Set to launch in 2013 the MAVEN which standards for Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN will be an exploratory satellite that will examine the upper atmosphere of Mars and will attempt to determine its interaction with the Sun and solar winds.
What must be understood is that there are currently various theories which make assumptions regarding the previous state of Mars several million years ago. It is theorized that Mars used to be a planet with a stable oxygen based atmosphere and flowing water but due to some event lost its ability to sustain an atmosphere conducive to life.
Taking this into consideration, NASA along with a science team from the University of Colorado will attempt to examine the atmosphere for not only traces of an oxygen based atmosphere in the past but also of the current state of the Martian atmosphere. It is actually quite interesting to note that based on the work of Updike (2008) examining the current state of Mars can actually be considered a way of looking at the future of the planet Earth (Updike, 86).
There will eventually come a time wherein the Earth will be unable to sustain its own atmosphere and will slowly transform into a Mars like planet. By examining the current state of the Martian atmosphere as well as the degree of interaction it undergoes with the Sun and solar wind it can actually be determined whether people on Earth could possible live on Mars like environment should worse come to worse.
Examining the Purpose of the MAVEN
The instruments onboard the MAVEN consist of magnetometer, a Solar Wind Ion Analyzer, Solar Energetic Particle Analyzer an Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer and other similar instruments used to examine the condition of a planets upper atmosphere.
One of the goals of the project, as indicated by various press releases and posts from NASA, is to assess the potential for future colonization on the planet and to determine whether life could exist on the Martian surface depending on what is currently know about the ability or organisms to survive in adverse conditions. What must be understood is that the atmosphere of a planet and its interaction with the Sun and Solar Wind largely dictates the ability of life to form.
A planet such as Mars which has a relatively thin level of protection due to a compromised atmosphere has a surface that is exposed to direct solar rays and solar radiation as direct effect of this. While it is true that sunlight was one of the initial factors that helped life to thrive on Earth the fact still remains that excessive quantities of sunlight and solar radiation can have a sterilizing effect on a planet’s surface in effect wiping out all traces of life.
If the MAVEN is able to determine that the Martian atmosphere has indeed this level of deterioration that means that for future searches for possible life on Mars the surface may not be the most ideal location to check. Thus future exploration of the Mars for signs of life may involve digging into caves, fissures or other locations not directly affected by solar rays or radiation and as such may yield more positive results for the search of life outside Earth.
Sustaining Human Life on Mars
Another effect of the MAVEN mission is to judge the ability of Mars to sustain human life in the future and what would be necessary in order to ensure that a human colony would be sustainable. Just as solar radiation affects the ability of life to sustain itself on the Martian surface this also severely limits the ability of humans to effectively live on its surface.
Factors related to the degree of radiation, the temperature of the planet, the level of ion dispersion within the atmosphere and the ability of solar wind to affect the Martian surface are all factors that need to be taken into consideration when examining the possible establishment of a colony.
Readings from the MAVEN mission would help to determine what sort of protection would be needed on the first manned mission to Mars, what should buildings be composed of should a colony be established on the planets surface and what sort of filters would e necessary in order to establishment a sufficient agricultural center on the planet.
Furthermore, atmospheric readings taken by the MAVEN can also help to determine whether terraforming the planet in the future is at all possible. If the degree of atmospheric degradation has been determined to exceed the level necessary for the sufficient development of a habitable ecosystem this would go a long way towards determining humanity’s future course of action regarding off-world colonization.
The Differences Involved
What makes the MAVEN mission exciting lies in the fact that while there have been missions in the past which have explored the quality of the Martian atmosphere from the surface of the planet there have been no studies which have precisely examined the current state of the Martian upper atmosphere from space.
One of the reasons behind this has been an overall lack in sufficient technology and willpower to even get the project underway in the first place. What most individuals fail to notice is the fact that the recent global financial recession which occurred as a direct result of toxic subprime mortgage debt has in effectively limited numerous potential space programs from getting underway.
It is actually quite and expensive affair involving billions of dollars in technological expenses as well as staff expenses. Taking this into consideration the sheer cost of the MAVEN mission which is estimated at several billion dollars is quite amazing especially when comparing it to the problems the U.S. economy is currently facing.
Conclusion
This paper would like to conclude that despite the inherent costs and problems associated with space exploration and space, it is actually a very important and vital step for the future of mankind that people attempt to explore your solar system sooner rather than later.
No one really knows how long the planet Earth can sustain life or if it is already on the verge of being unable to sustain life in the future. It is based on this exploratory missions such as the MAVEN help to examine the current state of planets within the solar system in order to determine their viability as either future homes or as mirrors into what could possibly be Earth’s coming future.
Works Cited
NASA . MAVEN. NASA, N.I.. Web.
Updike, John. “Visions Of Mars.” National Geographic 214.6 (2008): 86. MasterFILE Premier. Web.
“NASA rover findings point to a more Earth-like martian past”, 2016, Astronomy Magazine. Web.
Section A: Research Summary
Our team of scientists from the Mars Curiosity Mission has recently made an important discovery. Using the ChemCam, a laser-firing instrument mounted on the Curiosity rover we were able to find high amounts of manganese oxides in the Martian soil. This finding suggests that at some point in the past, Mars had noticeable levels of oxygen in its atmosphere. We were also able to date the geological samples on which the analysis was performed to the period when Mars was likely to have large amounts of water.
This means that at some point in the past, our neighboring planet had conditions very similar to those of the Earth. In addition, the discovery allows us to make several suggestions regarding the process of formation of high amounts of oxygen, which differs significantly from our previous views and will possibly increase our knowledge in several fields.
Section B: Research Method
The readings were obtained using the instrument known as ChemCam (Chemistry and Camera). The tool consists of a powerful laser, camera, and a spectrograph – a device capable of analyzing the spectrum of the received light. The rover uses the laser to heat the small area (smaller than 1 millimeter) to heat the rock or soil to the temperature when it vaporizes. The vaporized particles form plasma – extremely hot gas which glows in a different color depending on the chemical composition of the material. The camera then captures the detailed image of the spectrum and transfers it via the fiber-optic link to the onboard spectrograph.
The spectrograph consists of three adjacent components, each capable of working with a certain wavelength (NASA par. 3). As each chemical component produces its unique spectral “signature,” the device is able to determine the exact composition and amount of the rock or dust. The process does not require a direct contact with a rock, as the camera’s resolution allows to correctly capture the image from seven meters. The use of ChemCam also eliminates the necessity of complex mechanical operation needed to collect samples and conduct a lengthy chemical analysis. The efficiency and precision of the process allow Curiosity to make up to ten reliable measurements per day.
Section C: Research Results
The readings obtained from the spectrograph suggest the high amounts of manganese oxide minerals. The process of oxidization requires the presence of oxygen, and the formation of manganese oxides demands its presence on sufficient level.. According to Nina Lanza, a planetary scientist of Los Alamos National Laboratory, “The only ways on Earth that we know how to make these manganese materials involve atmospheric oxygen or microbes.” (Jet Propulsion Laboratory par. 5) While the supposed presence of microorganisms on Mars would be an astonishing discovery, the current body of evidence does not support it. On the other hand, the high-oxygen atmosphere is a possibility and is consistent with other Curiosity Mission findings.
First, the samples are collected in the Kimberly region of the Gale crater, which might have had water at some point in the past. In addition, the age of the samples coincides with the date where the water was present on the planet, according to the current understanding. We already know that on Earth the manganese oxides formed when the abundance of water was coupled with the rising levels of oxygen. This means that similar conditions occurred on Mars in the ancient period of planetary history. According to Lanza, one possible way for the oxygen to appear on Mars in the required amount is through the process of water breakdown (Jet Propulsion Laboratory par. 8).
As the planet was not protected by the strong magnetic field, the ionizing radiation began breaking down the molecules of water into atoms of oxygen and hydrogen. The planet’s gravity was not strong enough to hold the lighter hydrogen atoms, so over time oxygen began building up. The red iron oxide dust that is responsible for the color of the planet further confirms the suggested course of events. However, while the oxidization of iron requires small amounts of oxygen that can form in other ways, the newly found manganese oxides require new explanation.
Section D: Funding Justification
Our discovery has several important implications. First, the fact that conditions on Mars were similar to those on Earth opens up unprecedented opportunities for further research. While in the current state it cannot be colonized or used for valuable resources, Mars can provide us with precious information regarding the alternative course of events for the Earth-like world. Additionally, if the hypothesis suggested by Lanza is correct, it will expand our understanding of the biosignature, one of the criteria currently used in the search for Earth-like exoplanets (Misra, Meadows, Claire, and Crisp 67).
Finally, in case the hypothesis proves to be incorrect, one of the possible alternatives is even more astounding. If the red planet did indeed have bacterial life responsible for the manganese oxide formation, the possibilities of subsequent scientific progress are immeasurable – not only in such fields as evolutionary biology but also genetics and medicine, among others. This could truly be the beginning of a new age for humankind.
However, the planetary exploration is costly. Besides, the current evidence in support of our theory is fairly limited. With additional funding from your organization, we could widen the scope of the Curiosity Mission to confirm our analysis and deepen the understanding of the issue. Additionally, new fields need to be tackled in Mars exploration, such as biological analysis, which would greatly increase our chances of important discoveries.
Misra, Amit, Victoria Meadows, Mark Claire, and Dave Crisp. “Using dimers to measure biosignatures and atmospheric pressure for terrestrial exoplanets.” Astrobiology 14.2 (2014): 67-86.
Jupiter has a moderately standard orbit which deviates from 0.05 from circular orbit. It’s extreme and closest positions of the sun are roughly 47224327.985 miles apart; its aphelion is 8.1662*108 km from the sun while its perihelion is 7.4052*108 km from the sun. Jupiter has a rotational time of 0.414 days with a revolution period of approximately 11.86 earth years. Its orbit is inclined at 1.30530o and with an eccentricity of 0.048393.
Jupiter orbits around the sun and takes 11.86 years to complete one orbit
The distance of Jupiter from the earth taken on 4th June 2013 at 0655 hours GMT is 4.6 AU.
The distance of Jupiter from the sun as of now is 5.12 AU. Measured on 4th June 2013 0640 hours GMT.
Jupiter receives 0.03815 less sunlight than the earth due to its distance from the sun being greater than the earth’s distance from the sun.
The exact discovery date of Jupiter is not precisely known. NASA foretells that it was discovered by the Ancients since it is mentioned in ancient texts (Nine Planets Organization, par 1). It is referred to as Marduk in prehistoric Babylonian manuscripts, Zeus in Greeks mythology and Jupiter in traditional Roman art (Nine Planets Organization, par 1). However the first exploration of Jupiter was done in 1610 by Galileo Galilei; through his rudimentary telescope he discovered that Jupiter had four large moons orbiting round it, i.e. Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto (Nine Planets Organization, par 3).
The earliest spacecraft to travel to the planet was pioneer 10 in the year 1973. The pioneer 10 was intended to assess the potential of spacecrafts to endure motion in the asteroid belt and Jupiter’s magnetosphere (Nine Planets Organization, par 4).
Numerous spaceship missions have been sent to Jupiter, the latest spacecraft to visit Jupiter being the New Horizons 2007. The spaceship was launched in January 2006 and flew by Jupiter on 28th February 2007 and is expected to reach Pluto in July 2016. New Horizons used Jupiter for a gravity aid in speeding up its expedition to Pluto. The spacecraft recorded lightning around the gas giant’s poles, formation of new ammonia haze, and boulder-size clumps (Harvey and Burdick, par 3). New Horizons gathered information on volcanic eruptions on Io (one of the four moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo); it also took studies of Himalia and Elara, studied Jupiter’s Red Spot and the course of the ions and cations circumnavigating the magnetic tail of the planet. It also recorded data that supports the theory suggesting that Europa has an infinite quantity of liquid water underneath its icy outer layer.
The New Horizons spaceship was a flyby mission. It is en route to Pluto and is projected to reach its destination by July 2016.
The New Horizons spaceship has not yet visited another planet apart from Jupiter; it is however expected to get to Pluto in 2016.
New Horizon is fixed with LORRI (a charge-coupled device (CCD) astronomic camera) designed for taking pictures. It also has various spectrometer devices for measuring spectra, namely: Alice; measures Ultraviolet Spectra, Ralph; measures infrared spectra and REX; uses radio waves (Beisse, par 1-5).
The most fascinating discovery of this spaceship was the presence and development of ammonia clouds in Jupiter’s environment. This discovery may suggest that the planet receives acidic rain and that it is impossible for any life form to exist on the planet. Furthermore, plants would have abnormal growth due to excess ammonia nutrients.
There is an additional spaceship that is projected to visit Jupiter in the near future, this is Juno; a NASA project to study Jupiter. It was launched on 5th August 2011 and is expected to arrive on July 2016. It is expected to study the formation of Jupiter; it will also map Jupiter’s gravity and magnetic fields plus the atmospheric composition.
The atmosphere of Jupiter is mainly made up of hydrogen and helium gases. Hydrogen gas accounts for an estimated 84% of the total atmospheric gases while helium comprises of approximately 15%. There are also traces of water vapor, acetylene, ammonia, ethane, phosphine and other simple molecules in minute ratios (Thinkquest Education Foundation, par 5). Pressure and heat accumulates as one moves into the lower atmospheric zones where hydrogen is condensed to aqueous metallic hydrogen. The liquid metallic hydrogen has electrical conducting properties that generate a strong magnetic field due to Jupiter’s high-speed rotation.
Jupiter has three separate layers of clouds that could be observed. These cloud layers consist of ammonia ice, ammonium hydrosulfide and a mixture of ice and water (Nine Planets Organization, par 12). The clouds on Jupiter alternate in layers and cover the entire planet. Below are photographs of Jupiter clouds.
Image of clouds as seen from New Horizons
3D View of Jupiter Cloud
Note: the distance of separation and height variations are exaggerated on this photograph. The higher cloud consists of vapor whose thickness extends several miles. In the lower layers, the light blue areas represent thin clouds; the red fractions are low while the white ones are elevated and thick.
The temperature of Jupiter’s atmosphere at 1 bar is estimated at 165 K.
Jupiter has high pace winds that are restricted in wide groups of latitude (Nine Planets Organization, par 14). A fierce storm moving across the cloud tops can be observed on Jupiter. The strongest winds are experienced on the planet’s northern latitudes where the winds move at approximately 370 miles per hour Jupiter’s atmosphere is unstable and data hints that these winds are produced from its inner heat. The Great Red Sport is as a result of an atmospheric disturbance resembling a hurricane and is an evidence for existence of storms on Jupiter.
A photographic image of the Great Red Spot of Jupiter
The Great Red Spot and stormy clouds on Jupiter
Jupiter’s winds are mostly caused by its internal heat and not by heat from the sun as is common with winds on Earth.
There is no specific theory put forward to explain the origin of Jupiter’s atmosphere, however, recent forms propose that initially a solid mass of approximately 10 times larger than the earth’s mass was formed due to the accumulation of frozen celestial bodies. The core developed an atmosphere due to release of gases during accumulation and as its mass increased, it attracted gases from the surrounding solar nebula and accumulated hydrogen and helium gases which presently constitute Jupiter’s atmosphere (Owen, par 2).
Spectrometer of Jupiter’s atmosphere
This spectrum has a double hump. One hump representing the reflected radiation and the second due to thermal emission.
The appearances of the clouds of this planet are puzzling phenomena. Although research suggests that compounds present in the planet’s atmosphere may explain the existence of colors in its atmosphere, it is impossible to achieve those colors at the low temperatures of Jupiter clouds. The most mysterious thing is that colors that should be observed at relatively warmer temperatures are observed at very low temperatures; furthermore, research has also shown that these colors of the clouds change with time thus making it difficult to understand.
Among a variety of the existing planets in the Solar System with their unique characteristics, importance, and relevance to the Earth, Jupiter remains to be one of the most interesting unusual and remarkable objects for consideration. Its history, as well as its name, is closely connected to the Romans. Its place in the system may be easily compared with the role of the Romans in history. During prehistoric times, Jupiter was called a “wandering star,” and nowadays, people name it as the “King of Planets,” particularly because of its size, magnetic field, and the dozens of moons in regards to other planets (Siegel 164). The current paper aims at discussing and evaluating Jupiter from different perspectives, mentioning its size, location, age, appearance, history, etc., and proving that it has to be cared for and studied thoroughly by people.
Jupiter visible from the Earth.
Jupiter is considered to be more than just an amazing object that can be observed in the sky. It is known due to its size (more than twice bigger than all other planets combined), its long history (its first record was dated in the 7th BC), and its satellites (more than 60 moons are around the planet) (Tiner 43). On the one hand, this planet does not differ from the Moon or some other stars that can be visible from the Earth (Figure 1). On the other hand, its detailed analysis introduces the planet as a massive gas giant with absent surface and a faintly identified set of dust rings that amazes people and make them think about this planet as something unstable still important (Figure 2). This is why it is interesting to investigate Jupiter in order to prove that its specific characteristics make its role more crucial. Though its overview is a simple combination of numbers and metric data, its grandiosity cannot but amaze people.
Jupiter.
Due to the presence of a number of moons as its satellites and a powerful magnetic field, the experts usually define Jupiter as a unique miniature solar system. There are four main satellites, which may be compared with the one of the Earth’s, the Moon; the others are smaller, still, their amount is influential indeed (“Fast Facts: Jupiter” par. 7). It is also stated that there is no life on Jupiter, but some of its moons with oceans may support life. However, this argument is hard to check for sure because of a few missions with positive results have been organized. In spite of the fact that Jupiter is more distant than Mars to the Earth, it is usually brighter, and it shines during the whole year around. Its shining is characterized as robust and constant (Tiner 42). This is why people can observe it from the Earth in case they know where and what to look at it.
The combination of some general facts about Jupiter can help to create a more or less clear picture of the planet and its development. In fact, the experts face a serious challenge defining its age, still, they admit that Jupiter is as old as the Sun. So, it is possible to assume that Jupiter is about 4.5 billion years. It is located in the Solar System with an average distance from the Sun about 483.600.000 miles and from the Earth about 390.000.000 miles, and its orbital period over the Sun is 11.86 Earth years (“Fast Facts: Jupiter” par. 3).
Though many people know Jupiter as the largest planet in the system, not all of them know that it is about 318 times bigger than Earth. In other words, its surface equals 122 Earth’s surfaces. There are also a number of lightning flashes that may be observed in the Jupiter’s atmosphere, and the experts admit that they are 1000 powerful than those on the Earth. It is also interesting to know what such a huge planet can consist of. There are two primary components of the planet’s atmosphere: hydrogen (86%) and helium (14%) (Tiner 51). The molecules of the gases are in constant motion, and the motion depends on the structure of the gas chosen (the lighter – the faster). However, the molecules of these two gases are not able to gain enough energy in order to become the reasons for a high gravity index.
In the paper, there has been already mentioned that Jupiter is the planet with a number of satellites of different sized. Tiner explains that it is possible to use the satellites in order to weigh the planet, still, this kind of weighing is more subjective because he talks an approximate mass of Jupiter (50). Now, it is known that Jupiter’s mass is about 1.900 x 1027 kg (“Fast Facts: Jupiter” par. 5). Due to its great mass and the ability to cooperate with the satellites with a weaker gravity, Jupiter is characterized by a high gravity index.
In addition to such “dry” facts about such a magnificent planet as Jupiter, it is also possible to add several specific features that can attract people’s attention and introduce Jupiter from a new side. For example, the Great Red Spot on Jupiter is a result of a huge swirling gas storm lasted during several hundreds of years (“Fast Facts: Jupiter” par. 8). Its size is larger than Earth, and its importance is evident for the planet. The Spot was firstly introduced and discovered by Robert Hooke in 1664, still, his discovery was done in a wrong belt; and Giovanni Cassini observed its drifts in 1671. The periods with which the Great Red Spot drifted across the planet helped to identify the speed with which the planet actually rotated (Tiner 47).
The researcher was amazed how fast it could move, because 10 hours for such a huge and massive planet was really an amazing fact. Such huge speed also serves as an explanation of the planet’s form because its fast rotation leads to the bulge directed to its equator.
Each event on the planet may be an influential factor for its development as well as for the development of the planets around. For example, in the middle of the 20th century, some astronomers truly believed that Jupiter could serve as a protective means for the Earth due to its atmosphere and gravity factor. Jupiter may have enough opportunities to make the crown of asteroids, comets, and other bodies thinner and less dangerous for the Earth. These suggestions help to realize that the Earth can be under a threat of numerous bodies of the Solar System, and it is wrong to neglect the impact of other planets, even such long-distant like Jupiter. The overview of the Jupiter’s history may become a helpful tool in realizing the importance and the role of the planet under consideration in regards to the whole system and the Earth in particular.
As it has been mentioned, Jupiter is as old as the Sun itself. The Babylonian astronomers recorded Jupiter and its activity in the 7th century BC for the first time (Tiner 45). As many other discoveries of that time, it was associated with religion. The Babylonians associated the planet with their main god, Marduk, the Greeks knew him as Zeus, the god of thunder, the Germans saw the chosen planet as their god Thor, and the Romans named it after its king god, Jupiter. The results of these observations are based on the choice of the Romans. Nowadays, the whole world knows the hugest planet in the Solar System, Jupiter.
The name of Galileo is also connected to Jupiter and its history. This scientist and astronomer is known as a discoverer of the major moons of the planets in the beginning of the 17th century. He turned his telescope to Jupiter and started examining its bright disks. Everyday observations provided Galileo with a solid basis for the discovery that the moons of Jupiter were as huge and massive as the satellites of the Earth.
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned facts and the results of the discoveries, it is possible to say about the importance of Jupiter in regards to the Solar System. First, its gravitational importance should be mentioned. Other planets may be protected due to the ability to decrease the number of cosmic bodies’ threats. Second, the evaluation of the Jupiter’s moons provided the scientists with hope in regards to life on the planet. The point is that the existence of underground oceans may create the necessary conditions for living. Unfortunately, these are only some guesses and suggestions that have to be supported by evidence and missions to the chosen planet and its satellites.
In general, Jupiter is the planet with a rich history. Its characteristics serve as the best proof that people have already learned a lot about this planet, still, there are also many issues that have to be identified, improved, and analyzed. It is not enough to know the fact that Jupiter is considered to be one of the largest planets in the existing Solar System (“Fast Facts: Jupiter” par.1). There are many other interesting facts that can be mentioned. Jupiter is the biggest gas planet that rotates within the shortest period in time compared with other planets of the same system. At the same time, it performs a protective function and helps other planets feel safe in regards to a number of asteroids and comets that move chaotically throughout the Solar System.
Though there is no life on Jupiter, people want to believe that additional investigations, constant missions, and evaluations of the planet’s possibilities make it real to admit one day that it is possible to live on Jupiter and use its riches for good. If the ancient people gave the name to this planet in honor of their main god, they probably did it for some reason. And the people of nowadays should not neglect the choice of their ancestors and try to understand why the name of such a crucial god was given to the planet. In fact, Jupiter has more secrets to be revealed in addition to the facts mentioned in the paper.
Works Cited
“Fast Facts: Jupiter.” Amazing Space n.d. Web.
Siegel, Chris, G. Stars of Light: The Hidden Message of Redemption: Message One, Bloomington, IN: CrossBooks, 2012. Print.
Tiner, John, H. Exploring the World of Astronomy: From Center of the Sun to Edge of the Universe. New Leaf Publishing Group, Green Forest, AR, 2013, Print.
Mars, the fourth planet in order of increasing distance from the sun and the first beyond the earth’s orbit. Under favorable conditions, it appears in the night sky as a yellowish red object (hence the name “red planet”) of the first magnitude. Mars has long fascinated us because of its many similarities to the earth and because of the possibility that life might exist there. The flyby of the crewless spacecraft Mariner 4 past the planet in 1965 started an era of intense exploration that still continues. Following several crewless flybys and orbiters launched by the United States (Mariners 4, 6, 7, and 9) and by the Soviet Union (Mars 3, 4, 5, and 6), the first successful soft landing of a spacecraft on another planet was achieved on July 20, 1976, when the U.S. spacecraft Viking 1 landed on the surface of Mars. Since then, Mars has been visited by several unpiloted craft, including the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft in 1997 and the Mars Global Surveyor from 1997 to 2006. (Squyres, 12) When images from these two probes were compared, scientists began to suspect that water had once flowed at several locations. Since 2004, NASA’s (National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s) Mars Exploration Rovers twin robot-geologists Spirit and Opportunity have explored the harsh Martian environment in search of water. The Phoenix Mars Lander, which safely reached the planet’s the North Pole in 2008, will analyze the icy soil for evidence of past microbial life. Mars is now perceived as a planet of spectacularly diverse topography with huge volcanoes, deep canyons, dry riverbeds, and extensive sand seas. While evidence of life there continues to be elusive, Mars remains interesting for geologic, chemical, and meteorological comparisons with the earth (Paolo, p.89).
Telescopic Observations
Following the first telescopic observations of Mars by Galileo in 1610, the planet has been observed continually, with changes in its appearance noted and mapped. Mars is too distant for any surface relief to be discerned through the telescope. All that is seen are bright and dark markings, which may be in the atmosphere or on the surface. Most surface markings are in the equatorial regions, where various dark features contrast with the light areas or “deserts.” The shape and size of most markings change both seasonally and, slowly, over many years. Despite the many changes, the most prominent features are recognizable even on the earliest maps. The markings show poor correlation with topographic features revealed by spacecraft observations. Most are thought to result from thin deposits of windblown debris whose distribution changes with time. Bright polar caps are clearly visible through the telescope, and the larger size of the northern polar cap long has been recognized.
Most of the changes in appearance through the telescope are due to atmospheric effects of various kinds. Large arrays of white clouds commonly form in the middle latitudes and may persist for weeks. Those around the volcanic centers of Tharsis and Elysium most likely form when the air cools as it rises over the high volcanic regions. Other white clouds probably are caused by the daily recycling of water between the soil and the lower atmosphere. Frontal clouds and standing-wave clouds, seen clearly in spacecraft pictures, are probably not visible from the earth. During the fall thick clouds gather in the high latitudes to form polar hoods, which mask the growth of the polar caps. Brightening at the poles in this season is probably the result of both these clouds and the cap itself. Brightening in low areas such as Hellas and Argyre may also result from a combination of surface frost and clouds.
Whereas white clouds generally are brightest when observed in blue light, yellow clouds are brightest in yellow and orange. Yellow clouds occur mostly in the mid-southern latitudes at midsummer when large lateral and vertical temperature gradients cause extreme turbulence, which lifts large amounts of dust into the atmosphere. Activity generally starts in the region 320° W to 30° W and 30° S to 60° S and in most years spreads widely, so that ultimately the whole planet is engulfed in a gigantic dust storm. After the midsummer turbulence declines, dust slowly settles out of the atmosphere and the surface markings reappear. Global dust storms of this type were observed close up in 1971 by the Mariner 9 flyby space probe and in 1977 by the Viking orbiters (Squyres, p. 32).
Canals
No other aspect of Mars has aroused such widespread interest and controversy as the so-called canals. The controversy started in 1877 with the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli’s publication of a map of Mars that showed many dark lines on the surface. These he called Canali, the Italian word for both “canal” and “channel.” In the ensuing decades, Mars observers were divided between those who claimed the canals existed and those who claimed they did not. The strongest proponent of the canals was the American astronomer Percival Lowell, who produced ever more intricate maps of linear markings based on observations at the observatory he founded in Flagstaff, Ariz. In a book published in 1908, he aroused considerable popular attention by suggesting that the markings were irrigation canals built by an advanced civilization. As better telescopes were built and instrumental measurements failed to confirm their existence, belief in the canals declined (Furniss, p. 68). The various space probes that have since visited Mars found no evidence for most of the lines on the early maps, with the result that most are now regarded as optical illusions.
Spacecraft Explorations
Most current knowledge of Mars is derived from space-probe observations, initially from the Mariner 9 and Viking missions. In 1965 the U.S. Mariner 4 flyby space probe returned the first close-up pictures of the planet, followed in 1969 by two additional flyby missions, Mariners 6 and 7. All three probes flew over the parts of the planet that most resemble the moon and presented a rather deceptive view of the planet as a moonlike body. The diverse geologic character of the Martian surface was not fully recognized until 1971. During that year Mariner 9 and two Soviet spacecraft, Mars 2 and 3, were placed in orbit around Mars. The Soviet spacecraft was short-lived, and their accompanying Landers failed to return useful data from the surface, but Mariner 9 continued to operate for a year, returning more than 7,000 pictures of the planet. (Paolo, 45) Additional photographs were obtained in 1974 by the Soviet vehicles Mars 4, 5, and 6. In 1976 two Viking spacecraft were placed in orbit around Mars, and two additional spacecraft landed on the surface. The Viking 2 and 1 orbiters continued to function, respectively, until 1978 and 1980, by which time they had taken over 50,000 pictures of the planet and returned a wealth of other data. Contact with the Viking 2 and 1 Landers was lost, respectively, in 1980 and 1982 (Squyres, p. 57).
After a 17-year hiatus in Mars exploration, the United States launched Mars Observer in 1992. Mission objectives were to study geology, geophysics, and climate of the red planet, but it ended in disappointment when contact was lost with the craft just before it entered Martian orbit. In 1996 Mars Pathfinder was launched to demonstrate that an unpiloted spacecraft could deliver and deploy a robotic rover. Not only was the mission a success, but also Pathfinder and its rover, Sojourner, returned unprecedented amounts of information including images, soil analyses, and wind measurements before their final data transmission in September 1997. The next two missions to Mars failed: Climate Orbiter burned up on entering Mars’s atmosphere in September 1999; and three months later Polar Lander and Deep Space 2 were lost on arrival.
These disappointments were followed by a spate of successes, beginning in 1997 when Mars Global Surveyor slipped into Martian orbit. For nine years the probe mapped the red planet returning dramatic evidence of hillside water flows before succumbing to battery failure in 2006. The Mars Odyssey spacecraft, launched in 2001, has captured more than 130,000 images and continues to transmit information about Martian geology, climate, and mineralogy. NASA joined with the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency for the Mars Express mission in 2003 (Paolo, p. 23). Despite losing Beagle 2, its land rover, Mars Express has provided information about various surface features, including buried impact craters, evidence of glacial activity, and the presence of methane gas. The pursuit of geological clues to the possibility of life on Mars continued with NASA’s land rovers Spirit and Opportunity, twin robotic vehicles that rolled off their airbag-encased Landers on opposite sides of Mars in 2004 (Furniss, p. 102). Sporting names selected from more than 10,000 entries in a student essay contest, the two solar-powered rovers have outlived their intended three-month mission and continue to transmit high-resolution, full-color images of Martian terrain, soil surfaces, and rocks. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, launched in 2005, currently orbits high above the red planet, using a sounding device to search for subsurface water.
In May 2008 the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter relayed photographs of the safe descent of the Phoenix Mars Lander as it parachuted onto the planet’s frozen North Pole. Daily instructions were sent from the earthbound control center, directing the Lander to collect soil samples from the icy surface. Phoenix used its robotic arm to deliver soil and ice samples to its onboard experiment platforms. The samples are to be analyzed in hopes of determining whether the location could have supported microbial life during the planet’s past.
General Physiography
Mars is markedly asymmetrical in the distribution of its surface features. Much of the Southern Hemisphere is heavily cratered like the lunar highlands and includes two large impact basins, Hellas and Argyre. In contrast, much of the Northern Hemisphere is covered with sparsely cratered plains. The planet has two major volcanic regions, the Tharsis region centered at 110° W on the equator and the Elysium region centered at 25° N, 212° W. Extending eastward from Tharsis are several large canyons that together makeup Valles Marineris, while east and north of the canyons are several huge dry riverbeds. The poles are distinctly different from the rest of the planet and appear to have thick deposits of layered sedimentary rocks exposed at the surface. The North Pole is also surrounded by extensive sand dunes.
Densely Cratered Terrain
This terrain is characterized by many large, relatively shallow craters; smooth intercrater plains; and a relatively small number of smaller craters (those less than 30 miles, or 50 km, in diameter). The terrain probably dates from very early in the planet’s history, possibly from 4 billion years ago, when the impact rate was higher than at present. The most extensive cratered areas are in the Southern Hemisphere. Fresh Martian craters differ markedly in appearance from those on the moon and Mercury. Most lunar craters are surrounded by disordered rubble-like ejecta that appears to have been deposited from ballistic trajectories. In contrast, the Martian craters are surrounded by ejecta that appears to have flowed along the ground. The fluid properties of the ejecta have been attributed to the presence in the Martian surface of large amounts of ground ice, which melts on impact and is incorporated into the ejecta. Crater examination by the Opportunity probe has revealed evidence of a watery and possibly habitable past on Mars.
Sparsely Cratered Plains
Plains cover much of the Northern Hemisphere and also occur within large impact basins such as Hellas and Argyre in the south. They are distinguished from the densely cratered terrain by the almost total absence of impact craters larger than 30 miles (50 km) in diameter. The plains have a different appearance in different areas. Around the large volcanoes in Tharsis and Elysium, the plains appear to be a thick succession of lava flows. In other areas, such as Chryse Planitia, where the Viking 1 spacecraft landed, the plains resemble those of the lunar maria, being relatively featureless except for impact craters and low winding ridges. These plains are probably also volcanic. The plains in the high northern latitudes have a variety of poorly understood features. Extensive areas have a polygonal fracture pattern, with individual polygons averaging 6 miles (10 km) across. In other areas are parallel linear markings, low escarpments, and intricate patterns of light and dark. Many of the unique characteristics of the northern plains have been attributed to repeated deposition and removal by the wind of layers of ice-rich debris. The number of impact craters on most of the plains, while considerably smaller than on the densely cratered terrain, is still sufficiently large to indicate an old age, probably in the range of 1 to 4 billion years. The only possible exceptions are the plains around the large volcanoes, which appear younger.
Volcanic and Tectonic Features
The large volcanoes of Tharsis are among the most spectacular features of the planet. The largest, Olympus Mons, is 15.5 miles (25 km) high and more than 340 miles (550 km) across at its base. Three other volcanoes in Tharsis reach approximately the same height. Each is topped by a central caldera, or crater, 50 to 75 miles (80 to 120 km) across, and on the flanks are numerous lava channels, lava tubes, flow fronts, and other features indicative of very fluid lava. Analysis of photographs transmitted by Odyssey in 2007 of the massive Arsia Mons volcano reveals seven black spots that scientists suspect are caves the size of football fields. If so, they would shield their contents from surface radiation and could potentially shelter life (Squyres, p. 78).
The style of volcanism on Mars is similar to that in Hawaii, except that the Martian features are ten times larger. The volcanoes are relatively young and may still be active. Tharsis is also the center of a set of fractures that occur over almost an entire hemisphere of the planet. They appear to have formed as a result of the loading of the crust by the Tharsis bulge.
Volcanoes also occur elsewhere on Mars, but they tend to be older and smaller than those in Tharsis. In 2007 the Spirit rover rolled onto evidence of an ancient volcanic explosion near its landing site dubbed “Home Plate” in Gusev Crater. Analysis revealed high chlorine content in the 2-meter- (6-foot) thick plateau of bedrock, suggesting that fluid basalt lava had come in contact with brine, indicating that water had been involved (Paolo, p. 59).
Canyons
To the east of Tharsis and aligned along with the radial fractures are several enormous canyons. They stretch from the summit of the Tharsis bulge eastward for approximately 3,000 miles (5,000 km). Individual canyons are up to 125 miles (200 km) across and 1 to 4 miles (2 to 7 km) deep. The walls are steep and in many sections deeply gullied. In some parts, the walls have collapsed to form gigantic landslides several tens of miles across that have traveled more than 60 miles (100 km) along the canyon floor. The canyons are believed to have formed mainly by down faulting, followed by slumping and gullying of the walls (Furniss, p. 62).
Channels
Channels pose some of the more puzzling problems of Martian geology. Much of the densely cratered terrain is dissected by small channels that form drainage networks much like terrestrial river valleys. Liquid water, however,
Work Cited
Furniss, Tim. The History of Space Exploration: And Its Future… Mercury Books London: 2005
Paolo, Ulivi & Harland, David. Robotic Exploration of the Solar System. Springer Praxis Books: 2008
Squyres, Steve. Roving Mars: Spirit, Opportunity, and the Exploration of the Red Planet Hyperion; Reprint edition: 2007
In 1906, Professor Lowell was invited by the Lowell Institute to deliver a course of eight lectures on the planet Mars. These eight lectures were then published in six papers in the Century Magazine and subsequently published by the Macmillan and Company in book form. Though the primary focus of the book was planet Mars, it spoke of planetary evolution in general. It can be seen as the product of Professor Lowell’s research into the genesis and development of the world though it deals specifically with planet Mars.
Lowell considered planetology to be the link between the Nebular Hypothesis and the Darwinian Theory and a subject that helped bridge the gap between the two. It is in this context that Mars is treated in the book “Mars as the Abode of Life and the book explains how Mars came to exist and why it differs from the Earth. The findings in this book were made by Lowell at his private observatory at Flagstaff and include the evolution of the planets as worlds.
The book is aimed towards both professional and non-professional readers with mathematical portions presented separately from the textual portions. The book also includes illustrations of the planet Mar by Professor Lowell. The main arguments of the book revolve around the genesis of the world, the evolution of life, the dominance of the sun, Mars and the future of the earth, the canals and oases of Mars and proofs of life on Mars.
According to Percival, there are six stages involved in the progress of a planet from being sun to becoming cinder: the sun stage hot enough to emit light; the molten stage that is hot but lightless; the solidifying stage where a solid surface is formed; the terraqueous stage that involves sedimentary rocks; the terrestrial stage in which oceans have disappeared and the dead stage where the air has departed. The study of Mars helps in foreseeing what will eventually happen to earth. Percival says because Mars has smaller bulk, it ages quicker than earth and hence it has lost its oceans long back.
Percival Lowell presents a comprehensive picture of cosmic evolution with a particular focus on the origin of the solar system. He supported an evolutionary theory, the nebular hypothesis, in which planets formed from the cooling of gases in rings around stars. Lowell argued that different kinds of bodies developed from the accretion of different proportions of the same elements from the spiral nebula and this explains why outer planets contained more of the lighter material from the crust of the disrupted body such as hydrogen while the inner planets consisted of larger amounts of the heavier material from the interior of the original body.
Lowell also found that there was a perfect correlation between the sizes of these bodies and their distances from the primaries. He explained the retrograde rotation of Uranus, Neptune and certain satellites by accepting the notion that accreting particles will have retrograde rotation in their early stage after which they are given a direct rotation by forces of gravity. When tidal effects were weakened by distances as in the case of distant planets, there would be no change in the original retrograde motion. Thus Lowell’s theory is one that centered on regularity and predictability. Lowell also emphasized the homogeneous nature of the solar system.
Using his 24 inch Clark refracting telescope, Lowell observed interconnected “canals” covering the surface of Mars. He drew elaborate maps of the canals and their interconnecting “oases”. Lowell’s maps of the canals showed long straight lines that were often double and that met each other at small round dark areas that he called oases. He argued that the canals of Mars are unlike the natural formations seen on other planetary bodies. He deduced that these canals were artificial as they did not look like any natural phenomenon and he concluded, considering their network all over the planet that they must have been built by highly skilled engineers.
Moreover, in light of the fact that Mars’ atmosphere almost has no clouds, he deduced that these canals must be built in a desperate attempt to save Martian civilization from extinction by bringing water from the polar ice caps to the parched and sun-baked planet.
Thus according to him, Mars was an ancient land, drying up and choked in dust and that the Martian civilization must have constructed this elaborate planet-wide system of aqueducts to transport water from the melting polar ice caps to the dry equatorial regions of Mars. He also suggested that the changing dark patterns observed on Mars were actually large areas of vegetation that grew and receded with the Martian seasons. This again was offered by Percival Lowell as another proof of life on Mars. Life on Mars according to Lowell was intelligent but doomed.
Lowell has generated a lot of interest in Mars through his publications and semi-scientific theories. His arguments are well laid out so that even a layperson with no prior knowledge of astronomy would understand it. Along with such simple explanations, he has also included detailed illustrations and calculations to validate his arguments. His limitations seem to be that he did not have the technological advantage that is available to modern-day researchers and hence his work is often an extension of speculations based on observations without any solid basis.
Bibliography
Lowell, Percival (1908). Mars as the abode of life. Adamant Media Corporation.
The study of the universe and other heavenly bodies has been one of the main concerns of scientists since the ancient world. The solar system has a series of planets and Jupiter is one of them. This planet was first discovered by scientists during the ancient period and it was closely linked with religious and mythical believes of many societies.
For example, the Romans called it Jupiter, a term which referred to one of their gods. Among the heavenly bodies visible in the sky at night, Jupiter is the third brightest. However, Mars can also have the same level of brightness at certain intervals in its orbit.
Jupiter has an oblate spheroid shape because it rotates very fast. It is mainly composed of gaseous and liquid substances. In terms of size, it is the largest of all the planets and it is number five from the sun. “The diameter of Jupiter is 142984 kilometers and its density is 1.326 g/cm3” (Bova 125). The upper atmosphere of this planet is mainly made up of hydrogen which occupies ninety percent and helium nine percent.
The remaining one percent is occupied by small quantities of other gases like ammonia and water vapor. Silicon based compounds can also be found in the atmosphere. “Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the other gas giants Uranus and Neptune have relatively much less hydrogen and helium” (Bova 127).
The mass of Jupiter is two and a half times greater than the combined mass of all the remaining planets. The density of this planet is low despite its large size. “Jupiter’s volume is equal to 1,321 Earths, yet the planet is only 318 times as massive” (Cattermole 81). According to theoretical models, Jupiter would shrink if it had a greater mass than it has at present.
The heat generated in this planet is almost the same as the amount of solar radiation it gets from the sun. This process leads to the shrinking of the planet by approximately two centimeters annually. When this planet was formed, it was very hot and its diameter was double the current one.
Scientists believe that Jupiter has a dense core, which has several elements and it is also surrounded by a layer of gases “Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through this layer, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere” (Bova 201). A high temperature also builds toward the core of the planet. However, much is not known about the detailed structure of the core.
The formation of the core is believed to have taken place during the initial stages of the formation of Jupiter. The fact that Jupiter has a core was partially proved in 1997 through gravitational measurements. However, this fact has not been fully confirmed scientifically. “Jupiter is covered with clouds that have ammonia crystals and hydrosulfide” (Cattermole 159).
“Jupiter has a unique feature known the Great Red Spot, which is a persistent anti cyclonicstorm located 22° south of the equator that is larger than the Earth” (Bova 267).
This feature has probably existed since 1665. Mathematical models indicate that this feature may permanently remain as part of Jupiter. This feature is very visible if one uses instruments such as telescopes to view it. The red sport is oval and rotates anticlockwise on Jupiter.
“In terms of rotation, Jupiter is the fastest in the solar system and within ten hours it can completely rotate within its axis” (Bova 128). The tilt of Jupiter is just 3.13° hence it does not have considerable changes in seasons. The sun and Jupiter are 778 million kilometers apart. Since Jupiter is not solid, it has equatorial and polar atmospheric rotations. The latter rotation lasts approximately longer than the former.
Even though some research has been done on Jupiter, more is still being done even today. Travelling from the earth to the other planets is very possible and many of such missions have successfully been conducted by scientists in the past. Galileo Galilei is one of the earliest scientists who did a lot of research on planets. For example, in 1973, the pioneer missions successfully got pictures of Jupiter.
The study of these planets has not been an easy task for the scientists and they have had to sacrifice a lot of their time and resources in order study them. Besides this, space exploration is a very dangerous adventure and many scientists have lost their lives in the process of moving to the planets.
Some of them even disappeared mysteriously and they have never been traced since they went for space exploration missions (Nickell 127). Nonetheless, space exploration has greatly contributed to scientific knowledge. With the introduction of sophisticated technology in space exploration, many scientists are now able to travel to various planets and most of them have had successful missions.
Works Cited
Bova, Ben. Jupiter. New York: Wiley, 2000.
Cattermole, Peter. Earth and Other Planets: Geology and Space Research. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Nickell, Duane. Guidebook for the Scientific Traveler: Visiting Astronomy and Space Exploration Sites Across America. New York: Rutgers University Press, 2008.
Jupiter’s newly discovered moons elevated a question of a more realistic natural world, a question that was to be raised in the future every time a new solar system object was discovered. Since no one had ever discovered a new member of the solar system before 1610, no procedure had yet been established for naming either moons or planets, and Galileo simply seized the prerogative for himself.
Galileo declared publicly his innovation of “four planets speedily turning on or around Jupiter at contradictory distant region and the interval taken to complete one cycle of the regularly repeating phenomenon, which has never been discovered by anyone.” Galileo perceived them and decided that they should be named the MEDICEAN STARS. However, he did this comparatively as a sense of showing his appreciation, to Ferdinand de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who made arrangements for his non-elective position at the University of Pisa.
A more important factor in Galileo’s choice of name, it is certain, was his desire to better himself politically and financially.
The Medicis, rulers of Tuscany, were the most powerful family in Italy both politically and financially, and though they had a history of ruthlessness toward those who threatened them, they were also known as great patrons of art and science.
In 1609, the Grand Duke of Tuscany was Cosimo 11, Ferdinand’s son, whom Galilei had tutored in mathematics when he was younger. Honoring Cosimo de Medici with Jupiter, Galileo thought, might result in the granting of substantial favors.
In line with this, Galileo’s naming of the four newly discovered moons of Jupiter after the Medici family is the act not only of a canny courtier but of someone with a sense of the sky’s allegorical depth.
In a move calculated to gain Galileo a plum patronage position in the Tuscan court, was his intention of naming the moons of Jupiter the medician Stars. However, the dedication was as florid as anything, complete with astrological references. After noting that the known constellations and planets have been named for Greek and Roman deities and mythological heroes he says it is only fitting that Cosimo should have the same honor by saying “Indeed, the Maker of the stars himself has seemed by clear indications to direct that I assign to these new planets Your Highness’s famous name in preference to all others. For just as these stars, like children worthy of their sire, never leave the side of Jupiter by any appreciable distance, so (indeed who does not know?) clemency, kindness of heart, the gentleness of manner, splendor of royal blood, nobility in public affairs, and excellency of authority and rule have fixed their abode and habitation in your Highness……. And so, most serene Cosimo, having discovered under your patronage these stars unknown to every astronomer before me, I have with good right decided to designate them by the august name of your family. And if I’m first to have investigated them, who can justly blame me if I likewise name them, calling them the Medicean Stars, in the hope that this name will bring as much honor to them as the names of heroes have bestowed on other stars? For, to say nothing of Your Highness’s most serene ancestors, whose everlasting glory is testified by the monuments of all history, your virtue alone, most worthy Sire, can confer upon these an immortal name”. (Drake and Galilei 24). Though, Galileo had smelled an opportunity to win the patronage of the Medici family and set out to reach the goal with characteristic impatience and bluntness. Despite this, to have anything from the public one must satisfy the public and not any one individual.
Galileo knew that patronage would take him out of the university system with its wearisome academic politics and time robbing teaching commitments. It would increase his income and status. And most important of all, the identification with the powerful Medicis would provide a degree of insulation from the attacks of intellectual opponents, making it easier to publish controversial ideas.
Though, patronage had its drawbacks, as well. Galileo would have value to the Medicis only insofar as he was seen to be a great discoverer of new things and a brilliant philosopher, the doyen of his profession.
However, patronage was a two-way street and the patron expected a payback. It typically came in the form of reflected glory, the more glory, the more dazzling the reflection. And so Galileo would have to perform.
Furthermore, His performance would henceforth take place in the public realm rather than in the cloistered world of the university. Criticism of his work would become a matter for public consumption and debate, which would mean his rebuttals, would be timely and convincing.
Work Cited
Drake, Stillman. & Galilei, Galileo. Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1957.
Among the recent scientific discoveries, one of the most fascinating is a presence of liquid lake on Mars. The scientists found liquid water under the ice caps on the planet. It might be a sign that Mars can have some living organisms after all. Despite the previous reports about water on the planet, it is the largest discovery which is supported by undeniable evidence (Chang & Overbye, 2018). The article describes how exactly scientists were able to obtain the data about water. They used the radar measurement to find a 12-mile-wide lake. The ice caps protect water from dust, radiation, and temperatures which are destructive for living organisms (Chang & Overbye, 2018). Hence, the lake and ice create a comfortable environment for microbes and other organisms to exist.
A topic of planetary exploration seems very exciting, especially, considering the Mars mission which will be completed in several years from now. As a matter of fact, it is also an interesting article because it revolves around the probability of having a new form of life in the Solar System outside the Earth. Therefore, if there are living organisms in the lake on Mars, there can be even more of them on other planets (Chang & Overbye, 2018). The space exploration overall seems a very positive field of science as it keeps looking for new opportunities for humankind to learn about the universe, its laws, and potential ways of development. Additionally, the article is not speculation, but a reliable description of discovery which is based on accurate data.
I fully support the discovery and the scientific activity focused on space research. First of all, it helps to understand the general development of planets, systems, and galaxies. Even though this type of analysis can take years and even decades, still the results are significant for entire humankind (Chang, 2015). Secondly, the space exploration slowly but steadily creates opportunities for people to populate other space objects or to find alternative sources of energy. The field might seem a part of the science-fiction universe; however, it has substantial progress which pushes the boundaries of modern technologies, knowledge, and capabilities of humanity.
The authors of the article provide the reference to an original scientific study. However, the article is an interpretation of scientific findings, it can be even called an adaptation. The original article includes complex diagrams and graphs with the numbers of the radar measurement. At the same time, there are no references which might prove or reject the information. Even though the article might seem to contain unverified information, the status of The New York Times establishes a certain extent of credibility. Typically, such media companies do not want to risk their image to discuss scientific discoveries and they do not publish unverifiable information. Hence, I am sure that the data is reliable and can be used as a credible source.
I need to see some evidence to believe the information when I read a scientific article; however, it also depends on the platform where I read this data. For instance, it is hard to expect a list of references, a well-conducted research on the popular news websites like Forbes or The New York Times. Typically, I expect a brief description of the study with further reference to an original publication. At the same time, if I read articles on the scientific websites like NASA, I need to see the undeniable evidence as it is the original source of information and comes directly from scientists.
It would not be an overstatement to say that Mars has been the most sought-after, although extremely hostile destination in the Solar System since mankind has set the foot on the Moon in 1969. The so-called Space Race, which initially involved only the United States and the Soviet Union, nowadays has come to a new stage, encompassing the whole world. However, even while the most cautious NASA estimates speak of the scheduled date of departure in the year 2030, a few major problems have not been solved yet. The list of such problems includes the exposure to space radiation during the flight and later, due to the lack of atmosphere on Mars, soil contamination, the need for air, water, and, most importantly, energy. The power sources might become one of the key aspects of future Mars colonization as they ensure the life support and the production of necessary resources. Even if the first expedition would be preceded by robotic cargo missions, the machines and robot systems will be in great necessity of a constant energy supply to maintain stable performance. This paper explores the possible options of electric-power production sources and attempts to gain insight into the benefits of the application of the most recent scientific developments, such as nanotechnology, for enhancing and expanding the use of these sources.
Despite the problem of energy sources accessibility, there exists a variety of theoretical options for energy sources, all of which are quite viable. First of all, one of the most valid options would be solar energy. Solar panels are already widely used in space exploration missions, as the energy of light is immediately available and the photovoltaic industry in the past decades has made significant progress and allowed to produce cheaper and more efficient solar cells and modules. The latest breakthrough efforts have also allowed creating “a solar cell with over 40% efficiency and are the highest solar conversion efficiency yet achieved for any type of photovoltaic device” (King et al. 1). Another popular solution would be the use of nuclear power. While the energy density of nuclear fuel is very high, and the cost of transportation would be reasonably low, numerous debates about the dangers of launching spacecraft with nuclear fuel still arise because there is still a small chance that the at the explosion of the spacecraft, the radioactive materials may go into the atmosphere and cause severe contamination.
However, the American Chemical Society has already proposed a plan for implementing nuclear power plants for Mars settlements, which involves compact, safe, and reliable fission power systems offering unique possibilities for supporting continuous power supply (American Chemical Society par. 3-6). The wind energy on Mars has some potential of becoming at least a secondary source of power. One of NASA researches “envisions a Mars space station powered by solar energy during clear weather, with wind power as a backup up during the dark months … the turbine under consideration for the Mars project generates about 100 kW, depending on the location and the air density” (Ragheb 1-2). Some more exotic options for power production are available too, among them is the use of geothermal planet activity, the technique of harvesting energy from carbon dioxide, or dry ice, which is also known as “Leidenfrost engine,” although these sources are not primarily considered alternatives.
Nanotechnology, a branch of science that deals with components less than 100 nm in size, recently has become one of the most promising scientific directions. Its application has already proven its worth in the field of energy generation, for example, nanofabrication and nanomaterials science is already used for solving various problems of energy technologies. Nanotechnology is capable of increasing the efficiency of power sources, which would be incredibly useful for Mars settlements as the power efficiency will be a crucial point for their survival. Solar cells and, subsequently, solar panels can benefit from the use of nanotechnologies by utilizing special spray-on nanoparticles, or quantum dots composite that will increase their performance and cost-effectiveness, according to research conducted by scientists at the University of Toronto (Lovgren par. 1-24). Another useful method for increasing the lifespan of solar modules is the application of nanoparticle protection coating that would make the panels more robust and abrasive-resistant, as the dust and sandstorms on Mars are considered the major threats for solar energy implementation in the settlements.
The turbines for harvesting wind energy, if ever used on Mars, would be exposed to extreme conditions, including low temperatures, sandstorms, and high-speed winds. Nanotechnology can offer a solution to these problems and solve a challenge of increasing turbine lifetime through the use of “nanoparticle-containing lubricants that reduce the friction generated from the rotation of the turbines, nanocoatings for de-icing and self-cleaning technologies, and advanced nanocomposites that provide lighter and stronger wind blades” (Eldada 1). The nuclear energy field has a large potential for nanotech applications as well. Some of these applications would involve the use of nanostructured actinide materials, nanoporous materials for the separation of high-level liquid waste, and non-radioactive nanomaterials for nuclear waste disposal and environmental protection (Shi et al. 727-736). Chinese researchers believe that despite being in their infancy, these technologies will become important subjects in future advanced nuclear energy systems (Shi et al. 734). Indeed, such a combination of nuclear physics, radiochemistry, and nanotechnology may lead to enhancing the efficiency and safety of nuclear fuel use and aid in solving the problem of waste disposal, which could be an immensely important issue for a future Mars colony.
Despite that idea of sending manned missions, exploration, and development of Mars territories today are no more than long-term perspectives, theoretical studies of possible planet colonization can already prove useful. First of all, such studies will help to gather data and material, which could later be used in the actual Mars missions; moreover, the empirical studies with specific, predetermined conditions could lead to several discoveries in areas that had previously been insufficiently investigated. The emergence of cross-disciplines at the intersection of different scientific fields, such as nanotechnology and clean energy sources studies, can bring significant benefits to applied science, engineering, and industry, as well as contribute to improving the quality of life. In conclusion, it should also be noted that there exists a high probability that the results of these studies would be in-demand in the nearest future because the technology develops rapidly, and private-owned companies, such as SpaceX and Blue Origin, have already made significant progress in the space industry; so, eventually, a mission to Mars could come true much sooner than it was expected.
Eldada, Louay. “Nanotechnologies for efficient solar and wind energy harvesting and storage in smart-grid and transportation applications.” Journal Nanophoton 5.1 (2011): 051704-051704-18. Print.
