively, they thus contribute to enhancing national and international security and strategic stability (Zannoni 87). Military space activities not covered by international agreements also include military applications and experiments in outer space that do not exceed the restrictions and prohibitions imposed by existing international treaties, agreements, and conventions.
The space systems of the second type (‘weapon systems’) should include so-called ‘strike,’ anti-missile and anti-satellite ones, as well as radio-electronic and optoelectronic suppression systems. Activities related to them may have several significant directions. The main ones are the creation and testing (not in space) of objects with nuclear weapons or any other means of mass damage, which could be planned to be ejected into space. They also aim to create, test, and deploy in outer space (except celestial bodies) shock weapons of ‘non-mass’ destruction. These unregulated issues are more dangerous and can have negative consequences.
It may not be feasible to manage all of these activities effectively from the object of the judgment of juridical norms. However, in conceptual terms, it should be recognized that space is not legally protected to the fullest extent from being a possible sphere of weaponization. As stated above, the existing international legal framework for the naval use of outer space regulates only certain aspects, and it is clearly insufficient to prevent the appearance of several kinds of armaments. In these circumstances, the international community is faced with the very urgent task of preventing space from becoming an area of armed confrontation in the future (Kim 270). Preventing the emergence of weapons is more effective than seeking to reduce and eliminate those that have already been created and deployed through negotiations.
The attitude on the preparation of global agreements aimed at preventing an arms run in space is the need to clearly define the objects or activities to be restricted. Actions and their effects should be prohibited, not how such actions can be carried out. Such activities could include those that defeat, harm or disturb the regular functioning of space objects or change their orbital parameters. At the same time, it should be recognized that space for military non-aggressive purposes (for example, to repel aggression and maintain international peace and security following the UN Charter) is not prohibited. Thus, there is a need for an instrument to narrow, ideally to eliminate, the ‘gray’ zone of international space law. Such an instrument should have near-absolute objectivity in a wide range of conditions of the politico-military situation (Dennerley 300). It is also obvious that the instrument’s capabilities should provide an assessment of the degree of military threats posed by the operation of space systems.
One of the key points informing approaches and choosing how to create such a tool is to ensure the possibility of defining permissible levels of impact on foreign space vehicles (systems). It must be recognized that a complete ban on anti-space weapons is virtually impossible. As the space powers are expanding and technologies are becoming generally available, primarily for military purposes, passive control measures alone are insufficient (Ballamudi 172). Only a set of non-military measures backed up by the possibility of forceful action can be the basis for ensuring national interests and military security in the space sphere. These conclusions are quite obvious and follow from the analysis of international space law, dynamics, and trends of development of rocket-space technology in the world and its use for military purposes.
Perspectives on Space Arms Control
The non-armament of space appears to be a problem that is difficult to solve with one comprehensive treaty, like the conventions banning chemical or bacteriological weapons. Space is a fundamentally new environment for a potential arms race and military conflict. All weapons systems are extremely complex, multifunctional, and have dense secrecy. Therefore, if space disarmament measures become practical, it will be a long and multistage process, comparable with strategic arms limitation and reduction and nuclear testing. Nevertheless, despite all the challenges of banning space weapons, significantly limiting their development is still possible. According to the point of view of absolute assurance related to aggressive and defensive armaments, the most powerful spacecraft are early-warning satellites, which support the basis of stability – the main part of a retaliatory or reactive strike.
As a way to initially address this issue, an agreement could be to prohibit further tests of anti-satellite systems that, as they improve, could threaten the preservation, including those in high orbits. At the same time, it would be necessary to prohibit tests involving precise targeting of a sputnik. They include those conducted by the USSR in the 1960s and 1980s, by the U.S. in the 1980s and 2008, by China in 2007, and by India in 2019 (Larsen 144). Such measures should, for example, reaffirm and expand the existing format of notification of all rocket launches, including space ones, and keep in mind any activities and experiments with destructive effects on space objects. Eliminating decommissioned satellites, if they pose a threat of falling, should occur beneath the guidance of the other participants and with sufficient information not to raise suspicions of covert weapons testing.
Docking operations with satellites for peaceful faiths should be ruled by the speed of approach and should occur after a notification and following the administration of the other multitudes. The agreement format could initially include the United States, Russia, and, preferably, China and India and make it possible for other powers to join later (Larsen 149). Along with the exponential growth of space activities and technical capabilities, the accelerated militarization of outer space can now be seen concerning the military auxiliary functions of orbital constellations of states. The development of space weapons is mainly connected to anti-satellite systems of ground, sea, and air basing. Judging by the tests of such means, this improvement is noticeably less intensive than during the Cold War, although it now encompasses a wider range of states. Armaments deployment in space has not yet taken place and is not expected quickly for astrodynamic and technical-economic reasons. Weapon systems for active protection of spacecraft against anti-satellite kinetic impact and directed energy transfer may be an exception.
Russia and China support an international agreement to prevent the placement of weaponry in space. However, their proposal has significant drawbacks, including the same difficulty in agreeing on what constitutes a space weapon. Most space-related capabilities, such as lasers and non-contact operations, have both peaceful and military applications. Another problem is monitoring and verification of compliance. Even if provisions could be agreed upon, ratification and implementation of the treaty could take decades, as in the matter of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. A simpler, though not easy, approach would be to agree on a code of conduct in space (Sariak 54). The structure for such an international regulation, conceptualized by the Stimson Center in 2002, already existed and was developed in detail by the European Union. The weak point is that China and Russia, and many developing countries have raised serious objections.
Developing countries disapprove of the E.U.’s attempt to avoid the UN-based drafting process. Furthermore, they opposed the draft code’s assertion of a national and collective right of self-defense, a right enshrined in the UN Charter. China and Russia would prefer to limit the regulations to civilian and commercial space activities. However, military space applications are the crux of the problem and the sense of purpose for developing the law. The draft treaty supported by Russia and China would limit only weapons in space, not their ground-based anti-satellite programs. Russia and China are not ready to reduce their anti-satellite capabilities; the U.S. is building its own (Sariak 60). Transparency and confidence-building measures can help. The same can be said of the sustainable use of outer space guidelines, which may appear in the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. However, the third round of the space competition will not end until all major powers are ready to approve a code of responsible conduct.
Conclusion
There is a universally accepted principle of non-use of force or threat of force in modern international law in international relations. Based on the acts analyzed, such prohibitions can be presumed to apply in the state’s space sphere. Besides, the induction of atomic defenses and other armaments of mass destruction in the area around the Earth, celestial bodies, and orbit throughout them are forbidden. Testing nuclear defenses, installing military bases and army tests and maneuvers on celestial bodies are also restricted. It can be argued that even though regulations in this area exist, their provisions are not sufficiently responsive to the calls of modern time. Some norms are already outdated and require revision as soon as possible.
At the same time, due to the development of technology, many other problems have emerged that are not covered by the laws. There are still so-called ‘gray zones’- unregulated international activities in space that can seriously threaten worldwide security. It is the development of a mechanism of global control of this area of military-space activities that is the highest priority at the modern time. In the preparation of any international agreement aimed at preventing an arms race in space, it is necessary to clearly define the objects and activities subject to limitations. The focus should be made on forbidding actions and their consequences rather than on the means by which such operations can be carried out. This could include activities that destroy, damage, or disrupt the normal functioning of space objects or change their orbital parameters. This approach would avoid extremely complicated discussions on the definition of terms and the development of criteria for the concept of ‘space weapons’ and would prevent irreversible consequences for humankind.
Works Cited
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Kim, Han-Taek. ‘Militarization and Weaponization of Outer Space in International Law.’ The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy, vol. 33, no. 1, 2018, pp. 261-284.
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Zannoni, Diego. Disaster Management and International Space Law. Brill, 2019.
For many years, man has always been interested in exploring the space. This is evidenced by many fictional scientific stories about the space that have been written. However, he has not made significant success in this endeavor. The greatest success that has been achieved is travelling to the moon in recent decades.
Man continues to make space travel attempts through advanced technology with the intention of exploring the space. The first attempt he made to travel to the space which was a joint effort between the Soviet Union and America took place in 1975. This project popularly known as Apollo test project was intended at testing the ability of the two countries to manage future space journeys (Nasa, n.d).
Russia and America worked together since 1993 to facilitate space travel by man. Space travel equipments began making their trips to Russian stations in 1994. Norm Thagard was historically recognized as the first American astronaut to reside in Russia.
Together with his seven colleagues, he joined other astronauts from Russia to work in an orbiting laboratory in Russia. This endeavor gave them enough experience that saw the development of space stations with international recognition. In 1998, the stations began developing in-orbit technology which was followed by constant staffing. These developments facilitated space travel greatly (Nasa, n.d).
Most of the people who took part in space travel used different technologies such as nuclear propulsion technology. This was a preferable choice of technology because of its reliability and flexibility in long distance space travel. It was also preferable because it was cheaper when compared with other forms of technology such as chemical rockets.
During space travel, man required certain domestic needs to be met and this made the development of modern technology important. The first technology development in space travel was associated with the Apollo project. This was the first space travel intended at placing man on the moon. This project was an important one and led to the development of different technologies. It expanded the knowledge of man regarding space travel (Nasa, n.d).
During space travel, man required food since without food there would be no survival. As a result, the first technology used by man to prevent food from going bad during space travel was freeze drying. This technology was initially developed during the Second World War to preserve plasma. It involved freezing the food, a process that removed most of the moisture from it. The foods preserved used this technology included foods like meat, peas and liquids.
The second technology used in space travel was the use of cordless power tools. While in space, astronauts were supposed to carry out different tasks in their quest to gather scientific information. It was therefore not possible for them to gather this information by using traditional or power tools. Traditional tools could not provide much assistance while power tools presented limitations because of their cords. The use of cordless power tools proved to be very useful for the astronauts (Bryson, 2010).
The third type of technology used in space travel was MRI and CAT technologies. The initial space travels were intended at identifying the most suitable grounds to land when man travelled to the moon. For this to be accomplished there was the need to have the right equipment to take space photographs. This technology was used by man during space travel to develop computer aided topography. It was also used to develop magnetic resonance imaging.
References
Bryson, B. (2010). A Short History Of Nearly Everything. New York: Transworld.
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a NASA multipurpose spaceship tailored to carry out surveillance, reconnaissance and explore Mars in the course of its orbital revolution around the planet Mars. Its inception fostered the exploration of Mars with the introduction of more data collecting instruments than the ones formerly used by other spacecraft like the Mars Express, the Mars Global Surveyor, the Mars Odyssey, and the twin Mars Exploration Rovers (The planetary society 1). The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was valued at US$720 million and is believed to be one of the most operational spacecraft within the proximity of Mars. Having been mounted by Lockheed Martin in conjunction with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was launched on August the 12th of 2005 and consequently attained its Martian orbit on March the 10th of 2006. Soon afterward, it was ushered into its final science orbit and immediately started the elemental science stage of data collection.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter comprises innumerable scientific appliances, of which cameras, spectrometers, and radar form part, which is essentially engineered for the analysis of landforms, stratigraphy, minerals, and ice of Mars. It also does the robust function of laying a firm foundation upon which future Martian explorations and discoveries would be based; it basically accomplishes this by studying the daily weather and surface patterns, identifying potential sites for spacecraft landing, and by integrating a modernized telecommunication system among its scientific instruments (Stathopoulos 1). The new version of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s telecommunication system serves an invaluable function of transferring enormous amounts of scientific data back to the Earth; with its telecommunication system being rated at higher effectiveness than the aggregate effect of all the previous Martian spacecraft, and thus MRO is the cornerstone relay satellite for upcoming space missions.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is under the direct watch of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, at the California Institute of Technology, within the domain of the Directorate of NASA Science Mission in Washington D.C.
Historical Development
The historical development of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is anchored on the dual mission which was targeted for in the 2003 Mars launch window; nonetheless, within the course of the drafting the proposal the MRO was overtaken by what was later to be referred to as the Mars Exploration Rovers (Dowdey and Lamb 1). In 2005, the launch of the Mars orbiter was yet again rekindled with NASA giving it a new tag – Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on October 26, 2000.
The high level of success attained by the Martian surveillance of the Mars Global Surveyor was a precursor to the mount of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The initial design of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter comprised of an extensive camera with a characteristic feature of high resolution necessary for clear Martian pictures. It is upon this feature of high-resolution cameras that, Jim Garvin, the Mars exploration program scientist for NASA, dubbed the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to be a ‘microscope in orbit’. Visible – near-infrared spectrograph was still to be incorporated within the components of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (The planetary society 1).
On October the 3rd of 2001, Lockheed Martin was selected by NASA as the main contractor for the fabrication of the satellite (Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). In the latter part of 2001, all the necessary instruments were assembled. During the construction process of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, no major obstacles were encountered, and the satellite was transferred to John F. Kennedy Space Center on May the 1st of 2005 as a pre–launch exercise.
Mission Objectives
The development of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was aimed at mapping the Martian landscape with its high-resolution cameras; a move towards identifying the most preferable landing sites for future explorations. Its initial schedule of service was projected to last from November 2006 to November 2008 and more so, equipped with inbuilt meteorological appliances MRO can give a detailed study of the Martian climate, weather, geology, atmospheric constituents, and it serves the invaluable purpose of unearthing any significant signs of liquid water (Stathopoulos 1).
For instance, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter served a very crucial purpose in determining the landing site of the Phoenix Lander, whose area of interest/study was the Martian Arctic in Green Valley. Covered with boulders, the original site selected by scientists as photographed by the HiRISE camera, was abandoned for the more preferable THEMIS. Yet still, it is projected that the landing site for Mars Science Laboratory which is a rover of great dynamic potential, would be established in the near future via the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (ScienceDaily 1). In addition to this, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter does not only serve the useful purpose of showing critical navigation data during the landing of satellites but also aids in acting as a telecommunication relay for interplanetary links.
Currently, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is searching for the remains of past Mars Polar Lander and Beagle 2 satellite, which marks the initial step towards the achievement of an Internet protocol link connecting the solar system. Upon the completion of its core scientific dynamics, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s inquiry would be extended to encompass the communication and navigation domains that are useful for Lander and rover studies.
Launch and Synchrony to its Orbit
The 12th of August, 2005 was marked by the launch of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter via a rocket at Cape Canaveral Air force Station, with the Centaur upper stage of the rocket finalizing its combustion over around an hour before synchronizing the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in its interplanetary transfer orbit to Mars (Batty 1). The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter traveled through the interplanetary vacuum for 7.5 months before the required orbital insertion was done. Even within its motion the MRO at the proximity of Mars, most of the scientific experiments were carried out.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter started its orbital synchrony by advancing towards Mars on March the 10th of 2006 and running over its southern hemisphere at an altitude of 190miles. All the main engines of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter were used for about half an hour, reducing the probe from 6,500 mph to 4250 mph. The helium pressurization tank was at such unprecedented low levels of coldness that the pressure within the fuel chamber was lowered by roughly 21 kPa. Due to these minimal levels of pressure, the resultant force in the engine was lowered by 2%; nonetheless, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was prompt in compensating for the loss by adding half a minute burn – time for the engine (Dowdey, and Lamb 1).
“The final state of the orbital synchrony of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was characterized by a highly elliptical polar orbit with an average period of 35.5 hours” (Dowdey, and Lamb 1). Soon after this process of synchrony, the periapsis (the closest point of the satellite to Mars) was at an estimated distance of 3,800 km from the core of Mars and the apoapsis (the farthest point of the satellite from Mars) was at an estimated distance of 48,000 km from the core of Mars.
On March the 30th of 2006, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter the initial phase of aerobraking was started, which comprised of a three-phased undertaking that was aimed at reducing the fuel needed for the realization of a more circular orbit with a shorter period to a minimal level (ScienceDaily 1).
The first phase did occur during the 5 initial orbits of the satellite around mars – which is approximately 1 earth week, in which the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter harnessed its thrusters in letting down the periapsis of its orbit into aerobraking altitude. The fore-mentioned altitude is dependent on the thickness of the fluctuating atmosphere caused by variations in the Martian atmospheric density as a result of dynamic seasonal adjustments. The second phase occurred in both a consecutive and simultaneous manner to the first phase in that, while utilizing its thrusters in adjusting the periapsis altitude, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter kept the aerobraking altitude under check for 445 planetary orbits (approximately 5 Earth months) with an aim of lowering the apoapsis of the orbit to 450 km. This task was intricately carried out with a lot of expertise in such a manner that the satellite was not over heated, but rather it was relatively inclined towards the atmosphere, thus, retarding the satellite down (Batty 1). The third phase took place soon after the completion of the first two phases; it is in this stage that the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter utilized its thrusters to dispel its periapsis towards the outskirts of the Martian atmosphere on August the 30th of 2006.
In September 2006 the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter run its thrusters in a bid to polish its almost circular orbit in the final touches to such a close distance range to Mars as 250 km – 316 km. “The SHARAD (Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s Shallow Subsurface Radar) dipole aerials were used on September the 16th of 2006, then all the scientific instruments were tested and most were switched off prior to the solar conjunction which was observed from October the 7th to November the 6th of 2006. Following the termination of the solar conjunction, the inception of the ‘primary science phase’ took effect” (NASA 1).
On November the 17th of 2006 NASA proclaimed the success of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter as an orbital communication relay, by harnessing the NASA rover ‘Spirit’ as the center of transmission, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s function as a communication relay was acclaimed as that of transmitting data back to Earth.
Events and Discoveries
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter undertook its initial high resolution image from its science orbit on September 29, 2006 in which it is believed to have resolved infinitesimal elements of the order of a diametrical dimension of 3 feet (Batty 1). “On October the 6th of 2006, NASA posted elaborate pictures from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter of the Victoria crater together with the Opportunity rover on the rim on its overhead” (Batty 1). Unfortunately, in November operational challenges surfaced for two of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s instruments. This was shown by the unexpected fluctuations in the Mars Climate Sounder causing an oversight of some of the Martian features. The other key obstacle was the challenge posed by heightened noise and the consequential poor pixels as recorded by CCDs of the HiRISE (High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment), thus with an extended warm-up period, the HiRISE has resolved this problem substantially.
HiRISE has steadily fed us with important images which have paved the way for Martian geological discoveries. The most striking of them being the proclamation of banded terrain features which led many scientists hypothesize that within the immediate geological history of Mars there may have been liquid carbon (IV) oxide or water on the surface of (Mars Stathopoulos 1). On May the 25th of 2008, the HiRISE was in a position of taking clear pictures of the Phoenix Lander during its inclined course to Vastitas Borealis.
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was continuously plagued by persistent challenges in 2009, which called for immediate resets of the Orbiter, leading to a 4 month shut down of the satellite from August to December of 2009.
Main Constituent Components
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is made up of 3 cameras, 2 spectrometers and radar together with 2 ‘science facility instruments.’
CAMERAS
HiRISE; This is a High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera, or rather reflecting telescope in the MRO with a diametrical dimension of 0.5 meters and its resolving power is of the order of one micro radian. HiRISE’s in – build computer systems determines the pixel values of each colored lines observed and at the same time relays this information to the Earth. The main difficulty which is encountered in the functioning of the HiRISE is that it has a finite memory capacity of 28 Gb and a pixel range of 160 – 800 Megapixels.
CTX; The Context Camera, giving grayscale images with a pixel resolution up to around six meters, it is specifically designed to monitor a number of locations for changes over time and to capture a 3 dimensional view of the key regions which are potential future landing sites (ScienceDaily 1).
MARCI; This is the Mars Color Imager with a wide-angle which is able to view the surface of Mars in 5 visible and 2 ultraviolet bands and hence gives the daily Martian weather report which helps in the characterization of Martian seasonal and annual variations.
Spectrometers
CRISM; This is the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars which basically employed in giving elaborate surface maps, upon whose analysis the Martian minerals are identified and classified.
MCS; This is the Mars Climate Sounder – a spectrometer comprising of 1 visible channel and 8 infrared channels, which are selected to strategically determine the Martian temperature, pressure, water vapor and the prevailing Martian atmospheric conditions (NASA 1).
Radar
SHARAD; This is the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s Shallow Subsurface Radar which is primarily developed for investigating about the internal structure of the Martian ice caps, furthermore, it reveals the underground Martian stratification which is crucial in not only establishing ice and rock arrangement but also in determining the possibility of liquid water in the immediate neighborhoods of the Martian crust.
Engineering Appliances
Apart from the imaging tools, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter bears other useful engineering instruments (Batty 1). For instance, the Gravity Field Investigation Package is mostly harnessed in the establishment of variations in the Martian gravitational field through the alterations of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s speed. The other appliance which best exemplifies useful engineering instruments in MRO is the Electra- a UHF software defined radio – which is primarily tailored to link the communication network between Martian satellites. In addition to the Gravity Field Investigation Package and the Electra, the Optical Navigation Camera images the Martian moons (Phobos and Deimos) against distance stars in order to trace and maintain an accurate MRO orbit. Even though moon exploration and orbiting is not very important in carrying out Martian inquiries, it was encompassed within the framework of pilot testing upcoming Martian landings (The planetary society 1).
Engineering Data
The structure of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is engineered to satisfy optimal power requirements, effective electronic outlook which are a necessary ingredient in altitude determination, serve the dual role of propulsion/attitude control and in ensuring that a steady – reliable telecommunication system thrives.
Scientific Discoveries
Ice water in ice cap measured
The radar gauge of 2009 established that the volume of water ice in the north polar ice cap of Mars was of an approximate amount to 30% of the Earth’s Greenland ice layer.
Ice in exposed in new craters
New craters on Mars were found and dated by the CTX camera and the existence of ice in those craters was authenticated by the Compact Imaging Spectrometer in MRO, this settled the fact that the new craters harbored a relative amount of pure water.
Ice in lobate debris aprons
Radar pictures given by SHARAD indicate that characteristic surface patterns dubbed ‘Lobate Debris Apron are made up of enormous amounts of water ice. Lobate Debris Aprons are characterized by surface lineation, convex topography and a gentle slope, with SHARAD results authenticating the existence of glaciers on LDA’s surface (Stathopoulos 1). From scientific enquiries of the Phoenix Lander and those of Mars Odyssey, water ice is believed to be within short depths of the Martian surface especially at high latitude regions.
Chloride Deposits
Enormous amounts of chloride mineral deposits have been discovered from virtually all Martian scientific studies and explorations. There exists strong evidence from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor to verify the fact that chloride deposits result from the evaporation of mineral enriched waters. It is a normal trend that Carbonates, Sulfates and Silica precipitate faster than the chlorides, and this has been verified by the data collected by the Mars Rovers on the surface of the Planet – Mars. Martian regions which are rich with chloride minerals are believed to have held various life forms and therefore act as ancient life reserves (Dowdey and Lamb 1).
Other aqueous minerals
An association of scientists of the CRISM subgroup in the year 2009 categorized about ten varied types of minerals formed in the presence of water, they arrived at this conclusion after analyzing varied types of Martian clays from different locations. These aqueous minerals were dubbed the physilicates and they consist of aluminum smectite, iron smectite, magnesium smectite, chlorite, and prehnite. Carbonates which are known to belong to the category in which life could be developed were found in rocks around the Isidis basin (ScienceDaily 1). Scientific researchers found hydrated sulfates and ferric minerals in Terra Meridiani and in Valles Marineris, other minerals found in Mars include; jarosite, alunite, hematite, opal and gypsum. 2 – 5 mineral categories were developed according to the pH (hydrogen potential) and enough water necessary in supporting life viability in the Planet Mars.
Avalanches
“The effectiveness of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s CTX and HiRISE cameras with a characteristic high resolution is evident from the fact that the cameras were able to take several photographs of avalanches of the scarps of the northern a polar cap, even at the very moment when the massive avalanches were taking place” (NASA 1).
Flowing salty Water
As recent as August the 4th of 2011, NASA declared that the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter had registered what seemed to be flowing salty water on the terrain of the Martian surface or equivalently subsurface, a phenomenon which is very clear during the warmest seasons on Mars (Batty 1).
The flowing salty water has underpinned Mass to be the Red Planet which could be harboring life in some form and has qualified Mars as one integral part of future destination for human exploration.
Other spacecrafts
The HiRISE in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has proved to be of an invaluable worth in tracing the orbital motion, and the landing of other Martian spacecrafts. For instance, HiRISE was used to photograph the satellite Phoenix at the very moment it was making its Martian Landing (NASA 1). The HiRISE of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has also been used to monitor and in surveillance functions; as in the tracking of the rover Opportunity as the rover halted to make scientific observations and as it ran along its circuit around Mars.
Even in ancient myths, there was a thrill with the concept of humans embarking on fantastical journeys to other planets. However, for me, this adventure starts from the inspiration derived from the first space shuttles sent by NASA. Their space shuttle fleet, consisting of the Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour, performed 135 operations from April 12, 1981, when the program began, and July 21, 2011, when it concluded (Pultarova, 2021). The development of new technologies allows for more accessible flights to outer space.
To realize this vision, Blue Origin is now building reusable spacecraft and technologies that are safe, affordable, and meet all clients’ demands, including those in the civic, commercial, and military sectors. In addition to sending humans into space on the New Shepard, the company is working on reusable liquid rocket engines, space inhabitation programs and orbital launch vehicles. Such efforts will write new chapters in space travel’s annals and bring humankind one step closer to realizing its founding ideal.
Although as fascinating as it is, some aspects of space travel could potentially harm the planet. Rockets launched into space statistically consume fewer fossil fuels than commercial aviation. However, the reason for such a conclusion is an incomparably smaller number of launches overall. The increasing frequency of rocket launches, and the popularity of space tourism have scientists concerned that these activities may harm Earth’s atmosphere and speed up the rate of global warming (Pultarova, 2021).
Although some newly developed spacecraft technologies such as hybrid engines that burn rubber and produce a sooty trail impose a new concern about sustainability. The trail from such engines is released at an inaccessible altitude for the typical measuring means. Consequently, little is known about the future of such technology and its influence on the climate as it may have negative implications. Still, with further developments, the future in which people will harness the abundance of resources available in space will be attainable.
Space has always been a phenomenon attracting people’s attention and sparking their interest. The attempts to explore the Universe are linked to understanding people’s nature, the origins of life, and whether other living creatures can be found on other planets. For this reason, space can be investigated from four lenses: humanities, social sciences, natural science, and history. My view of space exploration was expanded after applying these perspectives. Now, I understand that space has always been one of the factors impacting the history of humanity. It created the basis for the development of natural science and technologies. Moreover, from the social perspective, overcoming the challenges of surviving in space requires cooperation and the development of communities. For this reason, my view was expanded, and now I realize that space exploration is a unique driving force affecting the whole planet and evolution. It affects society, its investigation, and the evolution of science.
Moreover, the breakthroughs in this field are crucial if to look at them from the discussed lenses. For instance, astronomers have recently discovered the closest black hole to Earth (Science Daily, 2022). From the perspective of natural science, it introduces new opportunities for investigating one of the most extreme objects in the Universe (Science Daily, 2022). At the same time, applying the social sciences and humanities lenses, further research and advances might require global collaboration and the creation of a culture of interaction and support to find resources needed for the phenomenon’s exploration. Finally, the progress in researching the black holes’ nature might change the history of humanity by providing new ways to travel in space and achieve distant planets and galaxies. In such a way, space exploration is a critical aspect affecting humanity and introducing a positive stimulus for further development.
Remote sensing techniques can be used in vegetation monitoring. It is carried out from space using satellites. It avails information regarding how satellite images can be used to study the vegetation. Over the years, remote sensing has becomes an effective technique of evaluation of developments taking place about vegetation. Through remote sensing, normalized difference vegetation index can be evaluated and explained. The index shows the green coverage of vegetation on a graphical indicator. Remote sensing can also be used to monitor other changes in vegetation. Such changes include pollen activity and alterations in mangrove forests.
Introduction
About 70% of the earth’s surface is covered in vegetation. Ecologists need to gain insight into the kinds of plants existing within a region (Awange & Kiema, 2013). They should understand how plants are distributed, as well as their patterns and growth phonology. However, it is difficult to gather information over a wide area. The use of satellites has provided ecologists and water and environment engineers with a means of monitoring vegetation. Monitoring vegetation via satellites is commonly referred to as remote sensing. Sensors are fitted into the satellites to achieve this. The process makes it possible to monitor the quality of the earth’s vegetation cover, such as its physiology and morphology. The technique can also provide information regarding plant communities and species available on the ground surface. Remote sensing also helps in the determination of the distribution of the existing vegetation cover within a particular locality.
In this paper, the author seeks to provide an overview of the use of remote sensing to monitor vegetation. The author will also outline some of the benefits associated with the use of satellite technology (Frachtenberg & Schwiegelshohn, 2008). Photosynthesis and spectral properties of vegetation will also be discussed. The use of NDVI retrievals from space and dedicated satellite missions will be highlighted. Also, the limitations and challenges of this technology will be outlined. The researcher will then highlight NDVI retrieval in arid and desert environments. A discussion on NDVI in monitoring pollen activities will also be provided. Finally, the detection of mangrove vegetation from space through remote sensing will be discussed. The effect of mangrove species on respiratory diseases will also be evaluated.
Overview: Importance of Vegetation Monitoring From Space
Remote sensing offers real-time monitoring of vegetation. It achieves this by helping scientists conduct a spectral analysis of the images relayed by the satellites. Some indices are used to track the changes. One of the most commonly used is the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology, 2015). Remote sensing can be used in various fields to study different forms of vegetation. Examples of surfaces studied using the technique include manicured vegetation in urban areas, agricultural land, forests, wetlands, and rangelands. In monitoring such areas, remote sensing can be put into a wide range of applications. They include determining developments on both agricultural and forest vegetation, evaluating climate changes, managing the environment, controlling hazards, and weather forecasting.
Aerial images of these vegetations can give indications of how people conserve the environment. Through remote sensing, it is possible to tell whether the development taking place is positive or negative. As such, policymakers will take the necessary steps to maintain a positive change or deal with negative developments. It also plays an important role in monitoring natural hazards (Walter‐Shea & Biehl, 2010). In this case, ecologists can deal with an unwanted plant variety before it becomes problematic. For example, the encroachment of a particular area by a potentially hazardous plant species can be stopped.
Through remote sensing, it is also possible to determine the proportion of the land surface that is covered by vegetation at a particular time. Vegetation can be either natural or manmade. In most cases, natural vegetation is in form of forest cover. Remote sensing provides valuable information on the progress of forests. It helps detect cases of diminishing forest cover through natural and human causes. Through remote sensing, it is possible to detect any changes in the vegetation, allowing ecologists to respond promptly (Montini & Bogdanovic, 2011). In the case of land that is under agricultural use, remote sensing can be used to determine the progress of the crops. In this case, it plays an important role in predicting the amount of food available for human consumption. As such, it helps deal with matters of food security by helping governments anticipate food shortages.
Through remote sensing, it is also possible to study the climate of an area. It is possible to achieve this by analyzing the plant species and communities that inhabit a particular region. Climate influences the kind of vegetation in an area. As a result, ecologists can tell the climate of an area by analyzing high-resolution satellite images (Pringle, 2006). Change in vegetation cover over time can signify climate variations. It can also indicate a change in the weather. The reason behind this is that certain variations in weather can result in major changes in vegetation. Remote sensing allows for the marking and locating of waterlines, such as rivers, lakes, shorelines, and other areas determined by vegetation. Other specialists use this approach when determining the physiography and geology of a region.
Photosynthesis and Spectral Properties of Vegetation
Photosynthesis is a natural source of energy that sustains the life of living organisms (Reynolds, 2007). Some bacterial species can retrieve energy from inorganic substances through chemosynthesis. However, photosynthesis remains to be the main source. The process allows for the storage of energy in form of simple sugar molecules made from water and carbon (IV) oxide by the chlorophyll pigment. Only leaves and other green parts of a plant, such as a stem, can carry out the process. The reason is that their external and internal structures are adapted to this procedure. The interaction between electromagnetic energy and the structures has a direct impact on the spectral appearance of the leaves and canopies when observed through remote sensing.
Healthy leaves can intercept radiant flux either emanating from a diffuse skylight or the sun. As the radiant flux travels from its source, it is an ‘incident’. However, it shatters upon hitting the structure of the leaf. The reason is that the electromagnetic energy that is incident in nature tends to interact with the chlorophyll, intercellular spaces, and water molecules within the leaf (Reynolds, 2007). It is possible to measure the amount of radiant flux that the leaf absorbs, transmits across its structure, and reflects. One can achieve this through the use of energy balance equations whose purpose is to track the fate of all the incident energy that meets the leaf (Jones & Vaughan, 2010). Most satellites that facilitate remote sensing of the vegetation mostly measure the value of the reflected energy. They function within the energy wavelengths of between 0.35 and 3.0 µm. The reflection can be described as the total incident energy meeting the leave minus that which is used for the process of photosynthesis and that which is transmitted to others below it.
Several factors affect the ability of a leaf to reflect or transmit energy. They include the leaf’s pigments, water content, and internal structure. Chlorophyll is the pigment that is of most importance. There are two types of chlorophyll. The two are chlorophyll a and b. Another pigment of major importance in remote sensing of vegetation is β-carotene. Some factors determine the amount of water that is present within a leaf (Jensen, 2011). The factors include the rate of evapotranspiration, which is mainly influenced by the amount of heat. Other factors include the availability of water in the soil and the plant species.
The process of photosynthesis impacts significantly on the appearance of the canopies from an aerial view. For a leaf to carry out photosynthesis, three requirements must be met. To begin with, carbon dioxide (CO2) must be present. The CO2 is normally obtained from atmospheric air. Water (H2O) is the second requirement. It is considered to be the primary raw material for the process of photosynthesis. It is availed to the leaves through the root and the stem system. Irradiance (Eλ) is the third requirement. The light emanating from the sun is the main source of irradiance (Thenkabail, 2012).
The top layer of the leaf’s upper epidermis has a cuticular surface. It is waxy and translucent. It diffuses light and at the same time reflects some. The cellular structure of a leaf is larger compared to the wavelength of the light (Gouveia, Trigo & DaCamara, 2009). Typically, palisade cells are larger compared to parenchyma cells located in the spongy mesophyll. The palisade cells are located on the upper side of the leaf surface, while the parenchyma cells are located at the bottom. The palisade cells have more chlorophyll. That is why they are a darker green.
Visible lights range from violet to blue, green, indigo, yellow, orange, and red. In the light spectrum visible to the human eye, red has the longest wavelength, whereas violet has the least. However, researchers argue that many other radiations are not visible to the human eye depending on the surface and temperature. The human eye detects short wavelengths since radiations interact with matters in varying ways. The incident rays provide the energy that is transmitted, reflected, and absorbed by the surfaces it hits (Gouveia et al., 2009). The reflected light, together with the wavelengths of the radiation that forms the colors, are what makes it possible to view objects. The principle of wavelength variations in the actual red-green-blue (RGB) spectrum. It is used in viewing photos when making satellite images.
The diagram below illustrates variations in wavelength between different regions of the RGB spectrum:
Figure 1. Variations in wavelength. Source: Manningham (2014).
The images are usually affected by the matter components within the atmospheres. Solid and liquid particles within the atmosphere deflect, diffract, or reflect the energy waves. The distraction is identified by the term attenuation. Air molecules alone can change the appearance and clarity of satellite images (Langley & McGuire, 2006). The attribute is also common when there are clouds, which prevent the penetration of light.
Green plants absorb most of the light received on their surfaces and reflect the remaining. However, plants with different colors absorb little energy and reflect the remaining. The reflected energy is what is represented in the satellite images. As such, reflection from active photosynthetic plants is of low speed and wavelength. The reason is that some of the energy does not show on the satellite images since it has been absorbed (Langley & McGuire, 2006).
Vegetative surfaces can absorb or reflect the incidental rays transmitting at varying wavelengths of 1.3 microns. The spectrum can be divided into 3 sections. The three are visible, the near-infrared (NIR), and middle infrared (Shuck & Wollard, 2010). The range of optical features is dictated by the highest absorption towards the highest reflectance of a green plant. The reflectance is affected by the capability of the pigments to trap light in such structures as the chloroplasts
When a photon of light hits a chlorophyll molecule, some of it is reflected, while the rest is absorbed. An absorbed light proton enters into an excited state. Chlorophyll a and b absorb blue and red light. As such, the green light is reflected. As a result, leaves get a healthy green foliage color. Other pigments, such as yellow carotene, absorb the green region. The development allows red and blue light to be reflected. Another pigment found in leaves is phycocyanin. The pigment allows for the absorption of red and green regions of light at 0.62 µm. As a result, much of the blue light and a portion of the green light is reflected (Otto, 2005). The combination is sensed remotely by satellites as cyan.
The diagram below shows how the presence of varying pigments reflects different regions of the RGB spectrum as captured by remote sensing satellites:
Figure 2. Pigments and reflection of RGB. Source: Manningham (2014).
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) Retrievals from Space: Dedicated Satellite Missions, Limitations, and Challenges
NDVI is a simple way of analyzing remote sensing images obtained from satellites (Otto, 2005). It provides a graphical indicator of whether or not a particular region contains live green vegetation. The value of NDVI is obtained using this formula
NDVI = (NIR-VIS)/ (NIR+VIS).
Where:
NIR= near-infrared radiation
VIS= visible radiation.
The diagram below provides an illustration of how NDVI is obtained and the parameters used in calculating it:
Abnormalities of green vegetations negatively affect the efficacy and efficiency of life. Consequently, it is fundamental to preserve and monitor how plants are cared for. The loss of green hues in satellite images shows that there are problems with the vegetation. The NDVI value helps to identify the change within an ecosystem. It allows scientists to code and identifies threats to life when plants are affected. It also enables conservation agencies to fight activities that affect the prevalence of a green ecosystem.
When NDVI is very low, it implies that there are very low instances of green plants within that area. For instance, an NDVI of 0.1 may indicate that the land is occupied by sand and rocks, such as in the deserts (Brown & Beurs, 2008). The NDVI of areas covered with snow is also low and can at times be below 0.1. The value may rise to between 0.2 and 0.3 in grasslands and shrubs. The highest level of the index is identified in tropical rain forests and temperate regions. They show a value of between 0.6 and 0.8.
The association between vegetation and radiations indicates that imagery may be used to create sensors. The sensation is facilitated by the three rays incorporating all bands of the vegetation. The RGB images can be used to retrieve information about the vegetation (Jensen, 2000). The imaging helps the scientist to relate color with the existing channels of the sensing programs
The value of NDVI may range from zero to 1. On land, the regions presenting low NDVI indicates that there are few plants. A value close to 1 shows the regions with adequate plants. Values close to -1 signify land covered by the sea. On the water surfaces, the NDVI shifts to the negative values since there are no plants present, especially in the sea. The aspect implies that the reflectance is very low (Jensen, 2000).
The use of NDVI to describe the nature of vegetation that exists within a particular locality is associated with several limitations. To begin with, when calculating the index, only two values are used. The sum and the difference of the two spectral channels, NIR and VIS, carry the same information. Considering that only the two channels are used, it is apparent that a lot of valuable information that can be obtained from the remotely sensed images is left out.
Secondly, NDVI value tends to give estimations on a wide range of vegetation qualities. Such qualities include the concentration of chlorophyll in the leaves, biomass and ground cover of the vegetation, leaf area index, productivity, and rainfall patterns. Mis-registration of the remotely sensed images can also result in errors when obtaining the value of NDVI (Taiz & Zeiger, 2010).
Atmospheric effects such as cloud cover can also hurt the quality of images obtained during remote sensing. They are said to contaminate the images of the area under investigation. The effect is more pronounced in instances where the diameter of the cloud is found to be smaller than the area being monitored by a remote sensor (Baret, Houles & Guerif, 2007). Other atmospheric effects include humidity and particles. Such effects should be adequately accounted for to avoid the occurrence of errors.
Soil also tends to change its color especially when moist. Most soils tend to darken when their moisture content is increased. If the sensor has not been programmed to have a spectral response to changes in moisture similar to that observed in the soil, then the images will give false alarms which in no way affect the vegetation (Baret et al., 2007).
NDVI Retrieval in Arid and Desert Environment
Generally, the NDVI value of the desert environment is very low. In most cases, it is below 0.1. The reason behind this is that the conditions in these areas are harsh which discourages the growth of plants. Only a few plant species can survive in the desert environment. Such species include acacia and cacti. However, their ground cover is very minimal to make any significant changes in the value of NDVI (Baret et al., 2007). The land is also rarely put under agricultural use unless when irrigation is used.
The diagram below shows a comparison of remote sensing images obtained from the desert environment and other areas.
Figure 4: Remote sensing images from the desert and other environments. Source: Soudani and Francois (2014).
Desert land receives minimal rainfall of less than 100mm per annum. The climatic conditions dictate that the agronomic practices carried in such areas must employ high technology and adequate water. The two are applied to sustain the environment while maximizing the yields (Soudani & Francois, 2014). The paper will use Abu Dhabi city as the reference point for analyzing the NDVI values of desert areas.
In a desert environment, the use of water to sustain crops and operate animal husbandry is evident. The crops produced by the farms include date palms, vegetable crops, and fodder crops. Therefore, the crops and animals should be produced using water from alternative sources to supplement the little rainfall (Soudani & Francois, 2014).
The sources of water used in agriculture include:
Conventional resources, such as rainfall, ponds, springs, and groundwater.
Non-conventional resources, such as treated wastewater and desalinization.
The use of irrigation to support agriculture is likely to have a positive effect on the value of NDVI. The reason behind this is that the vegetation cover of the environment will be increased. At the same time, the vegetation will appear greener since water is available to the plants, which prevents their drying up and dying off.
Since water to boost irrigation is available, various agricultural activities can be supported in desert lands. The ecologically sound methods of farming include irrigation and hydroponics among others (Taiz & Zeiger, 2010). The water used in agricultural farms is spent in the drip, furrow, sprinkler, and bubbler irrigation. Governments in areas with expansive desert cover have formulated strategies to guide water usage. In desert areas, such as Abu Dhabi, water used in the agricultural farms is consumed mainly in the three major irrigation methods which are surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and localized irrigation.
Hydroponics can be described as an agricultural practice that entails growing plants deprived of soil while minerals and other nutrients are provided in water (Mattar, 2008). In a hydroponics system, plants are grown in nutrient solutions. There is also the use of artificial substrates, such as sawdust. Some crops can be grown using irrigation in desert environments. They include cabbages, spinach, cucumber, tomatoes, potatoes, and strawberries. Such crops serve a very important role in the economy of the countries. For example, Egypt is one of the desert countries in the world, which is known for its production of citrus and other forms of fruits. The products are exported to Africa and other countries in the world, earning the nation significant foreign exchange.
Irrigation is carried out to ensure that water is available to the plants growing in the desert environment. Without water, such plants cannot survive. They will not be able to carry out photosynthesis or absorb nutrients from the soil. As such, water, air, and the required nutrients are enhanced in the zones of the roots (Baret et al., 2007). The plants will in turn grow as they are supported by the nutrients availed through the water. The nutrients can be occurring naturally in the soils, or they can be introduced through the application of fertilizers and other substances.
Irrigation is associated with several advantages when it is carried out in the desert environment. For example, it allows for the cultivation of crops in all seasons of the year. Farmers can achieve this especially when they are using greenhouses. It is noted that in other regions where farming normally occurs, people depend on rain. As such, the production of food crops is seasonal (Reynolds, 2007). Irrigation is a controlled form of production. As such, it leads to the production of cleaner, highly nutritious, and healthier foods compared to those from other agricultural methods. Besides, there are low chances of crop failure compared to other systems of farming.
Despite all these benefits, it is important to note that irrigation in the desert environment is associated with some disadvantages. For example, setting up irrigation systems is costly (Baret et al., 2007). The farmer has to purchase pipes, construction materials for greenhouses, and other structures needed. The case is different in rain-fed agriculture where the plants are planted in the fields and depend on nature to mature. The labor that is required in the maintenance of the irrigation system is intensive. The reason is that some aspects of the system cannot be mechanized, especially when the space is small. Waterlogging may also occur in cases where the soil does not drain well. In some cases, the soils are so poor in nutrients and drainage that the farmer needs to replace them. In the event of pump failures in any system that uses the pump, the result will be wilting of the plants since the roots will dry very fast.
Irrigation plays an important role in the sustenance of urban centers in countries located in desert regions. Abu Dhabi, Egypt, and other countries whose landmass is largely desert can exploit the potential of their ecosystem by embracing irrigation (Baret et al., 2007).
However, it is important to note that the use of irrigation may not have significant changes in the NDVI value of the vegetation. The reason behind this is that in some cases, this type of farming is carried out inside specialized structures, such as greenhouses. For this reason, images of the vegetation are not accessible to remote sensors mounted on satellites (Brown & Beurs, 2008). Even though the amount of vegetation produced under such establishments is high, it is not of any benefit in the determination of NDVI.
Use of NDVI in Monitoring Pollen Activities
Research has shown that NDVI can be used for monitoring pollen activities. Pollen is composed of particles released by male parts of a flower for fertilization. It is impossible to monitor pollen activities within a small area. The reason behind this is that the particles are minute and can only be monitored if they occur in large numbers. Pollen activity can be remotely monitored from space (Brown & Beurs, 2008). In most cases, it is triggered by events, such as winds. The particles are normally small and can be transported over large distances. One of the main reasons why the movement of pollen can be detected through remote sensing is that it has a different color from that of the rest of the vegetation.
Pollen is one of the main agents of triggering asthma. It has been recorded that the cases of asthma raises when there are thunderstorms since spores of fungi and pollen increase in the atmosphere. Thunderstorms have a potent role in triggering several asthmatic cases, which were not attributed to the spores (Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology, 2015). When the researchers isolated the study of pollen and the admissions, it was noted that the number of admissions was not reliant on the spores. In this regard, the data collected on admissions was varied without correlation to the level of spores recorded within the selected dates.
Various aspects of weather are much related since each has parameters that influence the other. For instance, indeed, temperatures are usually high during summer and the rainfall during this period is low. It indicates that the amount of rainfall is much reduced during summer between July and September. At this time, increments of temperature lead to the evaporation of high contents of water. Therefore, the humidity of cities around or close to the shores between these months is high. For example, the moisture content of Abu Dhabi moves up to 78% during the month of august which correlation with the temperatures (Gouveia et al., 2009).
The wind is an important aspect of the distribution of humidity, rainfall, temperature, and other factors triggering the prevalence of asthma, such as pollen and spores (Manningham, 2014). Scientific research and recent studies show that the poor air quality in Abu Dhabi that is attributed to the main sectors of the economy poses serious and dangerous health risks to the ever-growing population of the city. The five major pollutants that can be attributed to the deteriorating quality of air in Abu Dhabi include nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, ground-level ozone, and lastly particle pollution or particulate matter. Pollen fall under this broad category.
Particulate matter refers to the tiny particles of sand, dust, or chemicals that can penetrate deep into people’s lungs. Scientists have been researching particles not bigger than the human hair, which is approximately 10 micrometers in size and they are known as PM10. Surprisingly, smaller particles known as P22.5 are also being researched as types of particulate matter. They are the most harmful ones due to their ability to easily penetrate the human lungs, which is a hazardous trait (Manningham, 2014).
Detection of Mangroves from Space
Mangrove is one of the most crucial plants in the coastal environment. It is also of great ecological importance on earth. The interaction of man with nature has made the plant equally important in the socio-economic arena (Walter‐Shea & Biehl, 2010). In recent times, most previously mangrove-dominated land is being put into other uses to satisfy human wants. The situation has led to an overwhelming decrease in the mangrove and irreversible environmental effects. As a result, monitoring and tracking the spatiotemporal existence and distribution of the plant has been a critical undertaking. Remote sensing, therefore, becomes a critical venture as it is the single-most activity that helps to identify the mangrove on the surface of the earth. Information gathered following remote sensing of the vegetation facilitates preservation action.
One of the most crucial detecting tools used to study the mangrove is known as the Landsat Thematic Mapper. The tool enables scientists to capture images in the format of the Landsat 4-5. The images consist of files that have seven bands of spectrum. The images have a resolution of about thirty meters for all the spectral bands. When monitoring the mangrove, the sixth band which comprises the infrared ray is collected at one hundred and twenty meters. After they are taken, they are re-sampled to thirty meters to correspond to the original measurements and resolution. In principle, the images have a thermal band ranging from six to sixty meters. Besides, they take the images in the GeoTIFF format which is considered a good format when it comes to differentiating the mangrove from other plants on the earth’s surface.
In modern technology, scientists have come up with another format known as the Landsat Enhanced TM Plus image. The spectral band contains exactly eight bands. They are taken at a resolution of thirty megapixels from the first to the seventh band of the spectrum. However, the thermal infrared band, which is the sixth, is taken at a resolution of sixty megapixels (Walter‐Shea & Biehl, 2010). The band is then re-sampled to thirty megapixels to remain consistent with the entire spectrum band. Scientists have also come up with the Landsat 8 image files which have exactly nine spectral bands. In this case, all the bands are taken at a resolution of 30 megapixels except the eighth band (Awange & Kiema, 2013). The eighth band is taken at a resolution of 15 meters which is essentially lower than the rest of the spectral bands used in all the other formats. The spectral bands appear to range from the optical and short-wave-length areas but the ninth band is of cirrus wavelength.
Space-centered thermal emissions and reflection radiometers are used to hide the areas where elevation is very high (Wu & Chen, 2005). It is very important to do this since it simplifies the process of analyzing and reaching the point of detection, as well as differentiation from other plants. Land over the map with a scale of about 1/250000 is then used as reference data for carrying out a crosscheck and assessing the accuracy of the images as obtained from the Landsat. The maps are usually made by the use of the Landsat images and hence can be used to validate the field surveys and aerial pictures. The process enables scientists to classify the different areas of the images as either mangrove or non-mangrove. The resultant map obtained from this classification is then changed into a raster type that has a resolution of 40 meters (Walter‐Shea & Biehl, 2010). Having been converted to a raster map, it is easy to use it as a reference for the validation of accuracy and precision which are very important factors when it comes to the classification of the images and the entire results.
The process of detecting the mangrove consists of some specific steps to ensure accuracy and reliability. The first stage is known as the data pre-processing stage. In this stage, the Landsat images are acquired using the respective tools as discussed in the previous paragraph. The images are corrected for errors using the reference maps as illustrated in the previous paragraph. Further assessment of the images is conducted on each of the Landsat images that had been corrected using about twenty ground points. The ground points are selected from critical features that exist in the entire target area. A scientist must ensure that the Root Mean Squared Error is equal to or less than fifteen meters (Walter‐Shea & Biehl, 2010). As such, the images are considered to have been corrected radiometrically such that they can be registered in the Universal Transverse System.
After the pre-processing stage, the images are classified to differentiate some areas as mangrove-dominated areas and others as not. In most cases, the mangrove areas are those whose elevation is lower than thirty meters of height. In the same light, the areas whose elevations are higher than 30 meters are disregarded since most of the resolutions of the images are set at thirty. The step is then followed by the selection of the spectral band. The reflectance of the plant leaves becomes a critical aspect in the determination of the short wavelength. Reflectance is attributed to the amount of water absorbed by the plants about that of the entire plant community (Montini & Bogdanovic, 2011). Mangrove leaves are detected based on low reflectance since their leaves have smaller intercellular spaces that normally contain air.
Mangroves Species and their Effects on Respiratory Diseases
There are various types of mangrove species (Montini & Bogdanovic, 2011). They are classified by the color and the nature of their growth. The species are discussed below showing the characteristics that make them distinct from others.
Red Mangrove
The red mangrove is scientifically known as the Rhizophora mangle and referred to as the (Walking Tree) from the layman language. It is identified by the trunk-like roots that bear a nearly red color. They have shiny leaves that are deep green on the upper side while the underside is much lighter. The leaves approximately measure one to five inches in length (Jensen, 2011). They are broad and hence have a blunt tip at the far end. Another most distinct aspect that differentiates them is their prop roots since they arch out from the stem and the branches. The arching prop roots lead to the production of additional roots that give the red mangrove an appearance perceived as walking in the water.
The figure below shows the distinct parts of the red mangrove. The red-colored roots and the props are outstanding:
Figure 5. Red mangrove. Source: Otto (2005).
In essence, these mangroves are capable of growing in brackish water since the tree can remove about 0.99 of the salt from the water before uptake. Indeed, an analysis of the plant’s tissues showed that the plant takes 0.01 of the salt only (Otto, 2005). It is also known to develop bud-like protrusions which take a torpedo shape. The torpedo-shaped protrusions are commonly known as propagates and they serve as the seedlings to the red mangrove. In this case, propagates fall on the surface of the tree and float until they find an appropriate environment for growth to take place. It is hypothesized that propagates can drift on the surface of the water for a whole year before taking root to grow into a mature tree. The mangrove species is not associated with respiratory diseases. The reason behind this is that it is not affected by brackish water. The presences of the prop roots enable the plants to respire even under marshy waters. The plants may pose a risk to humans. The reason is that the pollen grains produced during flowering may cause respiratory complications to individuals who are allergic to these substances.
Black Mangrove
The black-colored mangroves are scientifically known as the Avicennia germinans. The species is essentially taller than the red mangrove owing to its age. In essence, they mostly grow in the high altitude areas as opposed to the red and white species. The black mangroves are depicted to be having a ‘look at the ground’ appearance. They are usually surrounded by pneumatophores which protrude and point upwards (Otto, 2005). They are meant for breathing since they respire through the roots. They play an important role in the growth and development of the plant since it grows in saturated water. In that regard, the plant would not get sufficient air if the pneumatophores were absent. Another crucial differentiating characteristic is the fact that the back of the plant is dark in color (Dash, Gottsche, Olesen & Fischer, 2005). As such, the dark bark informs the name ‘Black Mangrove’. The mangrove leaves are glossy. They are also green on the upper surface. The underside is dark green. Essentially, the leaves are coin-shaped and hence a very critical differentiating characteristic.
The image below shows some of the characteristics of the black mangrove:
Figure 6. Black mangrove. Source: Otto (2005).
Black mangroves also produce flowers. They do this in spring and early summer. The flowers are usually in color. The pollen grain may cause respiratory diseases among humans. The figure below shows a flower of a black mangrove:
Figure 7. Black mangrove flower. Source: Otto (2005).
White Mangrove
The white mangrove is scientifically known as the Laguncularia racemose. It is found and grows in areas of high elevations. In essence, it grows in areas of higher elevation. They are easily identified due to the light-green color of their leaves. Their leaves are about three inches long. They are round in shape at both ends and with a notch at the far end of the leaf. The tree is also characterized by two bumps that exist at the point of intersection between the leave and the stem (Otto, 2005). The seedling of the white mangrove takes the shape of a pod and their sizes are equivalent to a nickel. The plant provides a habitat for many marine organisms. The organisms have great importance in the ecosystem and the environment at large (Otto, 2005). They serve as the buffers at times of a strong storm which may otherwise destroy the entire plant. The plant is also of great socio-economic benefits. The other types of mangrove species include the orange, yellow, grey, and milky mangroves. The species are very rare and can only be found in some of the most protected forests in the world. Most of these plants produce flowers with pollen grains, which may cause respiratory complications among humans.
Conclusion
Remote sensing is over the years becoming a commonly used technique in detecting changes in the vegetation (Otto, 2005). The technique puts into use sensors and cameras situated in satellites in space. Through remote sensing, scientists today are in a position to gather valuable information on vegetation. Examples of data that can be obtained through the practice include monitoring the process of photosynthesis. It can also be used to monitor developments in desert and mangrove vegetation. Through the technique, it is also possible to monitor pollen activity.
References
Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology. (2015). Climate data online. Web.
Awange, J., & Kiema, J. (2013). Environmental geoinformatics monitoring and management. Berlin: Springer.
Baret, F., Houles, V., & Guerif, M. (2007). Quantification of plant stress using remote sensing observations and crop models: The case of nitrogen management. Journal of Experimental Botany, 58(1), 869-880.
Brown, M., & Beurs, K. (2008). Evaluation of multi-sensor semi-arid crop season parameters based on NDVI and rainfall. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(1), 2261-2271.
Dash, P., Gottsche, F., Olesen, F., & Fischer, H. (2005). Separating surface emissivity and temperature using two-channel spectral indices and emissivity composites and comparison with a vegetation fraction method. Remote Sensing of Environment, 96(4), 1-17.
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Gouveia, C., Trigo, R., & DaCamara, C. (2009). Drought and vegetation stress monitoring in Portugal using satellite data. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 9(1), 185-195.
Jensen, J. (2000). Remote sensing of the environment: An earth resource perspective. Minnesota: Prentice Hall
Jensen, J. (2011). Remote sensing of the environment: An earth resource perspective (4th ed.). Minnesota: Prentice Hall.
Jones, H., & Vaughan, R. (2010). Remote sensing of vegetation: Principles, techniques, and applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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A space station can be defined as a man-made structure built for humans so that they can live in outer space. The concept of the space station was brought about in 1869 by Edward Everett when he described the Brick moon a satellite used to navigate ships in the ocean. Today only the low earth orbit also known as orbital stations have been built. Unlike vehicles, space stations are built to live in the orbit as per the period assigned (Waber, 1998).
On the other hand, the international space station is the world’s largest and most complex research facility being assembled in low earth orbit. It is located at 360 km altitude on an orbit that goes around the Earth and goes around the Earth in one and half hours. It is considered to be the biggest satellite in the whole universe. Its construction began in 1998 and is targeted to end by the year 2011 with an extension of four years to completely end in 2015.
The international space station program is a joint venture between the National Aeronautics and space administration (NASA) of the United States of America, Russia Federal Space Agency (RKA) of Russia, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) of Japan, Canadian Space Agency (CSA) of Canada and European Space Agency ( ESP) of the European Nations (Launus, 1998). Since the first expedition, the international space station has had staff continuously, thus providing a permanent human presence in the station. In the beginning, only the Russian and the American crew members boarded the space station, they were later joined by Thomas Reiter from Germany in the year 2006. Today the station has been visited by many astronauts from different nations.
Origin
International Space Station originated during the cold war. During this time NASA was planning to launch an exemplary space station called Freedom as a copy to the Soviet Slyut and Mir space station. On the other hand, the Soviet was planning to build another space station called Mir2. However, due to financial and design obstacles, space station freedom did not go past the mock-ups and component tests.
After the cold war, the United Nations nearly canceled Space station freedom and due to the soviet economic crisis, Mir2 space station was canceled (Launius, 1998). These problems and other obstacles to space station construction were being experienced by other nations that tried to build the space station. This triggered the beginning of negotiations between these nations which included; Russia, Europe, Japan, America, and Canada, to collaborate in a multi-national space station project.
In 1992 the then US president George W. Bush and the Russian president Boris signed an agreement that called for a short joint venture between the two nations. In 1993 the then US Vice president Al Gore and the then Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chemomyrdin came up with plans for building a new space station which eventually became the International Space Station. The international space station’s aim was to combine all the proposed space stations of all other nations with a mission of enabling long-term space exploration thus providing benefits to the people of the earth. The station will also provide a permanent orbiting station for long-term research on the material and life forms in space. To add to this, due to its unique conditions it will facilitate major research in technology and engineering (Neeson, 2000).
The purpose of the international space station
One of the reasons why the international space station was constructed was to provide a conducive environment for conducting experiments that require unusual conditions that can only be found in space, for instance, microgravity conditions. The station offers an advantage over other space crafts as it provides long-term conditions in the space environment thus allowing studies to be performed. With the main research being biology, physics, astronomy, and meteorology the United Nations designate their segment in the international space station as a national laboratory. This allowed for the utilization of the international space station by other nations and the private sector (Bond, 2002).
The international space station also provides a favorable testing place for efficiency and reliability for spacecraft that will have a long mission to the Moon and Mars. This is because it allows for the evaluation of equipment in a safe low Earth Orbit location. This gives an experience in maintaining, repairing, and replacing systems that will be required in driving the spacecraft from the Earth. This reduces mission failure risk and enhances the capability of the spacecraft to complete the mission successfully.
In addition, the international space station allows for the study of human muscles, bones, and fluid change in human bodies due to the long exposure of human beings in space. This will help in space living and allow for lengthy space travel.
In addition, the international space station provides the best place to study the effects of near-weightless on other objects besides human beings. The study is focused on plants and other animals so as to establish an outer space environment that will support the development and growth of these subjects (Waber, 1998).
Last but not least international space station provides opportunities for educational tours and international joint venture. The crew aboard the international space station provides educational opportunities to students on Earth, this is done by allowing students to participate in the classroom of international space station experiments, educational demonstrations, among others. Due to the fact that the crew aboard the international space station comes from different nations the important lessons learned are forwarded to their nations and to future multi-national missions (Launius, 1998).
Assembly and Structure
The assembly of the international spaceship started in 1998 and by early2009 it was considered 81 percent complete. In 1998 the first segment of the international space station, Zarya was launched, this was followed by the first three node modules, unity. The station was stagnant for the next one and half years and it was only in 2000 when the Russian model Zvezda was added. This allowed for at least three crew members to board the station. Later in the year 2000, two segment of the station’s Integrated Truss Structure (Z1 & P6) arrived. This enabled communication, guidance, electrical and power sharing via two solar array wings. In 2003, however, a space ship named Columbia hand an accident and this brought the work on the international space station to a stop.
The work on the international space station however, commenced again in 2005 when another space ship name discovery was launched. This was followed by second set of solar arrays and the third set. With these solar arrays more pressurized modules were required and this lead to the addition of harmony node and Columbia node (Bond, 2002). In 2009 more solar arrays were brought in and this marked the last pair of solar arrays. To date work on the international space station still goes on with more and more pieces of it expected to come in and be joined. The final stage of the international space station is expected to end in the year 2011 but the astronauts are still adding more equipments or segment to the station thus furthering the completion date to the year 2015.
Power Supply
The international space station utilizes the sun as its main source of power. The sun energy is transformed to electric energy by the solar arrays that have been installed in the international space station. In international space station, power is very important as it help pumping clean air and water in to the station. The electricity power is also very important as it illuminates the station and providing energy for pumping the oil need in the station.
In the beginning the only source of energy for the station was the solar panel fixed on the first modules (Zarya &Zvezda). The total power that is converted by the solar arrays is about 130 to 180 volts. This power is used by the whole station. In power transportation only small power lines are used so as to reduce weight in the station. Recently the Russian Science power Platform has been installed and this has enabled power sharing in the station (Neeson, 2000).
In trapping the solar energy, the arrays move as the earth moves by rotating so that they always face the sun, this is aided by the alpha gimbals while the beta gimbals held in getting the right angle for the sun rays. This ensures that there is constant energy flow in the international space station (Waber, 1998).
Work Cited
Bond, P. the Continuing Story of International Space Station. (2002). New York.
Waber, M. E. International Space Station Countdown to Launch. (1998). Alexandria.
Launius, R. Space Stations. The Origin of International Partnership in International Space Station. (1998). Washington.
Neeson, L. Inside the Space Station. A Fantastic First Step to Life off Earth. (2000). Santa Monica. Web.