Category: Space

The new space mission is a European-built probe destined for an interplanetary journey with the overarching purpose of finding signs of life. Since the project required an immense amount of funding and collaboration of multiple countries, it is critical that it passes the initial stage  the rocket launch without any aberrations. In the baseline scenario, the launch is smooth, and this is to be expected as per recent statistics. As stated by Kyle (2019), who provided raw data on the subject, the manned failure rate was at 1.64% while the unmanned was at 8.08%. However, since science has been developing at a rapid rate, refining existing technologies, in the last 20 years, the unmanned failure rate was down to 6.68% for manned and 0.79% (Kyle, 2019).

It is estimated that the mission will last no longer than a few months, given that everything goes according to the plan. The tentative duration is in line with the average space mission duration. NASA (n.d.) reports that typically, the ISS (international space station missions), also commonly referred to as expeditions, do not exceed six months. From the case description, however, it becomes apparent that the current space mission is likely to be unmanned and controlled remotely, without an actual crew on board. In this case, an average space probe lasts around 90 days, or three months, which is close to the initial estimate.

One of the primary targets of the mission, measuring the atmospheric composition of the new planet, is expected to be achieved without major problems. Today, there are well-defined, thoroughly developed tools for determining what elements compose the atmosphere of a planet. They employ the light-absorbing characteristics of elements for generating the so-called light signature. Mapping the composition of the surface with a 100-m resolution is considered to be a medium characteristic of the most commonly used sensors put in use as early as 1999 (Ose et al., 2016). The baseline scenario implies that the mission will yield medium-resolution visual data whose collection will not be impeded by any natural phenomena.

The difficulty of surface observations will depend on the unique characteristics of the planet. For instance, surface observations on Venus have long suffered from its extremely dense atmosphere and natural occurrences such as strong winds whose velocity easily amounts to 80m/s (300 km/h) (Tinetti et al., 2013). Nevertheless, since even Venus has since been thoroughly researched, the baseline expectation is that there will be a way to observe the surface of a new planet.

The mission team does not raise their hopes too high regarding discovering signs of extraterrestrial forms of life. The same goes for water: with 71% of its surface covered with oceanic water, Earth is the only known planet with a stable water resource. As of 2015, it has been established that the volume of water inside the solar system is roughly 25-60 times the volume of water on Earth. Based on this piece of statistics, having at least water on its surface, be it ice or liquid, is not exactly a rarity, but at the same time, it does not mean that it is conducive to the emergence of life.

The Best Case Scenario

The best-case scenario for the current case includes the attainment of all the goals on the agenda. It goes without saying that the best-case scenario leaves no possibility for a failed launch, which, as it has been mentioned before, is not likely to happen in the first place based on the available data. The atmosphere composition of the planet will be so those surface observations will be easier than expected, and the shuttle will be able to collect probes for further analysis. Apart from it, the picture quality will advance from medium (100-1,000m) to high resolution (<100m). The mission will not be confronted with any of the extreme natural occurrences akin to those that take place on planets such as Venus.

What differs the best-case scenario from the baseline scenario is its groundbreaking discoveries and breakthroughs on issues that have long haunted astronomical, physical, chemical, and other sciences. The primary, overarching goal of the present mission is to discover extraterrestrial life, for which it is critical to come across natural conditions that are conducive to its emergence. Hence, the best-case scenario implies that such a discovery will be made, rendering the venture worthy of time, money, and human resources invested.

This year, Clash (2020) interviewed Story Musgrave, an astronaut that was on board of all five of the Space Shuttles  Endeavor, Discovery, Atlantis, Challenger, and Columbia. As cited by Clash (2020), Musgrave shared that statistically, there are millions if not billions of planets that have biological life. At present, the Habitable Exoplanet Catalog (HEC) maintained by the University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo (2020) counts as many as 55 potentially habitable exoplanets. According to the newest calculations, the closest one, Proxima Cen B, is in 4.2 light-years from Planet Earth, which means that the journey would take far longer than the tentative duration for the mission. However, in the best-case scenario, the exoplanet that the current space probe seeks to investigate turns out to be habitable  a trait that has gone unnoticed for years.

At present, there is a consensus that the habitability of any planet is contingent on the presence of liquid water (Sellers Exoplanet Environments Collaboration, n.d.). The chances that the investigated planet has water are moderate to high: for instance, as of 2015, it had been established that water is present in as many as 23 places in the Solar system alone (Hsu et al., 2015). As told by Hsu et al. (2015), there is good evidence that Enceladus, Saturns sixth-largest moon, has a hot hydrothermal environment  similar to the one that led to the emergence of life on Earth. This might be the case with the current exoplanet; however, there is still a possibility that the mission will discover new environments that can sustain life. In the best-case scenario, not only the exoplanet will be found habitable, but its natural conditions will also help to redefine the requirements for habitability. All in all, the mission will make a significant contribution to the modeling of diverse planetary conditions.

The Worst-Case Scenario

Even though in the last twenty years, technology has significantly improved, worst-case scenarios still cannot be completely excluded when planning a space mission. There are three ways according to which the space probe might fail and sabotage all plans. Firstly, as shown by Kyle (2019), unmanned shuttles are more likely to fail than those that are manned. Looking at the available data, it is easy to notice a striking difference in failure rates: 6.68% against 0.84% accordingly. Therefore, as per the worst-case scenario, the space probe faces an engineering disaster that compromises the whole mission.

To better understand what could go wrong, it may suffice to look at the history of failed missions, especially those that took place not so long ago. In 1986, the space shuttle Challenger lost control and broke into pieces barely a minute after its launch. It crashed into the Atlantic Ocean from an altitude of more than 50,000 feet, never making it to its destination (Grush, 2015). The 1960 Venera operation ended in failure the first two times: shuttles were flying by the orbit of Venus without entering the atmosphere (Grush, 2015). The way back might be as dangerous: the 2003 16-day Columbia space mission ended in a disaster when the shuttle broke apart when reentering the Earths atmosphere (Grush, 2015). Alternatively, the 2004 Genesis carrying the particles of the solar wind shuttle was not able to descent properly as its drogue parachute did not deploy on time. The failure to reenter the atmosphere or descend may lead to the loss of valuable samples.

Secondly, even if the launch itself is successful, in the worst-case scenario, none of the targets set by the international team are attained. For instance, akin to what happened to the 2009 NASAs Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), the probe might be sent into a crater and slam to its destruction (Grush, 2015). The exoplanet is an unfamiliar environment, hence, surface observation might present such unexpected turns of events. Apart from that, in the worst-case scenario, the probe will not be able to take pictures with the required resolution due to unexpected natural occurrences in the atmosphere of the planet. It could be that the atmosphere of the planet would be so dense and prone to the formation of winds with extreme velocity, that any attempts to capture images would be rendered futile. Yet another tragic possibility is losing communication with a shuttle altogether.

Lastly, no matter which of the aforementioned events happens, the worst-case scenario implies the loss of an immense amount of money. If the mission proves to be an utter failure, some of the participating institutions are likely to be defunded and withdraw from participation altogether. The European Union is a powerful scientific hub, and yet, the quality of research and availability of funding vary from country to country. For instance, a recent paper by the European Union (2019) shows that Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands are the most research-intensive countries while others are barely mentioned. The worst-case scenario might lead to the growing discrepancy in scientific development within the EU.

The Unthinkable, Almost Impossible Scenario

When realizing a project as big as the current space mission, it still makes sense to entertain the most unthinkable, nigh-on ridiculous scenarios. The present mission set the discovery of new forms of life as its primary goal, and it does attain it as per the best-case scenario. However, the question arises as to what happens if the newly discovered forms of life are intelligent, aggressive, and do not have the best intentions. The presence of extraterrestrial civilizations has now been a mind-boggling issue for many decades. A statistical approach that allows us to measure the possibilities of encountering intelligent life outside Planet Earth is authored by the astronomer Frank Drake and embodied by the Drake equation (see Image 1). The equation entails the main concepts that scientists need to take into consideration when approaching the question of extraterrestrial radio-communicative life.

As for current approximations, using low estimates, it appears that humans are alone in this galaxy and, potentially, in the observable universe. On the other hand, with the proposed higher values, N may be as great as 15,600,000, meaning that there might be innumerate intelligent civilizations. Scenario D, the unthinkable, almost impossible scenario, entertains the latter version and suggests that on its space search, the shuttle starts communicating with an intelligent, technologically developed civilization.

Image 1. The Drake equation where N stands for the number of radio-communicative civilizations, R* is the average star formation rate, fp = the fraction of the stars that have planets, ne = the average number of habitable planets per star, fl = the fraction of habitable planets that do develop life, fi = the fraction of inhabited planets that have civilizations, fc = the fraction of civilizations that harness radio-communicative technologies, and L = the length of time for which such civilizations release detectable signals into space (Information is Beautiful, 2020).

The thought of contacting an extraterrestrial civilization is as hopeful as it is unsettling to the scientific community. The dark forest theory that can be traced back to the 2008 work by the hard science writer Cixin Liu, suggests that civilizations from different planets seek to avoid one another (Omoregie, 2019). The author compares the dynamics of such cohabitation to a walk in the dark forest (Omoregie, 2019). The exploration of a previously untouched, unfamiliar area makes one assume that anyone who he or she encounters does not have the best intentions. If two predators become aware of each other, each of them grows increasingly cautious about whether the other one plans to do any harm.

According to the unthinkable scenario, the dark forest theory proves to be true. The intelligent civilization that the space probe detects during its journey is easily provoked and sees the foreign object as an aggressor. The space probe is unmanned, and, therefore, the team is unable to communicate with the newly discovered civilization in a timely manner. Since the inhabitants of the exoplanet see the probe as a threat to their security, they capture it for further analysis. The team soon understands what happened to the probe and comes to a realization that the consequences of this contact might be dangerous to earthlings.

Process Description

In any business case, developing scenarios that range from the most optimistic to almost impossibly pessimistic requires taking several thoughtful steps. Essentially, to entertain possibilities means to explore different futures: writing scenarios allows for more clarity and, in turn, preparedness for any turn of events. The first step that I took to before writing any of the four scenarios is defining the issue. It was critical to understand what the international astrophysics team wanted to achieve as well as outline the timescale within which it needs to happen. All scenarios are primarily driven by the scale of the plan offered for examination. Fortunately, the case description was detailed enough to allow for singling out the primary goal and minor stepping stones. From the description, it became clear that the scientists had hoped for discovering signs of extraterrestrial life. Yet, more realistic targets included collecting probes from the atmosphere and the surface of the newly discovered exoplanet.

The second step was collecting data since previous experience often informs current decisions. For the baseline scenario, it was only reasonable to explore what typically happens during space missions such as the one in question. I operated the data on average mission duration and success rate for manned and unmanned shuttles. The extremities were included: I was only interested in the normal flow of events. Throughout the entire analysis, I was separating certainties from uncertainties and focusing on the latter since they are what can make or break the entire mission. While the baseline scenario revolved more around minor stepping stones, the best-case scenario assumed that the overarching goal will be somehow attained. To ground this assumption in data, I looked up the requirements for planet habitability and their existence in the observable universe. I made a point to show that the best-case scenario ends up in a scientific breakthrough that changes the way we see some issues in astrophysics and beyond.

The worst-case scenario was the one with the greatest numbers of the possible development of events. It was for this scenario that I did the most of historical research. To me, it made sense to understand the failed missions of the past to project them onto the future. I was especially interested in the most disastrous of missions since I was developing the worst-case scenario. It seemed only fair to embark on the topic of the state of research in the participating countries. The success of the mission would affect the reputation of some countries and potentially hurt those that were disadvantaged, to begin with.

Lastly, for the unthinkable scenario, I turned to science fiction. Space exploration often concerns itself with the questions of intelligent life outside our home planet, so this was the idea that I decided to develop. The dark forest theory ignited my interest in what dynamics between earthlings and extraterrestrial beings might be, so I used it as a foundation for the scenario. All in all, this assignment required rigorous data analysis and independent research as the key steps toward successful completion.

Reference

Clash, J 2020, Is there extraterrestrial life, and has it visited Earth?, Web.

Grush, L 2015, When space probes crash  for science and otherwise, Web.

Hsu, HW et al. 2015, Ongoing hydrothermal activities within Enceladus, Nature, vol. 519, no. 7542, pp. 207-210.

Information Is Beautiful n.d., Are we alone in the universe? Calculate the chance of intelligent alien life with the Drake Equation, Web.

Kyle, E 2019, Space launch report: orbital launch summary by year, Web.

NASA n.d., NASA FAQ, 2020, Web.

Omoregie, G 2019, The Dark Forest Theory: the reason why we shouldnt be looking for aliens, Web.

Sellers Exoplanet Environments Collaboration n.d., What makes a planet habitable?, 2020, Web.

The European Union, European Research Ranking 2019, Web.

Tinetti, G, Encrenaz, T & Coustenis, A 2013, Spectroscopy of planetary atmospheres in our Galaxy, The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review, vol. 21, no. 1, p. 63.

University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo 2020, Habitable exoplanets catalog, Web.

Introduction

Space exploration is an integral part of the development of human civilization. One international law regulating states behavior in space is called Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, and was signed in Washington, London, and Moscow on January 27, back in 1967. Therefore, the Artemis Accords signing on October 13, 2020, by Australia, Canada, Japan, Luxembourg, Italy, Great Britain, UAE, and the US is a timely event. This agreement brings together many topics related to space exploration, including the naming of space objects and the use of space resources.

It is noteworthy that space exploration is regulated by numerous national laws, including the United States and the UAE legislation. It is also interesting that some of the new agreement provisions overlap with existing international and federal legislation. This paper aims to discuss how the new and old treaties complement and contradict each other.

Artemis Accords, US and UAE Legislation on Space Resources

How does Section 10 on Space Resources compare to space resources provisions in the US and UAE national space legislations?

Section 10 on Space Resources from Artemis Accords, a new agreement signed by eight countries, including the United States and the UAE, includes the following provisions. First, it states that the agreement aims to ensure that space resources are used in the best interest of humankind. It is further noted that this law and the Outer Space Treaty regulate the extraction and use of space resources, including any recovery from the surface or the inside of the Moon, Mars, comets, or asteroids.

It is argued that the extraction of space resources is not a national appropriation under Article II of the Outer Space Treaty but is governed by the Artemis Accords. Section 10 emphasizes that the signatories are obliged to inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the public and the international scientific community, regarding the extraction of space resources activities by the Outer Space Treaty (UAE Law on Regulation of Space Sector, 2019, p. 4). Therefore, Artemis Accords introduce new commitments, particularly the responsibility to inform the UN about the extraction of space resources, including resources extracted from the inside of the Moon, Mars, comets, and asteroids.

UAE Law on Regulation of Space Sector issued on December 19, 2019, also provides some critical regulations on space activities, including the extraction, operation, and use of space resources. In particular, Chapter 3, considering Space Activities and Space Debris, sets out important rules and procedures. Article 14 states that agents must obtain permission for any space activities from the government Agency. Further, Article 15 regulates the use of space nuclear power sources by banning the use without Agency authorization and obliges all operators authorized to use space atomic power sources to inform the Agency of risks or incidents involved immediately.

Noteworthy, Article 18 governs the exploitation and use of space resources, indicating that the UAE Council of Ministers Regulation governs any related activity. Such regulation applies to the extraction, exploitation, and use of space resources, including the ownership, purchase, sale, trade, transportation, storage, and any space activity to provide related logistics services. Article 19 of Chapter 3 aims to prevent the formation of space debris. Moreover, Article 30 of Chapter 4 of the Law regulates the handling of meteorites, defining ownership rights for stones that have fallen on the states territory. Therefore, the UAE legislation prescribes detailed rules for space activities and the use of space resources.

Finally, the US National Aeronautics and Space Act regulating national and commercial space programs contains three related sections. In particular, Chapter 513 sets out the rules for commercial exploration and the use of space resources. Section 51301 defines the terms asteroid resource and space resource. An asteroid resource is defined as a space resource found on or within an asteroid. A space resource is an in situ abiotic resource in outer space, including water and minerals. Section 51302 specifies that the President of the United States is required to facilitate the commercial exploration and commercial extraction of space resources by US citizens. The President should discourage government barriers that stand in the way of developing economically viable industries for commercial exploration and extraction of space resources. The President also has to promote US citizens right to engage in the commercial exploration and commercial exploration of space resources.

Further, Section 51303 governs the rights to asteroid resources and space resources, stating that a United States citizen engaged in the commercial extraction of an asteroid resource or space resource has the right to any obtained asteroid or space resource, including ownership, transportation, use, and sale (Title 51, National and Commercial Space Programs, 2010, p. 20). Interestingly, this provision differs from the UAE legislation regulating meteorites. According to the latter, any citizen who finds a meteorite that fell on the states territory must immediately notify the state authorities and that the state has the right to demand scientific information or samples of the found meteorite.

Section 10 on Space Resources pays more attention to international cooperation in the extraction and use of space resources. At the same time, national laws regulate more specific procedures such as resource rights, mining permits, and guidelines for space energy use. It is noteworthy that the UAE and the United States laws regulate the commercial use of space resources and prescribe compliance with the rules in the extraction, operation, use, storage, possession, transportation, purchase, sale, and trade of space resources.

Deconfliction Procedures

How does Section 11 on Deconfliction of Space Activities compare with Article IX OST on harmful interference?

Section 11 on Deconfliction of Space Activities, in a sense, duplicates Article IX OST on harmful interference. Clause 5 guarantees that the signatories will inform each other in case of suspicions of any signatory countries potentially dangerous in-space activities. In particular, the parties provide each other with the necessary information regarding the place and nature of space activities. Further, Clause 7 of Section 11 coordinates actions in space to avoid interference and defines safety zones for the agreed activity. Signatories are expected to abide by several principles related to security zones, including notification of the environment and nature of operations and reasonable determination of the zones size and volume using generally accepted scientific and engineering principles.

The nature and presence of safety zones can change over time under the status of the actions being taken. Signatories must notify each other and the UN of the creation, modification, or termination of any safety zone. Besides, signatories must comply with the principle of free access to all areas of celestial bodies and other provisions of the Outer Space Treaty regarding the use of such zones. Therefore, Clauses 5 and 7 of Section 11 are the most important in defining consistent and cooperative outer space actions.

At the same time, the Outer Space Treaty (OST) provides regulation of the relevant procedures. Article IX of the OST states that in the exploration and use of outer space, states are guided by the principle of cooperation and consider each others interests. It is also noted that the states will conduct further studies of celestial bodies and strive to prevent harmful pollution or adverse changes in the Earths environment by extraterrestrial substances.

Article IX emphasizes that if a State Party to the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its citizens in outer space will cause potentially harmful interference with the activities of other States Parties, it shall conduct appropriate international consultations (Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States, 1967, p. 15). Therefore, this article and this law represent a completely similar solution to the problem of allegedly dangerous or harmful actions by a signatory party.

Critics of this agreement note it provides the need for consultations between the signatory countries and the possibility of diplomatic intervention if it is impossible to resolve the situation under international law. However, the signatory countries can only bring the case up for joint discussion, and OST does not offer other settlement methods, including a system of fines or punishments. It is typical for international legislation since the signatory countries are not always ready to sign international treaties. Besides, the inclusion of a definition of fines or penalties for non-compliance is not reasonable, given that not all existing countries are signatories. Otherwise, the signing of the agreement would put the signatory countries in a less advantageous position than the countries that did not express their intention to sign the deal.

Conclusion

Thus, this paper analyzed the new Artemis Accords Treaty compared to the Outer Space Treaty and national US and UAE legislation. In particular, it was presented how Sections 10 and 11 of the Artemis Accords overlap with existing legislation. The mentioned legislation determines interactions during the exploration and use of space resources and ways of resolving conflicts. Notably, both the Artemis Accords and the US and UAEs national laws represent the possibility of commercial exploitation of space resources only subject to government notification and in compliance with the regulations.

However, US laws also stipulate that the President must facilitate the commercial exploration and exploitation of space resources by US citizens. It is also interesting that Section XI on deregulation of conflicts almost completely duplicates Section IX of OST, creating the prerequisites for international consultations if space activities of a particular country pose a threat or danger. Nonetheless, there is currently a need for further development of international legislation determining government agencies and individuals behavior in space.

Reference List

Title 51, National and Commercial Space Programs (2010). Web.

Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies (1967). Web.

UAE Law on Regulation of Space Sector (2019). Web.

Human access and exploration in space is not a matter of pride and prestige, as most people would say. While the USA and USSR fought to dominate space travel in its initial stages, contemporary researchers and scientists consider space exploration vital for human survival (Kelsey-Sugg & Fegan, 2018). This approach may lead to an exaggerated affirmation about climate change and potential human expansion into nearby planets and asteroids to avoid the devastated planet. However, these forms of fear are not far-fetched. Space exploration provides humans with a possible escape plan in case of unintended catastrophes (Kelsey-Sugg & Fegan, 2018). Novel companies such as SpaceX seek to make space travel faster and more cost-effective, enabling optimal movement to and from the earth. While the previously mentioned scenario concerning global destruction may be implausible, looking for an alternative to prevent human extinction is a prudent measure.

Additionally, space exploration leads to the widespread advancement of technology. NASA is continually developing new items that can survive the harsh conditions of outer space. Better navigation equipment and fuel development help other sectors of the economy, leading to future economic growth using limited resources. Improvement in materials such as jet fuel reduces fuel costs in the airplane industry (Green, 2019). Revolutionary technology such as tubeless tires that use materials other than rubber and are resistant to tear boosts the tire industrys growth. It is further crucial to note space exploration is linked with light and sturdy materials that can withstand space. Space exploration enables faster development of materials used in many industries as scientists work to overcome new conditions in space, boosting local production in connected industries related to these scientists interests (Green, 2019). Therefore, these industries work together to develop cheap and efficient alternatives to local products with applications in outer space

Finally, space exploration takes on new meaning when it comes to expanding the boundaries of human travel. People have explored the deepest parts of the ocean and mapped every piece of land on earth, space is the next frontier of exploration. It offers an exciting possibility to understand our solar system and the universe immensely. Broadening our horizon could allow us to visit planets with relative ease in the future and discern novel planets (physically), gaining a better grasp of the solar system. Stretching the limits of possibility is a human endeavor that cannot be quenched until we explore space, as Da Vinci once said, if we can imagine it, we can achieve it.

References

Green, J. (2019). Inventions we use every day that were actually created for space exploration. USA Today. Web.

Kelsey-Sugg, A., & Fegan, S. (2018). What is the future of humanity? physicist Michio Kaku believes its out of this world. Web.

Space exploration is one of the most rapidly developing science which is known for its high financial implications and advanced cutting-edge technologies. Life beyond the planet was always an object of researches and investigation. Many new developments, equipment, and discoveries from space are notably useful and efficient for improving the level and the quality of life on the Earth. The history of that kind of researches started in ancient times when philosophers tried to investigate the night sky to find out the system of stars arrangement. Since then, studies in this field have progressed in a significant way, and now people even have their own space station in Earth orbit. Nowadays, there are specialized organizations such as the Aerospace Industries Association or American Astronautical Society the goal of which is to explore space. The purpose of this paper is to describe the particularities of space exploration, taking into consideration its advantages and disadvantages for humanity, ethical questions, and predictions about the future of this industry.

Space Exploration

It is an erroneous belief that the exploration of space does not have any impact on the life of ordinary humans. It improves the quality of the life of millions of people every day: the technologies designed for space studies are now used in the medical sphere and for conducting other experiments (Rai et al., 2016). Nevertheless, space research also poses many ethical questions to society concerning colonization, financial resources, and ecological issues. With the advancement of this science, increasingly more questions rest without any answers. For many people who are not very familiar with the topic, it seems to be a complete waste of the governmental budget and just a way for experts to entertain themselves.

In the era of Gagarin and first trips into space, being a cosmonaut was considered to be highly prestigious, respected, and, at the same time, romantic. At the present moment, this science went too far away frthe om basic understanding that people regret that their taxes are spent on the exploration of the place that they would never visit. The attitude of the researchers in this field is rather ambivalent; the main beneficial and negative points of space exploration would be covered in the next parts to make the argumentative and clear statement.

Benefits of Space Exploration

The investigation of space has many advantages for society despite the fact that they are not highly notable for an ordinary person. For example, space researches encourage studies of different types of science (Panesor, 2009). What is more, the young specialists in chemistry, biology, or engineering become interested in the space sphere (Panesor, 2009). It is profitable for both sides  students provide innovative ideas, and the research centers help the new generation of scientists to get the job and to be well-paid. The benefits of space exploration cannot be counted only in money because the impact on society is non-quantifiable. According to Jacksona et al. (2019), a woman plays a crucial role in space studies. Thanks to women-cosmonauts, the level of social inequality declined rapidly in the last decade of the 20th century. A variety of studies show that women and men think and act in contrasting ways. It helps the industry of space exploration to function in a more efficient way considering several distinct points of view.

Negatives of Space Exploration

Space exploration is often claimed to be the sphere for wasting a large sum of money. This industry is one of the most expensive because of the intellectual resources and high-priced equipment details (Cost of Space Exploration, 1961). Nonetheless, Baum (2009) proposes the idea of cost-beneficial analysis; from his point of view, it is necessary to keep in mind the ethical risks and the alternative options of the distribution of the budget. In his other study, he raises the issue of the problem of colonization (Baum, 2016). According to his research, if people cannot save nature on the planet, there is no use to attempt to find other places to live. Moreover, the ecological situation becomes significantly severe because of the desire of humans to leave the Earth.

It is important to mention that the cost of space explorations is not always high. It generally depends on the type of research and its goal (International Space Exploration Coordination Group, 2013). If the data of previous experiments were used, it would help to make the price for the surveys lower (Battat, 2012). However, it requires more time and effort from the staff and makes this task, not an easy one. Another disadvantage is that it takes years or even decades for inventions and technologies to be a part of the life of ordinary people. The negatives of space exploration are highly notable for society because they cannot see the real impact.

Increase in Space Exploration and Possible Future Impacts

The industry of space studies plays an essential role in the political, social, and economic spheres. If there were more money invested, it might result in a financial crisis in the country. Even though space exploration is supposed to have many non-material benefits and unexpected advantages in the nearest future. For example, the recent developments would be directly integrated into different fields of science. The robotics like the mechanic hand or neurotransmitter are now saving and improving thousands of Roboticsnks to space technologies. The level of intellectual needs in this sphere would encourage cultural and cognitive growth for many people interested in this area of study (Crawford, 2019). If the specialists would not find any place for colonization, it may influence the attitude of the society to the planet and its beautiful nature. People might become more accurate and carrying about the ecological situation on Earth.

Ways of Space Exploration with the Least Damage

First of all, the previous experience and results should be attentively analyzed to make the price of the new inventions lower. Secondly, there should be specialists in public relations who would explain the society why space explorations are too crucial and what are the benefits of it. Finally, space study should become a global issue for developed countries (Krichevsky, 2018). It would reduce the cost for each separate country and would make the process more efficient.

Conclusion

In the modern world, space exploration has its benefits and negatives. The advantages are mostly non-economical and concern the social sphere of life, while the disadvantages are centered around the high costs of the researches. Nevertheless, there are several ways to improve the financial situation and to make the price lower: by using the experience of previous generations or by optimizing the process. Ethical questions should also be taken into consideration and make humanity reflect on ecological and moral questions. Space study is one of the fascinating spheres of science in the 21st century.

References

1. Battat, J. A. (2012). Technology and architecture: Informing investment decisions for the future of human exploration [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2. Baum, S. (2009). Cost-benefit analysis of space exploration: Some ethical considerations. Space Policy, 25(2), 7580.
3. Baum, S. (2016). The ethics of outer space: A consequentialist perspective. The Ethics of Space Exploration, 2(1), 109123.
4. International Space Exploration Coordination Group. (2013). Benefits Stemming from Space Exploration.
5. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1961). Cost of Space Exploration. Science, 133(3470), 20552055.
6. Crawford, I. (2019). Widening perspectives: The intellectual and social benefits of Astrobiology, Big History, and the exploration of space. Journal of Big History, 3(3), 205224.
7. Jacksona, M. S., Knezek, P., Silimon-Hill, M. D., & Cross, M. A. (2019). Women in exploration: Lessons From the past as humanity reaches deep space. International Astronautical Congress, 1(1), 115.
8. Krichevsky, S. (2018). Super global projects and environmentally friendly technologies used in space exploration: Realities and prospects of the Space Age. Philosophy and Cosmology, 20(1), 92105.
9. Panesor, T. (2009). Space: Exploration and exploitation in a modern society. Institute of physics. Web.
10. Rai, A., Robinson, J. A., Tate-Brown, J., Buckley, N., Zell, M., Tasaki, K., & Pignataro, S. (2016). Expanded benefits for humanity from the International Space Station. Acta Astronautica, 126(2), 463474.

Introduction

Over the years, individuals have been baffled by the nature of both time and space. Kant was the first philosopher to doubt the existence of both space and time. He conceptualized that they (time and space) were mere intuitions or perceptions invented by our own minds.

Later, in 1900s, Minkowski and Einstein were back at it again and found that time and space can be interchanged. For painstaking systematic reasons, they swapped time with spacetime.

In 1986, Szamosi delved into the subject again this time round detailing how the perceptions of space and time developed from earlier attempts of primitive life forms to understand their world to become the modern impression we have of space and time.

In this paper, I will show that dominant conceptualizations of Time and Space do not just exist, but are produced; I will base my arguments on 2 articles and two films which will be relevant to the understanding of space and time perceptions.

Everydayness

The Mystery of the Everyday: Everydayness in History is an article build around an object of modern intellectual history. Harry Harootunians work on the everyday presents the reader with a strict definition of concept of time and space. Harootunians work is a critique of everyday life.

He wonders how people situate and frame the everyday as something to be experimented, thought, and to be analyzed critically. Lefebvre views modern artwork as not just obscure objects desiring explanation but rather as explanations. Under capitalism, modern artwork is nothing but multiple responses to the condition of everyday life.

Lefebvre focuses on political time. For example, he wonders why modernity, tradition, and postcoloniality are labeled as interventions in the field of political time. To him, modernization theory and post-colonial discourse are a group in the historical continuum.

This article, which looks at modernization in Japan, argues that modernity is a specific cultural form and consciousness of lived historical time that differs according to social forms and practices (Harootunian 62).

Lefebvre opposes the various descriptions of modernities such as alternative modernities, divergent modernities, competing modernities, and retroactive modernities. According to him, this term is wrongly used to the existence of an original.

The terms were mere creation in the west but due to a series of copies and lesser variations, the terms acquired new meanings. These conceptions of modernities were only built upon transmuting a temporal lag into a qualitative difference.

The idea that Japan and other societies transforming into a modern order at different paces reveals that modernity is an idea of western capital. On the concept of space, Lefebvre refers to a unity called West.

To him, space is inexistent. He looks at the dyad term west and non-west and wonder exactly where is west on the world map. This idea invented by western capital tends to determine the geographical location of other places in relation to modernity.

Split-space

In the article The Discursive Space of Modern Japan by Karatani Kojin, sheds light on how the concept of time and space is produced. His theory of split-space emphasizes inflection of certain terms and or concepts that brings the complex relation of philosophy and history into clearer focus.

Kojin argues how periodization and history are inseparable. Societies mark of a period by assigning a beginning and an end so as to understand the importance of events occurring in their life. Kojin begins by demonstrating how the Showa period began.

He says that the word Showa and the dissertation concerning the Showa period began in 1987 during the time of the emperors illness. By the start of 1989, the Showa period came to an end. Afterwards, it came to be known that a Showa period existed. This is what he calls periodizing history.

Karatani in particular criticizes Japan for neglecting the possibilities present during its inception that were instead replaced by modernist ideology and the nation state system. According to Kojin, comparative history is not fit for measuring Japanese historical trajectory against another build upon European-based model of development.

Such a move, he advises, is likely to yield problems as it may endanger productive discussions. The Japanese feudalism, connected to Tokugawa political system, put Japanese history in a relative framework and pitted Japanese historians with those from medieval Europe.

Such a formulation suggests a comparison without connection; labeling Tokugawa Japan feudal imply placing Japanese development with events happening in Europe and in a different era. Terms like Early Modern Japan means an entirely different thing.

Karatani points to the Christian calendar and Japanese periodization saying that both serve to make explicit the fact that each nations era/world is only a communal, illusory space, and that a plurality of worlds (eras/worlds) exists simultaneously, maintaining relations with one another (Kojin 77).

To Kojin, history relies on the marking of a period so as to understand the importance of events and occurrences. History is all about the question of periodizing and periodization has the tendency of altering the importance of events!

Kojins split-pace theory of reception as it appears tends to suggest that in the future, his own theory will be split and decentered. To kojin, centers and margins are a play of transposition. We cannot entirely argue that margins and centers do not exist.

The center is somehow blind and the peripheral or the margins do not necessarily need to cope with. Kojin fail to understand that the west has been marginal itself. Karatani focuses his theory towards the west rather than being post-colonial. It tends to get lost in concepts of time and space it is supposed to analyze.

Three Times

Hou Hsiao-hsiensThree Times is the only of his many movies that delves into historical material. This is a triptych of stories of love that are narrated in different time periods but stared by the same actors.

In this movie, Hou Hsiao-hsien combines the past and the present in a way that he creates free floating narratives that are not tied to any chronological progression.

Hou Hsiao-hsien puts a lot of effort in the development of these semi-related tales and at no one time in the movie does he succumb to straightforward duplication. The film is entangled with its directors conviction in the powerful influence of history on here and now (Three Times 2007).

The Three times has a 1966 introductory segment titled A time for love. The plot however shifts backwards in time and tell of an actor named Mays maiden arrival at the pool-hall.

This is a way for Hou Hsiao-hsien to make his audience to revisit and reassess through their memory what led to the current situation. It is worth noting that this is only a primer to the following stories that are full of historical shading.

Part two of the movie-A time for freedom is yet another rumination of historical episode. The scene is set in 1911 in Taiwan reflecting the difficulties, and unbalanced realities facing mankind during the start of the century. Qis performance in this part reflects Taiwan as she struggled to free herself from imperial Japan rule.

The final episode  A time for Youth is a depiction of modern day Taipei youth mixed in the millennium Mambos pop music and juvenile aimlessness. When Hou Hsiao-hsien displays a suicide note on the monitor although having said so in narration, he makes his audience revisit the past again. This is a plea to the Taiwanese to embrace their history.

Hou Hsiao-hsien is a puppetmaster. A time for Love happens when Hou Hsiao-hsien was about the same age as two of the lovers. This could only be taken to mean that his age may not be the same to that of the youth of the present. However, he is looks more at ease in the future than in the past. With Hou Hsiao-hsien, time and space do not exist  they are notions created in the peoples mind.

Sabus Monday

In Sabus Monday (2000), the scene is a hotel room and a man, Takagi, wakes up not knowing how he got there in the first place. Takagi reaches over the table and pick a newspaper, checks the front page and realizes that its Monday. The last day he can remember is Saturday.

Takagi has no recollection of what occurred between Saturday and Monday! Sabu leaves the audience to work out the puzzle with him as he leads them through Takagis scrappy memory of his missing 48 hours. When a packet of sanitizing salt falls from his pocket, he starts recollecting what occurred.

We are taken back to a funeral scene, a graveside; the conversation turns out to be a shoot-out after Takagi disagrees with his girlfriend. The audience then shifts from the unsteady weekend of Takagi to the hotel scene. This makes flashback gain relevance. Outside the hotel, Takagi learns from a hotel TV that he is surrounded by police (Monday 2000).

From the story, we learn that after the quarrel following the burial, Takagi got angry and armed with a gun from a Yakuza club, he embarks on a vigilante killing orgy. Takagi not only killed the boss of the yakuza gang but also some street punks in the process. Takagi shifts from being sober and at times he becomes murderous.

The goal of Sabus movie is to show how the world is capable of drawing out the dark side that each of us possess. The movie lacks the aspect of time. To Sabu, we are capable of traveling anywhere in the notion of time.

Conclusion

The four works have demonstrated how time and space are creations of the mind that help mankind understand the world. In the Mystery of everyday: Everydayness in history, Harootunian clearly demonstrates how the west created the term modernity and industrialization in the process of marking Japan and other slowly developing countries as lagging back in time.

He criticizes labeling japan underdeveloped in the sense of time because of its peripheral location on the world map. Karatani Kojin in The Discursive Space of Modern Japan argues that periodization  creation of time  is inherent in history, to mark the beginning and the end of a certain period of interest.

In Three times, directorHou Hsiao-hsien tells a story devoid of both space and time. His film is set in three different times and places.

Hou is capable of making his audiences traverse between different times with ease. He is not in any way restricted by timing in the setting of his movies as both are notions to him. Sabus Monday, is similar to Hou Hsiao-hsiens Three times. Sabu makes his audience traverse between the past and the present in the process erasing the notion of both time and space.

Works Cited

Harootunian, Harry. Historys Disquiet: Modernity, Cultural Practice, and The Question Of Everyday Life. Columbia: Columbia University Press, 2000. Print.

Karatani, Kojin. The Discursive Space of Modern Japan. London: Duke University Press, 1991. Print.

Monday. Dir. Hiroyuki Tanaka.Perf.ShinichiTsutsumi, Yasuko Matsuyuki, Hijiri Kojima. download, 2000. DVD.

Three Times.Dir. Hsiao-hsienHou.Perf. Qi Shu, Chen Chang, Fang Mei. Ifc, 2007. DVD.

Introduction

There are several approaches that have been used from time to time in planetary missions. These approaches have either been market based or non-market based approaches. Market based approach is what we seek to address and discuss in our paper. This paper seeks to discuss different projects that have been carried out, identify problems that might have been encountered, give an analysis of each of this project, its schedule and the risks involved.

In essence, the paper discusses and analyses the processes of management applied on NASAs Cassini mission to Saturn. Cassini was first launched in October 15, 1997 as an international mission to explore planet Saturn. This mission was unique in the sense that the science team was allocated a whole science instrument resource (Randii and Porter, 245).

The market based approach system majorly uses currency as a way of showing demand for a limited resource. The currency is used in exchange for a desired commodity. This approach has been preferred for ages. Its first successful venture was done in 1992. It was tried out on the Cassini mission to Saturn. The market based approach system involves creating an economy by defining 3 quantities (Arrow, 944).

These quantities are:

1. Currency and its use.
2. Resources to be allocated.
3. The rules for making and keeping track of trades Background

Instrument development for planetary missions begins with the acceptance of proposals from many investigators to build and operate instruments for a specific mission. Companies and organizations running projects assign resources like data rate, mass, power, and money to the identified investigating organisations and groups depending on whether their missions are approved based on their proposals.

These supporting officials also have to take into consideration the mission constraints. They do it by going into details of previous missions, their successes and failures. However, most previous missions had a recurring trend of going past their resource allocation. This creates a burden and a constraint on the officials when it comes to allocating resources to new ventures and investigators.

Initially, missions were organized by committee driven processes in carrying out their scientific planning. These were also referred to as serial dictator processes. In this approach, there is the introduction of an impartial third party who is brought in to help allocate resources among the different users. This was done in order to ensure full impartiality.

Projects

There are two major projects outlined:

a) The Light SAR science planning project.

b) Space shuttle manifests of secondary payloads. Even though the Cassini project was successful, it had its share of problems and shortfalls just like any other venture. It lacked connection between the development and the operational phase of the mission. Due to the limited allocation of resources with no reserves, if any instrument developed a problem while the rest of the systems instruments were already built, there were no attractions or incentives for other investigators to assist the constrained investigation.

This was because LOA had put guidelines that remaining resources would be ploughed back into the investigation after the delivery by the flight model, which more often than not was too late to be of any use to the failed investigation. This has however been addressed and there has been a recommendation that in any future missions using the same system, a mechanism has to be put in place that combines the development and operational phases of the mission.

Projects success

Despite a few problems, the Cassini project was immensely successful and had a great influence and change on the resource used by science instrument teams (Ruskin, 46). The trends in trade changed dramatically as many of them were able to save on instruments.

There was also caution on the management of mass unlike in previous phases where people had reserves and yet didnt have any left-overs. Two factors that brought about this were that the investigators were more cautious in managing their mass allocation and also the official also did a good job in managing the spacecrafts mass(Satterthwaite and Sonnenschein, 184).This new method also encouraged sharing of resources between different investigators. This resulted in saving time and resources. Risks Involved

One of the greatest risks involved was going into the mission without the usual resource reserves like many earlier investigations. They did so because there is no one time a spacecraft was launched and came back without using all its reserves, meaning that all of them developed problems while on tour and required extra resources hence using all the reserves (Tullock et al, 123).

In our context, there is allocation of minimum resources and one can only be careful as to manage them properly and ensure that there are no problems. Mitigation

One of the most notable methods of mitigation in Cassinis market based approach was that the duration of investigation was recommended to the minimum time required rather than the maximum time that the investigators deemed enough to accomplish a given investigation. This reduced the risks of developing problems while in the investigation by taking longer durations.

Works Cited

Arrow, K.Uncertainty and The Welfare Economics of Medical Care.USA: American Economic Review, 1963.Print.

Randii, W. and Porter, D. Management Approach for Allocating Instrument Development Resources. USA: Space Policy, August, 1998.Print.

Ruskin, A.What Every Engineer Should Know About Project Management. New York, USA: M Dekker, 1982.Print.

Satterthwaite, M. and Sonnenschein H.Strategy-Proof Allocation Mechanism Differential Points.USA: Review of Economic Studies, 1981.Print.

Tullock et al.Efficient Rent Seeking In. Toward a Theory of the Rent-Seeking Society. College Station, Texas, USA: A&M Univ. Press, 1980.Print.

Introduction

Components such as heat shields for spacecraft and for turbochargers are very challenging. They are subjected to very high operating temperatures and especially heat shields should never fail. The recent crash of the space shuttle Challenger happened because the heat shields failed and as a result, the catastrophic failure and crash of the space shuttle occurred. Turbochargers are fitted on engines of high-performance cars, trucks, diesel engine generators, ships, and electric generators. Any failure of the turbocharger can result in severe accidents with the engine exploding or going up in flames and both the driver and bystanders can receive severe injuries or even perish. The paper analysis the service requirements for these components and attempts to find the group of material that would suit these products. Further, additional sources are used to find the exact material specifications for these applications.

About CES

CES provides a summary of material properties and process attributes. There are a number of charts given that give a brief commentary about the use. The material charts map the areas of property space occupied by each material class. The charts can be used as a data source or as a selection tool. Sequential application of several charts allows several design goals to be met simultaneously.

The charts have different families of materials with similar behavior and characteristics. The families are metals, polymers, elastomers, ceramics, and technical ceramics, glasses, and hybrids. Each member of the family would have vastly different properties. The charts give broad and early stages of material selection and are not to be used for obtaining precise values of properties needed for the actual component production. Once the approximate material to be used is selected, then external sources have to be used to find the exact alloy and grade to be used (CES, 2009).

Heat Shields for SpaceCraft Reentry

Heat shields are used in different types of spacecraft that would be expected to reenter the earths atmosphere. Some types of spacecraft include space shuttles, space exploration vehicles, navigation and communication satellites and other such objects. The heat shields are required when the spaceship is planned to reenter the atmosphere and not when it is taking off and going into orbit (PAO, 2009).

How the component operates

Reusable spacecraft such as the space shuttles and ballistic missiles that enter space and reenter the earths atmosphere is subjected to a number of forces. One of the forces is the speed of the craft and the high kinetic energy they would have when they are captured by the earths gravity. The earths gravitational force captures these objects and pulls them at great speeds that often reach speeds of 11 km per second. The temperature in outer space is sub-zero but when the spacecraft starts moving into the earths far atmosphere, the air in front of touching the nose of the craft starts to compress and the temperature would start to rise rapidly.

Temperatures would reach more than 2600 degrees centigrade. Since the vessel is moving very rapidly, there would be no time left for heat to be transferred from the skin to the surrounding air and the temperature does not drop at all. When the spacecraft enters the farther reaches of the atmosphere, the thin air tries to slow down the vessel by rubbing against the skin. This rubbing action creates and the air compression creates a further rise in temperature. The high speed means that the heat is not transferred to the atmosphere and the air that would have acted as a heat conductor becomes ineffective and instead serves to increase the temperature.

As the spacecraft progresses inside the atmosphere, the speed will have slightly reduced to about 8 kilometers per hour and the denser air keeps rubbing and takes the temperature to 1800 degrees centigrade. Such a high temperature would melt metals such as steel, nickel, and iron. If the spacecraft is longer or has a wider cross-section, then the heat buildup gradient would vary but the nose and other parts would still be at 1800 degrees centigrade.

The skin of the spacecraft protected by the heat shield must be such that it is able to withstand all these thermal shocks and yet remain intact. Even a tiny pinprick of a gap in the heat shield can cause the spacecraft to disintegrate. This happened to the space shuttle Columbia that lost a heat shield tile on the exterior of the spacecraft and this resulted in the fiery crash of the spacecraft, killing all the crew members (KSC, 2008).

Service Requirement

Heat shields are fitted very carefully on the external frame of the spacecraft and are used along with Mercury-based cooling systems to protect the spacecraft during reentry. It must be understood that heat shields on their own cannot protect the spacecraft, as they would burn off after a few milliseconds of being exposed to high temperatures. Hence, cooling systems are critical and these cooling systems take away the heat from the heat shields so that the heat shields can continue to function normally.

However, heat shields are vital for the safety of the spacecraft since they directly take the heat and thermal shocks. The spacecraft would have heat gradients along different regions. The highest temperature would happen along with the nose and the front edges of the spacecraft wings. The temperature in these zones would be about 1650 degrees centigrade. The rear part of the spacecraft would have temperatures of 350 to 700 degrees centigrade. Therefore it is possible to use different materials for the regions to reduce the cost of the heat shields. However, there should be thermal compatibility between the materials and heat must be allowed to flow between them.

Designers also tend to use the lower heated areas as heat sinks to transfer the heat from the high heat areas to the lower heated areas. The service requirements of the shields are that they should be reusable for at least 100 cycles; be able to withstand variations of temperatures ranging from 1800 to 150 degrees centigrade. They should have a very low thermal conductivity of 0.06 w/mk and about 0.12 W/mk at 1100 degrees centigrade. The coefficient of dilation should be 0.000000007 while the density of the material should be less than 0.15 grams per cubic centimeter. In addition, these tiles have to be uniform in size and have a contour on them and the gap between the tiles should be less than 0.3 millimeters so that hot air can flow (KSC, 2008).

Selection of Material

The materials that are required should be very lightweight since heavy and dense materials would increase the weight of the spacecraft to beyond acceptable limits (Timoshenko, 1997). Please refer to the CES Material Properties charts for strength and maximum service temperature. As per the chart, only technical ceramics are capable of meeting the requirement of being able to withstand temdegreesres of 1500 degree centigrade and yet have the strength and low weight.

Youngs Modulus measures the stiffness of the material. The material that is used should be able to deflect slightly when heat and shock loads are applied but have less density. With reference to Youngs modulus and density, Titanium and its alloys would be suitable but one has to consider while Ti and its alloys would be able to withstand the strain, the density, cost, and fabrication would be very difficult and again technical ceramics suit the requirement.

With reference to the strength over maximum service temperature, the material should be able to resist high temperatures yet retain its strength and form. Aluminum oxide and stainless steel can be considered but Al2O3 is very brittle and would disintegrate at the slight application of shock loads and stainless steel alloys would be very heavy. Hence, the SiC grade is better suited. With reference to the thermal expansion and thermal conductivity, the material should not expand when subjected to high temperature and yet be able to conduct heat from the surface to the internal cooling systems. While some types of heat-resisting steel and NI steels are available, the weight however would be very high when compared to the service requirements (CES, 2009).

Based on the above finding and as per the recommendations given by ASTM for spacecraft heat shields, the material recommended is silicon di oxide technical ceramic (ASTM, 2009). This material is also regarded as a hybrid composite since it is possible to use glass filler and bonding agents to incr the strength.

Method of manufacture

Silicon Carbide granules are prepared in the special furnace by using sub-micron powders and these granules are powdered in special mills to create very fine powders. The powders are then mixed with additives and fillers of glass to increase the thermal resistance. The powders are then sintered and then extruded to create very thin fibers of less than a micron in size. Some bonding additives are added and the fibers are loaded in specially contoured dies to create a rough tile. The tiles are then given the required shape using CBN wheels, proper edges with chamfer, and bevels provided. The products are ceramic tiles that are then carefully assembled by experts on the skin of the spacecraft. These heat shields are specially made and cannot be bought in the market (KSC, 2008).

CES Results with Other Sources

It is found that CES does not give the exact material composition to be used. It gives a family of materials and further reference from external sources is required to get the exact material specification.

Turbochargers

Turbochargers are external accessories that are fitted on engines to increase the power output of the engines. These devices are used on petrol, diesel and gas engines and fitted on trucks, cars, motorcycles, ship engines, defense vehicles, buses an,d other types of automotive engines (Garrett, 2009).

How the component operates

The turbocharger uses the exhaust gas of the engines to drive a small compressor wheel that rotates at high speed to pump more fresh air into the engine. In IC engines, the piston serves to compress the air and the fuel is then injected inside, causing ignition. Ignition occurs from either a sparkplug in petrol engines or by compression in diesel engines. The amount of compression that a piston can achieve is limited by the cylinder bore but if the air is compressed more, then the expansion caused when firing occurs is more intensive.

The turbocharger helps in this aspect by supplying highly compressed air into the cylinder where the piston further compresses it so that more energy is released. There are two sides to the turbocharger, the exhaust side, and intake side. The exhaust side sits on the exhaust manifold of the engine while the intake side pumps fresh air into the intake manifold. A common shaft with two wheels is mounted in bearings in the housing.

The turbine wheel is exposed to exhaust gases while the compressor wheel is exposed to fresh air. When the exhaust gases are directed through a variable section housing that looks like a trumpet, to the turbine wheel and it starts rotating along with the shaft. A turbine wheel is mounted on the intake side and this wheel starts rotating. The vanes on the wheels are given a specific geometry and direction so that the turbine wheel directs the exhaust gases outside when it rotates while the compressor wheel directs fresh air into the cylinder (Garrett, 2009).

Service Requirement

The speed of rotation of the wheels can be as high as 150,000 rpm and exhaust side temperatures can rise to more than 800degreese centigrade. In addition, the operating pressure inside the housing is often more than 30 pounds per square inch. When the hot exhaust gas flow inside, a thermal gradient is created. In cold weather areas, the outside temperature may be sub zero while the inside temperature is more than 800 degree centigrade.

With such a huge temperature gradient, the component should be able to withstand creep and fatigue load and it must not disintegrate or crack. The intake side of the turbocharger is exposed to only the ambient temperature but since air is being compressed very rapidly, there is a sudden increase of temperature to about 400 degree centigrade. In addition to the temperature difference, the material has to withstand abrasive particles. The compressor wheel has another requirement that it should have a low inertia and density and must be able to rotate freely (Garrett, 2009).

Selection of Material and Manufacturing Process

The turbocharger is made of a number of components that are manufactured separately and then assembled. The mains parts that would be considered are: turbine housing, turbine wheel, compressor wheel and compressor housing.

Turbine Housing

The turbine housing is a casting would sit on the exhaust side of the turbocharger and it encloses the turbine wheel, bearings and other parts. As per the CES chart, the casting material has to be light, stiff, be easily machinable and must have high fracture toughness. While Tungsten and Titanium would be ideal, they are very expensive and cannot be considered since costs of the turbocharger would be very high. As noted in the service requirements, the material needs to have a high hot hardness and good thermal conductivity.

They should also not deform easily so the Youngs to density ratio can be high since weight and density is not a primary concern as the housing is stationary and does not rotate. The material should have a high conductivity and diffusivity since heat generated must not be retained but transferred to the atmosphere. The material should also be able to have a high strength over the maximum service temperature and it should be remembered that the device would be running continuously over a few hours (CES, 2009).

Considering the requirements and the material specifications and also referring to the actual practice in the filed, steel alloys are considered. It is recommended that steel of HERCUNETE-S A3N having a material composition of 20%Cr-10%Ni-3%W-2%Nb is recommended. This steel can withstand temperatures of 900 degree centigrade, can withstand high internal stress and has a good thermal conductivity. The casting is manufactured by using green casting process or even investment casting. After fettling and cleaning, the casting is machined on the mounting face and the mounting bores on CNC machines. Additional drill tap is done on a radial machine or even on machining centers (Timoshenko, 1997).

Turbine Wheel

The turbine wheel is exposed to hot and abrasive exhaust gases when it is drievn by them. The wheel has a complicated vane profile with variable thickness and it must be medium weight and not having a lot of inertia. The wheel is expected to run at a high speeds of 150,000 rpm and it should have a high machinability and casting would have to take complex forms. The Youngs Modulus versus density curve means that while the material should be able to withstand strain, it should have a lower density than steel.

The wheel would be exposed to constant high exhaust temperature so the thermal expansion should be low while the thermal conductivity should be high. Again the curve for strength versus the maximum service temperature means that the wheel should retain the vane forms even at high temperatures. As per CES, Nickel steel is best suited for the component since these steels can withstand high temperatures and thermal stresses.

Based on the above requirements and material specifications and as per the practices used by Garret, the material used is a super alloy Inconel 713C of Nickel with a composition of Ni-2Nb 12.5 Cr-4.2 MO-0.8 Ti-6.1 Al-0.12 C-0.012 B-0.1Zr. This material can withstand high temperatures of 1000 degree centigrade besides being able to stand high thermal shocks and stresses (Timoshenko, 1997). The wheels are manufactured by casting and the variable profiles of the vanes have to be maintained in the casting process. Further machining is done on the bore and mounting face and a light-grinding cut on the OD of the vanes may be taken to maintain the gap and clearance.

Compressor Housing

The compressor housing sits on the intake side of the engine and houses the compressor wheel and other components. The part is not subjected to hot gases but the compression caused by the compressor wheel causes the temperature to rise to more than 100 degree centigrade. The material should be easily machinable, be a good conductor of heat, and have high fracture toughness. The pressure inside the diffuser area would be high and the material should have a Youngs Modulus versus density curve that allows the material to take extra strain without deforming.

The temperature rise would not be as high as the turbine side but the compressed air would cause a rise in the temperature inside the diffuser so the strength versus the max service temperature can be in the median range. The thermal expansion and the thermal conductivity curve would suggest that the material should be able to give away the heat and yet not expand excessively at higher temperatures. CES suggests that Nickel steel alloys can be used (CES, 2009).

As per the recommendations made by Garret, the material recommended is Inconel 601 alloy having a composition of Ni 61 Fe Bal Cr 23 Al 1.4 C 0.10 Mn 1.0 S 0.015 Si 0.5 (Timoshenko, 1997). The casting is prepared by using die casting process since this process gives a uniform material flow and allows intricate shapes to be cast. The casting is them machined on machining centers and drill and tapped.

Compressor Wheel

The wheel must be lightweight with low inertia and the material must be capable of being cast into thin and complex sections. The temperature at the intake side is not very high and pressure build up occurs inside the housing. According to CES, aluminum alloy is suited for this application. The part needs to have complex profile so casting into complex shapes with variable vane thickness is required. So the Youngs modulus and desnsity curve would mean a component that can withstand the strain buy yet be light. The thermal conductivity and expansion are not very crucial since the part is not exposed to high temperatures at the air intake side. However, since the component would rotate at very high speeds of 150,000 rpm, the fracture toughness and Youngs modulus would have to be high (CES, 2009).

As per the recommendations and practices of Garret, the material used is 354-T6 Aluminum Alloy with composition of Si 7 Cu 1.8 Mg 0.5 Zn 1 Ti 0.1 Fe 0.2 (Timoshenko, 1997). The wheel is cast using investment casting and then machined on the bore and mounting face on CNC lathes.

Conclusion

The paper has examined the product performance and requirement for heat shields for spacecrafts and also for turbochargers. Using CES and external sources, the material specification and manufacturing process have been examined.

References

ASTM, 2009. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Published by ASTM International, USA.

Ashby MF, 2005. Material selection in mechanical design, 3rd Edition. Elsevier-Butterworth Heinemann.

CES, 2009. The CES EduPack Resource Booklet 2: Material and Process Chart. CES, Granata Design.

Garrett, 2009. How a Turbo System Works. Web.

Faraday, 2009. Advanced Turbocharger Designs: Materials and Modeling. Web.

KSC, 2008. Space Shuttle Orbiter Systems: Thermal Protection System. Web.

PAO, 2009. Orbiter Thermal Protection System. Web.

Timoshenko. Stephen. 1997. Mechanics of Materials, Fourth Edition. NY, PWS Publishing Company.

Introduction

Humanity is constantly interested in the question of what exists beyond the planet Earth. To explore this mysterious territory, many different technologies have been developed that have given people the opportunity to fly into space. Often, men prevail among astronauts, mainly due to the fact that it was a man who entered the moon first. However, in the modern world, this picture is changing, and the scope of space flights is becoming increasingly representative. Henceforth, Katya Echazarreta recently made history as the first Mexican-born American woman ever to fly to space. The value of this event is that it plays a significant role in expanding diversity in the space flight industry and makes a big step for the Mexican people, who often have little representation in such areas.

The Story of Katya Echazarreta

The story of Katya Echazarreta is genuinely revolutionary and will leave a significant contribution to history. Of particular importance for understanding the motivation of an astronaut is the study of its source of motivation. Hence, the girl is a native of Guadalajara, Mexico, but at the age of seven, her family moved to the United States of America (Larnaud). Due to the fact that her mother was a single mother, the girl had to grow up early and, from an early age, help her mother in raising her three siblings. In addition, Echazarreta worked in various jobs, the longest of which was employed in one of the most famous fast food chains. This work provided the girl with an understanding of what work is and taught discipline and organization.

It is also worth noting that Echazarreta, from early childhood, was amazed and fascinated by the dream of flying into space. However, she was constantly told that this desire was complicated to fulfill and she should choose more realistic goals for life. However, this did not stop the girl, and she did everything to pursue her dream.

The ability to work and a high level of motivation have become the main driving forces for Katya Echazarreta. Before starting training for a masters degree, the girl took an internship at NASA. Echazarreta showed such high and outstanding results that she was immediately hired. This was the impetus for the further path of Katya Echazarreta to becoming an astronaut.

At the age of nineteen, the girl was an engineer at NASA, which is already a significant achievement. Nevertheless, it did not stop her, and she applied to participate in a space flight from the nonprofit organization Space for Humanity (ABC News). Ahead of many applicants, she became a member of a team of six people and became the first Mexican woman to be outside the planet Earth.

The Importance of the Event

The example of Katya Echazarretas achievement becomes one of the instances that anyone can reach such heights, regardless of gender, nationality, and background. This fact is supported by the fact that the astronaut is not only the only woman participating in the flight but is also a Mexican-born American (Lyles). This contributes to the formation of the concept of equality and diversity in an area where only men often prevailed. Moreover, research stated that the nonprofit organization that handled the flight noted that as humans, our commonalities far outweigh our differences (Lyles). It also confirms that characteristics such as belonging, gender, and culture are not decisive factors.

Moreover, the flight of the perfect group with the participation of Echazarreta becomes a significant breakthrough for Mexican culture and women. The girl claims that being able to provide young women with an example of, Its not unrealistic, its actually something that is real and possible and can happen to you, that is the reason why this was so important for me (Larnaud). Moreover, the girl showed by her example that any dream could be realized regardless of what others say. In addition, the woman emphasized that being told that that person would be me, its a huge responsibility for women of color who are pursuing big dreams (ABC News). Henceforth, Echazarreta became not only the first Mexican-born American woman who managed to visit space. It also shows that women can pursue an engineering career, which is often considered strictly male.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this paper considered the first case when a Mexican-born American woman was sent into orbit for the first time in the history of space exploration. She became Katya Echazarreta, a girl who moved to the United States at an early age to achieve her dream of becoming an astronaut. Despite her rather tricky situation in the family, she managed to get a proper education and become an engineer at NASA. In particular, it is worth noting that this case was a breakthrough for Mexican culture and provided not only greater representativeness in this industry. In addition, the achievement of Katya Echazarreta became an example of the fact that no characteristics can stop a person on the way to pursuit the dream of life.

Works Cited

First Mexican Woman in Space Reflects on her Lifelong Dream of Reaching the Stars. ABC News, 2022. Web.

Larnaud, Natacha. She Used to Work at McDonalds to Help Support her Family. Now, shes the First Mexican-Born American Ever to Fly to Space. CBS News, 2022. Web.

Lyles, Shauni. First Mexican-Born American Woman Ever to Fly to Space is from San Diego. CBS8. Web.

The current obsession with space discoveries leaves enough room for innovative developments in the area that are expected to take humanity closer to interplanetary missions. According to Thisdell, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) represents one of the most vigilant countries when it comes to space missions. With the aid of the space mission called Hope, the UAE is expected to be the fifth actor reaching Mars, after the Soviet Union, the United States of America, Europe, and India. The program is going to focus on the Martian climate and colonization opportunities. A strong partnership with the USA is required in order for Hope to reach Mars. The launch of the National Observatory at Mushrif National Park and multiple satellites across the globe prove that the UAE has strengthened its position in the field of space exploration. Another organization that intends to support the Hope mission is Virgin Atlantic, led by Richard Branson. The future of Emirati space missions looks bright since they receive enough praise and sustenance from international partners.

Introduction

The world may benefit from space exploration by receiving new resources and technology. This exploration should go on because it might help both people and the ecology on Earth. There have already been numerous positive effects of space exploration on the economy, the environment, and public health. Even though many argue that the moon and low earth orbit are advantageous, deep space research can assist the planet in various ways (Kadam, 2022). The resources and knowledge we can gather from space travel, mining, and study on other worlds will likely improve our planets ecology and quality of life. Therefore, this paper supports why space exploration could benefit the planet Earth.

Discussion

Deep space exploration has numerous potential advantages and could lead to many inventions. Humans must grasp everything that influences their planet, such as the sun, to comprehend it better. According to Kadam (2022), SOHO initiated more than four years ago, is gradually providing answers to all the questions about space exploration. This study intended to address and deal with the way the star works, how its light and magnetic field are produced, and why and how it becomes magnetically active. Moreover, SOHO strives to explain why and how the solar corona is so hot and how direct the effects of solar eruptions, CMEs, and the Solar Wind are. 2001s Bonnet Life on Earth depends significantly on the sun (McCall, 2021). This research will be insightful, make people understand how everything is impacted, and increase awareness of how to improve things.

Finding an inexpensive, semi-energy source would be better for the economy and the environment than anything else. In 1968, Peter Glaser suggested that solar energy satellites beam energy from geosynchronous orbit to the Earth could be a significant economic boom from sophisticated space technology (Wei-Haas, 2019). The environment would benefit from using solar energy from a satellite because no power plants would need to be built on Earth, and resources could be obtained from the moon (Crucian et al., 2018). Because it would be a less expensive source of power, the economy would also gain from this. Power bills would decrease, resulting in cost savings for ordinary people and the firms that supply them with electricity. The entire human race would greatly benefit from solar-powered satellites.

Humanity may obtain resources from mining other planets not present on Earth. The working knowledge of meteorites elements has the potential to benefit the Earth in that people could use this to exploit space minerals and resources (Sheetz, 2022). Several have higher platinum group metal contents than the best terrestrial ores. The creation of new technologies might benefit from these novel materials (Sheetz, 2022). The economy, environment, and human health could all benefit from this technology. There may be fossil fuels on other worlds that humankind can use instead of those on Earth, which could harm the environment. If other materials are discovered, oil rigs may become obsolete, and greener fuel may be utilized instead. Utilizing cleaner fuel can assist in improving the environments air quality and provide better air quality that will improve human health. This would benefit the economy and the environment by reducing fuel prices. Knowing the earth could help people learn how to protect it so that subsequent generations can live in a healthy environment.

Understanding of novel materials, technologies, and stuff has increased due to space exploration. With the space programs, the knowledge of novel alloys, polymers, pure metals, and composites would be unlimited (Crucian et al., 2018). Superconductivity has been enhanced in which electrons appear to flow in a circuit indefinitely. These include vacuum technology, cryogenics, the physics of plasmas, the fourth phase of matter, and solids, liquids, and gases, which would all be in their infancy (Nagal, 2021). Recognizing these new materials has enabled structures to function more effectively than the materials already in use, allowing them to be used in everyday products. Now that cryogenics and plasmas are better understood, humanity can benefit from them in various ways. Cryogenics is used, among other things, as rocket fuel to extend tools life, freeze food, and preserve items like vaccinations.

Studying other planets can teach a lot about the history of the earth. On earth, it is known that similar impacts have swept out species in the past and could again in the future. Asteroid and comet impact on the terrestrial planets have significantly altered the evolution of those worlds (Barton, 2021). Undiscovered substances could interact with the earth in other ways as well. Because of the current knowledge, humans are now more aware of the hazards to the world. The space program has helped the environment and will continue to do so, but it has also produced new medical technologies.

There are space programs where study could result in medical issue prevention. The Prometheus and Solar Exploration projects requirements will assist in identifying the physical and biological technologies that must be created. Among the technologies with commercial potential on Earth are telemedicine, in-situ mining, and bone asset protection (Crucian et al., 2018). There are so many ways that specific undertakings may benefit humanity. If the space program is discontinued, scientists cannot continue to create breakthrough technologies that could save many lives. Continuing these efforts could produce life-changing medical advances and technology that humanity previously believed impossible.

While in space, studies on humans can be conducted that could lead to advances in bodily repair, illness treatment, and prevention. The Huntsville, Alabama, NASA research center has been studying bone healing and the treatment of osteoporosis during long-duration space flight (Crucian et al., 2018). Being able to properly treat osteoporosis and replace the bones in the body that inevitably deteriorate would be a fantastic finding. Thanks to the space program, medicine has advanced significantly, and many more inventions are underway. As a result of this research, individuals are now living longer and better lives. More extraordinary discoveries that will benefit humanity may be made due to continued investigation.

A space program has helped humanity make better technological advancements that have benefited peoples health. Without a space program, the world would lack thousands of medical gadgets, from cardiac pacemakers to tools for drug overdose detection. In the past, people who used cardiac pacemakers had to undergo surgery every 22 months because their batteries ran out (Crucian et al., 2018). Thanks to technological advancements, they may use a vest to charge it once a week. Many lives have been saved following space exploration, which leads to innovations. If the space program continues, many more technological advancements can be realized. Despite everything learned from space travel, some people still think we should not have a space program.

Some people believe that people should be content with what they currently have and quit complicating their lives. Another more prevalent viewpoint holds that a more straightforward way of life, one without taking into account men from other planets, satellite systems, computer systems, integrated circuits, astronomical findings, efficient transit, longer, healthier lives, or more advanced science, would be acceptable and that space technology is just another tool adding to the complexity of lives and neuroses (Sheetz, 2022). These individuals think everything is good the way it is and hence do not want to consider any new possibilities. These inventions have benefited people so significantly that if they were to stop, people would be prevented from improving their quality of life.

Some people believe that funds for space missions could be used more effectively on Earth. It is a common belief that spending money on space exploration is a waste. However, it is debatable whether space exploration should be a primary priority amid a severe fiscal crisis and the depths of the recession. 2010s The Daily Sentinel many individuals believe that the money invested in the space program could boost the economy, which is currently experiencing such dire conditions (Kadam, 2022). The money saved by reducing the budget for the space program could go toward things required to improve the economy. However, budget cuts would also result in the loss of thousands of jobs. The economy can fall into an even deeper hole as a result. While some individuals do not place as much importance on exploration, the economy depends on the jobs that the space program creates and the technological advancements. Without the space program, people may have a more challenging time getting by, and society may become unbalanced.

Devastating consequences may result from ending the space program. Lower living standards produce social pressures that fuel unhappiness and economic imbalances like depression, rioting, and even war. The benefits and spin-offs outlined have more than paid for our investment in space technology, making it likely the best large-scale financial investment ever made. The economy would suffer if abandoned, diminishing peoples living standards. It would be more difficult for people to pay for necessities as prices rise (McCall, 2021). Technology and medical advancements have benefited humanity in so many ways that the economy and society may collapse if the space program were to end.

Economic expansion may result from space exploration in the future. In testimony before the Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Subcommittee on Science and Space, Slazer stated that future funding cuts to exploration threaten our economic development potential and endanger our leadership in space (Sheetz, 2022). Therefore, the world must maintain its position as a global leader in manned exploration and innovation, or it will ultimately lag. People lose the chance to advance themselves, the nation, and the economy if exploration is stopped.

Conclusion

Space exploration has dramatically benefited the Earth and those who live on it. Humans have already made improvements to technology and medicine due to space exploration. Many contend that lunar and low-earth orbit is more advantageous to Earth than deep space research. At the same time, the latter could provide humanity with knowledge and resources that would be helpful to the environment, the economy, and humanity. If there is no exploration of space, it is impossible to know what all the benefits are. Humanity would better grasp this world and life if it explored beyond low earth orbit and the moon.

References

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Nagal, L. G. B. S. (2021). Weaponization & militarization of space. Geospatial World. Web.

Sheetz, M. (2022). U.S. commits to ending anti-satellite missile testing, calls for global agreement. CNBC. Web.

Wei-Haas, M. (2019). Space junk is a huge problem  and its only getting bigger. Science. Web.