The Martian is among the greatest science fiction novels Andy Weir published on his website in 2011. The book attracted a significant audience appreciation, making it among the New York Times Best Sellers. Andy Weirs lifelong interest in science fiction inspired him to write The Martian. The novels review also portrays that Weir conducted extensive research when writing the book to understand the attributes of orbital mechanics. In his narration, he analyzes the operations of NASA and the history and activities of space travel. Extensive research allowed Weir to understand the critical rules and policies that governed the spaceship. Weirs narration of the planet Mars will enable readers to perceive the features of the planet. Literature critics have praised The Martian for its realistic premise and execution. The novels plot follows the survival adventures of Mark Watney, who struggles to survive alone on Mars after being abandoned by his crew in Hermes. The essay critically reviews the attributes that Weir incorporates in writing The Martian, including the third-person tone, symbolism through potatoes, and the themes of abandonment and patience.
Discussion
The Martians success is attributed to the critical themes, tones, and figurative language that Weir incorporates in the novel. Weir narrates the story in the first and third person. Most of the account is in the first person because fictional journal entries that Mark recorded during his experience on Mars inspired the book. Mark recounted the days experiences and documented them in the past tense to portray the tone of rest after a long days work. Weir composed the remaining novel sections in the third-person omniscient perspective. He employs a third-person technique to describe the activities on Earth and the Hermes spaceship. Despite being in a terrible situation, the author incorporated a lighthearted tone through a sense of humor and a sarcastic tone to portray Marks attitude. In Log entry SOL 61, Mark wonders, How come Aquaman can control whales? Theyre mammals! Makes no sense (Weir 264). The author depicts that while everyone on Earth, including NASA, was worried about his rescue and survival plans, he kept his brain preoccupied to avoid thinking about his predicament. Humor allows the main character to focus on other things, such as watching the 70s television shows and music. Although The Martian is science fiction, the combination of first and third tonal variations makes the book realistic and exciting.
Andy Weir incorporated symbolic techniques in The Martian to make the narrative more interesting. Symbolism is the most prevalent style that the author employs in the science fiction novel. The author utilizes potatoes to symbolize Marks perseverance during his encounter on Mars. Mark exploits the potato as his primary source of food throughout his stay on Mars. He allows the potatoes to grow through a system of engineering and botany, portraying the themes of survival and perseverance. The hope of being rescued guides Marks persistence and allows him to endure the experiences of each day on a foreign planet. Mark shows his hope by saying, If a hiker gets lost in the mountains, people will coordinate a search. If a train crashes, people will line up to give blood. If an earthquake levels a city, people worldwide will send emergency supplies (Weir 304). Therefore, symbolism through potatoes plays a critical role in depicting the theme of hope, which influences our daily lives. Hope allows readers to relate to Marks experiences and emotions during his expedition and influences the belief that everything will be okay in the long run.
Weir incorporated the theme of abandonment in The Martian to show Marks predicament on Mars. Mark is left behind when Ares 3 aborts its mission. Abandonment is an emotional feeling that people develop when they are undesired. Mark thinks he is alone and everyone has given up on him. One of the NASA members asked his colleagues, What kind of effect does that have on a mans psychology? I wonder what hes thinking right now (Weir 267). Watney recognizes that the crew leaving Mark behind is necessary for the mission. Despite being abandoned on a foreign planet, Mark embraced his current dilemma and adjusted to the environment to survive. He remembers how his protective sheath is weak and how he is far from Earth. Mark uses a cloth, the Hab, and two rovers to protect himself from Martian elements. When Watney can communicate with NASA through the Pathfinders radio and Morse code, he feels connected to human life and becomes optimistic about his possible return home. However, the drill shorts the electrical systems, which damages the link between him and NASA, so Mark must do all he can without NASAs advice and input. He feels isolated throughout the novel until Beck pulls him back into the Hermes, where he rejoins his crew members for their return voyage. The theme of abandonment allows Weir to create tension in his narration through Marks survival uncertainty. However, his rescue enables the novel to reinforce the theme of hope symbolized by the potatoes.
The theme of patience is also a primary idea that Weir illustrates in The Martian to show Maks character. Marks time on Mars needs a lot of foresight, patience, and planning before the Ares 3 trip happens. He is stranded on Martian soil because NASA takes years working out the technical information on deep space travel, from the biggest to minor issues. Mark does not ditch NASAs stage-wise and careful planning when on Mars without his crew members. Mark states, Either itll kill me, or it wont. A lot of work went into making sure it didnt break. If I cant trust NASA, who can I trust? (For now, Ill forget that NASA told us to bury it far away) (Weir 296). The quote indicates Marks trust in NASAs strategic plans to rescue him and allows him to focus on surviving while on Mars. Nonetheless, he relies on this process by approaching huge problems systematically and double-checking checks to avoid mistakes. Marks most vital qualities enable him to wake up every morning and keep chipping away at the massive challenge of making his way back to Earth from Mars. Therefore, Mark is patient because he spends nights and days waiting for NASA to rescue him.
Conclusion
The Martian attracted a positive reception and significant success because of the vital themes, tones, and figurative language the author incorporates in the novel. Abandonment is a central theme present in this book. Mark is left alone on Mars by his crew and has to survive the Martian elements. He survives on Mars for over 500 days as he waits to be rescued by NASA. His loneliness causes him to think about how far he is from the earth and how he has weak tools to protect him. The main character portrays the theme of patience through his ability to persevere until NASA rescues him. Mark is also intelligent because he uses all the planning taught by NASA to survive and manages to grow potatoes on Mars through bioengineering. To make the story realistic, Weir narrates Marks experiences in first and third-person tonal variations. He employs a third-person tone to describe the activities of Hermes and Earth. Also, the author incorporates figurative styles of symbolism through potato farming to show the hope that people have in life. Therefore, The Martian is a powerful science fiction novel that inspires readers to integrate attributes of patience and perseverance when facing life challenges.
Beginning with the invention of the telescope over 400 years ago, the field of astronomy hasprogressed rapidly, allowing humans to see distant celestial objects and study these to develop adeep understanding of the structure and evolution of the universe. Many notable astronomers havebeen crucial in the development of their field. However, very few of these have been women. InAustralia, just 15.3% of people forming the International Astronomical Union (IAU) are female (1), and only 33% of astronomy bachelor degrees in 2017 were obtained by women (2). Despite thesesmall numbers, female astronomers have been critical in contributing to expanding catalogues anddeveloping revolutionary ideas and as such are an underrated minority in the astronomical field.Notable female astronomers include Caroline Herschel, who assisted in the discovery of severalnew celestial objects including Uranus, Wang Zhenyi, who explained lunar eclipses and calculatedthe precession of equinoxes, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt, who developed techniques to determinethe distance to variable stars (3). These women paved the way for their gender’s acceptance asscholars and scientists in the society of their time (1) and they continue to be notable icons lookedup to by women today.2 Caroline HerschelCaroline Herschel is one of the most highly decorated female astronomers. She was the first womanto be awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and inducted as an honorarymember (3).
Herschel worked closely with her brother, William Herschel, to discover many newobjects, including Uranus. Although William’s name is remembered as the ’father of modernastronomy’, Caroline was in integral part of his work. It was Caroline who created the New GeneralCatalogue with their observations, and she also made her own discoveries, including 8 comets,recorded in her book;Book of Observations(3). Astronomers today still use the NGC number ofmany celestial objects, and this is all thanks to Caroline Herschel’s careful documentation.Beginning life as the household help of the family under careful instruction by her mother,Caroline was taught domestic chores, such as sewing and embroidery (4). At the age of 22,Caroline Herschel escaped this tedious lifestyle, following her brother William to England. There,she initially trained as a singer, but soon found joy in William’s passion of astronomy. Afterinitially assisting William with his work, Caroline began to diverge and study the skies by herself(4).After assisting her brother to discover the planet Uranus, William was offered the position ofRoyal Court Astronomer, and Caroline was appointed as his assistant. She was offered a fixedsalary of£50 per year for her work, making her the first professional female astronomer (4).Continuing her research, Caroline herself discovered eight comets, fourteen nebulae, and countlessstars, all of which she compiled in her catalogue, the NGC (3). Later in her life, she became thefirst woman to be honored with the golden medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, and the firstto receive the golden medal of the Prussian Academy of Sciences (4).Caroline Herschel is a strong figure in the world of astronomy, accomplishing great feats thatmost male astronomers could only dream of. She defied countless stereotypes of her day andchallenged the path envisioned for her from birth. Her resistance to the norm and desire to followher passion defined her as a leader for both female astronomers of her time, and those studying inthe modern day.
Wang ZhenyiWang Zhenyi was an outstanding female astronomer from the Qing dynasty, China. She breachedthe federal customs of the time which hindered women’s education, and worked tirelessly to educateherself in sciences such as astronomy, mathematics and medicine. She was an extraordinarilyintelligent women known for her contributions in these fields. In astronomy, she is credited withthe description of the movement of equinoxes and wrote various articles disputing common beliefsthat she proved to be inaccurate (3).Born into a family of academics in 1768, Wang Zhenyi learnt basic mathematics, medicine,geography, astronomy and poetry from her three family members; her grandmother, grandfather,and father. Her passion and aptitude for astronomy came from her grandfather who owned manybooks on the subject that Zhenyi was keen on reading (3). At age 16, Zhenyi began to studyadvanced mathematics and astronomy by herself, associating and developing her ideas with otherfemale scholars (5).Zhenyi has written at least 12 books, mostly on mathematics, but with a few on astronomy (6).Her astronomical works include ”Dispute of the Procession of the Equinoxes, explaining the move-ment of equinoxes and disputing previous ideas,Dispute of Longitude and Stars, which commentson the number of stars and the revolving direction of the sun, moon and the planets, and The Explanation of a Lunar Eclipse, analysing the movement of the moon and describing eclipses. Herideas in these papers were extraordinary and allowed her to correctly demonstrate the occurrenceof a lunar eclipse which at the time was thought to have been caused by the gods.
In one famous exhibit, Zhenyi used a lamp to represent the sun, a mirror to represent the moon, and a table forthe earth (5), (6). Using this set-up, she was able to accurately simulate a lunar eclipse, somethingthat awed even the highest-level astronomers (5), (6).Wang Zhenyi became a famous teacher, despite being self-taught. She even taught male stu-dents, something unheard of for a woman of her time (6). Zhenyi inspired many further generationsof Chinese women to pursue this discipline, being a huge inspiration for some of her pupils. De-spite only living to 29, Zhenyi allowed many to see what a woman could achieve in this primarilymale-dominated field, and in a society of female oppression. To this day, she is credited with someof the most amazing ideas in astronomy.4 Henrietta Swan LeavittHenrietta Swan Leavitt was a female computer at the University of Harvard, where women werepayed less than men and were not allowed to operate any of the University’s telescopes (7). Leavittwas tasked with analysing data from Cephid variable stars, observing that in general, brighterstars had longer periods of variability in brightness. This allowed her to determine the distancesof these stars and create a 3 dimensional map of the universe (7). Her observations, however, wereoverlooked and she never received the true credit that her work deserved (3).Leavitt attended a college for women in the United States and followed an interest in astronomydeveloped there in her senior year. She became a volunteer assistant at Harvard University andseven years later was offered permanent employment in the observatory’s project to determine thebrightness of stars (8). Initially she was a computer, cataloguing variable stars and analysing data(7), (8).From her analysis, Leavitt found that brighter variable stars generally had longer periods offluctuation. Her curiosity pushed her to take a deeper look into the data, and she studied a sampleof variable stars that were all in roughly the same location (7). From these observations that wereapproximately the same distance from earth, she could determine that the stars with a longerperiod had a greater absolute magnitude. This allowed her to form a three dimensional map of thesky as she was able to determine the relative distances to variable stars based on their period andapparent brightness (7). She then remarked that one would only need to calculate the distance toone close variable star using the parallax method to essentially calibrate the system and turn herpicture of “near or far” into a complete map with marked distances (7).
Throughout her time at the Harvard Observatory, Henrietta Leavitt had completely determinedmagnitudes for stars in 108 areas of the sky. She also discovered 4 novas and approximately 2400variables stars, more than half of those known at the time (8). Her system remained in general use in Astronomyfor many years, even being used by Edwin Hubble to determine the distance to the great nebulain Andromeda, the first distance measurement for a galaxy. Improved technology was eventuallyinvented which was able to determine stellar distances with greater accuracy (8). However, Leavitt’swork was crucial in our understanding of the universe at the time.Leavitt was a revolutionary, yet underrated figure of female astronomy. Her work allowed usto begin to study the sky in three dimensions and develop a deeper understanding of the universe.Although she never got acknowledgement for her extraordinary achievements at the time, Leavitt’sideas are gaining recognition by modern astronomers who understand the crucial role that her workplayed in our modern understanding of the night sky. Because of this, she is one of the most famousfemale astronomers, and she continues to be an inspiration to those young aspiring astronomerstoday.
The Current Situation for Female AstronomersIt is clear that the number of women pursuing a career in astronomy is severely lacking, as withmost other scientific fields. This is generally attributed to the male-dominated society of the past,where it was practically unheard of for women to pursue a scientific career, let alone undertake anystudy at university. Men were believed to be superior and much more intelligent in scientific fields,a bias still held by many to this day. Recently, the high-school stereotypical misconception thatonly ’nerdy, unpopular girls’ undertake study in scientific fields has also significantly contributedto the gender gap. Girls face these stereotypes when making decisions on their subject choices atschool and feel pressured to push away from those scientific subjects they may find interesting,towards the generally feminine subjects, such as English or art.These gender biases are declining in modern times, however research shows that beliefs aboutnegative stereotypes continue to subconsciously influence assumptions about people and behavior.I believe that in the future, the number of female astronomers will increase. However, this willtake time as we as a society digress further from the gender stereotypes, and women feel moreaccepted as part of the scientific community. It is thanks to the female astronomers mentionedabove and the many more that continue to inspire young women to pursue astronomy, that wehave come so far in terms of equality.
In the last 20 years, the number of women in the IAU inAustralia has doubled (1), however, we still have far to go to achieve equal status in the field. Tosupport women pursuing careers in science, we can teach students, both male and female, aboutstereotype threat, encourage high-school girls to take science subjects, actively recruit women intoscientific degrees, and spread the word about how women have changed the world. The Universityof Adelaide Women in STEM group is an example of a way that women are banding together andencouraging more females to take up the scientific subjects that they love
Mars Reconnaissance Orbital (MRO) is a Spaceship that was designed to perform a diver’s functions in the course of its revolution around Mars. Some of the duties it was meant to perform were: observation, investigation, and exploration of the planet Mars while orbiting. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbital is prided to be the most equipped Spaceship found within Mars. The Planetary Society stated that,
“The initial design of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter comprised of an extensive camera with a characteristic feature of high resolution necessary for clear Martian pictures. It is upon this feature of high-resolution cameras that, Jim Garvin, the Mars exploration program scientist for NASA, dubbed the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter to be a ‘microscope in orbit’. Visible – near-infrared spectrograph was still to be incorporated within the components of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter” (The Planetary Society 1).
The desire to identify the most suitable location for landing for future explorations on Mars gave rise to the development of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which was scheduled to offer a two-year service. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was equipped with meteorological devices, aimed at collecting climate data, and identifying the possible presence of water on Mars. According to science daily,
“The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter served a very crucial purpose in determining the landing site of the Phoenix Lander, whose area of interest/study was the Martian Arctic in Green Valley. Covered with boulders, the original site selected by scientists as photographed by the HiRISE camera, was abandoned for the more preferable THEMIS. Yet still, it is projected that the landing site for Mars Science Laboratory which is a rover of great dynamic potential, would be established shortly via the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter” (Science Daily 1).
After the successful launch of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, on the 29th Sep 2009, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter recorded its first success of taking images of very high resolutions, which it was believed helped in the determination of very small elements of about three feet in size. Detailed pictures of the Victoria Crater from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter were on the 6th Oct 2006 displayed by NASA, and the following discoveries were made: the amount of ice water in the ice cap was measured, ice was discovered in new craters that were exposed, and ice was also found in Lobate debris aprons, some amount of chloride deposits, presence of aqueous minerals, avalanches, and other space crafts. Some challenges were encountered with two of the devices mounted on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in November. This was revealed through changes that were not expected in the Mar Climate Sounder, making it impossible to see some creatures from outer space. The second difficulty that was experienced was a sharp and sensitive noise, resulting in poor quality images of the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE). The HiRISE consistently has made available images that have enhanced outer space discoveries. As recorded in the Mars Stathopoulos that,
“The most striking of them being the proclamation of banded terrain features which led many scientists hypothesize that within the immediate geological history of Mars there may have been liquid carbon (IV) oxide or water on the surface of ” (Mars Stathopoulos 1).
The HiRISE installed in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has shown over time that, it is of great importance in the observation of movements round the orbit.
Works Cited
Science Daily. “NASA’s prolific mars reconnaissance orbiter reaches five year mark”. 2011. Web.
Over the last one decade, several space agencies have had several missions, which form a core part of the Mars Exploration Program (MEP). Prior to the launching of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, several spacecrafts were already operating in the planet under the MEP.
The Mars Odyssey was launched in early April 2001 and arrived at its destination in late October 2001. It was designed to aid in the determination of the planet’s surface besides detecting the presence of water and ice in the planet (Mustard et al. 305). Additionally, it is capable of studying Mar’s radiation environment. The next mission was the Mars Express that was launched in June 2, 2003. The European Space Agency and the Italian Space agencies joined forces in the planning of the mission.
NASA also participated in the mission to enhance its success. It explores the surface of the planet and its atmosphere. The third mission involved the Mars Exploration Rovers, which landed on the planet on January 4, 2004. Its main goal is to search for evidence of the availability of liquid water in the planet. Following the Mars Exploration Rovers was the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO).
The MRO performs several tasks in gathering information that is essential in understanding both the past and the present features or rather nature of the planet. This paper explores the mission of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in relation to Mars Exploration Program, gives detailed information about how it is able to achieve its mission as well as the significance of its findings to the study of the planet.
The Mission of the MRO
The series of the missions under the MEP aim at providing scientific information, which is essential in the continual exploration of the planet. The MEP operates in accordance to the scientific objectives that were set by the World’s scientific community regarding the exploration of Mars.
The objectives include the search for past and/or present life on the planet, assess the presence and nature of the resources available in the planet for human exploration as well as understanding the climate and the history of the planet. The program also seeks to help scientists understand the geological processes of the planet and their role in shaping both the subsurface and surface of the planet. All the objectives of the program are based on the existence of water on the planet as well as the role it plays in life.
The National Aeronautics Space Agency (NASA) launched the MRO on August 12, 2005 and arrived at Mars on March 10, 2006. The MRO seeks to achieve four primary science goals, which are in line with the MEP’s overall mission of finding evidence about the existence of water in the planet.
The four goals include the determination of whether any living organism has ever existed on the planet, Characterization of the Martian Climate over a decade, Characterization of the geology of the planet as well as the provision of essential information for future preparation of human exploration of the planet.
To enhance the materialization of the four science goals, the MRO has its specific objectives. One of the objectives is to understand not only the past but also the present processes of climate change. The objective is achieved by observing the daily variations and the seasonal cycles of carbon dioxide, water and dust (Johnson et al. 10).
The scientists also need to elucidate all the factors that control the variable distribution of the three elements and distinguish the processes of oelian transport. This can be achieved by the characterization of the planet’s (Mars) global atmospheric circulation, surface changes and atmospheric structure as provided by the MRO.
The search for the evidence of aqueous and/or hydrothermal activity in Mars one of the scientific objectives of the MRO mission. To enhance the materialization of this objective, the MRO plays the role of investigating local areas in search of compositional evidence of such phenomenon (Johnson et al. 10).
The main indicator, in this case, is the presence of surface materials that have the ability to preserve biogenic materials or rather materials that exhibit some form of biological activity. In the detailed search for aqueous activity, the MRO will not only need to observe but also quantify the geomorphology of key areas on the surface of the planet that indicate the presence and persistence of water in liquid water.
The MRO is expected to probe the horizontal and the vertical structures of the planet’s upper superficial layer and its potential reservoirs of the two main forms of war in the planet-water and ice.
The MRO plays several roles in unveiling the geosciences of Mars. It enhances a better understanding of the nature and evolution of the various types of Martian terrain. The MRO maps and characterizes the composition, geomorphology and the stratigraphy of the surface and the subsurface of the planet in different global locales (Johnson et al. 10).
It also provides data about the gravity of the Martian crust, lithosphere and the atmospheric mass variation. By so doing, the MRO plays a pivotal role of characterizing the Martian gravity field. Finally, it aids the relay of scientific data from the Mars-landed satellites to earth during a relay phase
The specific instruments/features aboard the MRO
The MRO has several science instruments that operate differently with their findings geared towards achieving the goals of the satellite. One of the science instruments is the Mars Colour Imager (MARCI). It produces daily global maps of weather on the planet. However, its primary role is to find traces of water in the planet by tracking the ozone, which acts as a proxy for water vapor. The photochemical processes that occur in the planet increase the anti-correlation of water with the spatial distribution of ozone.
The phenomenon enhances the device’s ability to track the ozone. It is also capable of detecting changes in surface properties, which include the local, regional and global redistribution of dust around the planet. MARCI derives its potential to carry out its functions from its main components-two framing cameras. The first camera has two spectral bands in the ultraviolet. The second camera has five spectral brands in the visible (Zurek, and Smrekar 3).
It plays a complimentary role to the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). MARCI is expected to provide weather updates of Mars for a decade on a daily basis thus giving the climate of the planet. Besides providing a decade-long climate record, its maps also assist in not only the entry but also the landing of the NASA’s Lander missions such as the installation of the Mars Science Laboratory.
Research has shown that the data produced by the MARCI is also essential in alerting the other MRO instruments to ‘atmospheric seeing conditions’ (Zurek, and Smrekar 5). MARCI has played a pivotal role in the expansion of scientists’ ‘climatological’ records of Mars’ atmospheric processes, their variation as well as their inter-annual variability.
The Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) also plays a pivotal role in the overall functionality of the MRO. It provides atmospheric profiles of water vapor distribution, temperature and dust. It does so through the application of remote sensing measurements at thermal infrared wavelengths.
The measurements are essential in the measurement of the specific underlying mechanisms that cause the planet’s seasonal changes as well as their annual and inter-annual variability. It also monitors the appearance of frost in the Martian atmosphere that enables scientists to closely study the climate changes over different periods.
The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer (CRISM) is also an important component of the MRO (Ball and Aerospace Technologies Corp 12). It comprises of a well-calibrated instrument that has a high precision, high sensitivity and cooled detectors.
The main function of the CRISM is to provide both the NASA and the European Space Agency, among other space agencies, with compositional evidence of the presence of water on Mars. It has the capability to detect water in aqueous form, which acts as the basis of all its findings.
Additionally, its ability to unveil the surface composition of water can be attributed to its ability to provide the data required to remove all atmospheric interferences such as features from the sun that are reflected by not only the Martian atmosphere but the planet’s surface as well. With a combination of the compositional data provided by the device and geomorphologic data, scientists have been able to learn more about the history of the Planet’s climate.
The High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) provides images of the planet. It has a high-resolution camera. It is the largest and the highest-resolution camera that has ever been sent beyond the Earth’s orbit (Mitchell 8). Its components enable it to not only produce black and white images but also color images. Additionally, it is able to produce hundreds of stereo-image pairs and three-dimensional digital elevation models.
During the MRO mission, Ball Aerospace and technologies Corporation expect the camera to process a thousand extremely large high-resolution images. For the smaller high-resolution images, the camera will produce nine times the amount of the large high-resolution ones. Research has shown that “it would take 1,200 typical computer screens to display just one large image at full resolution” (Ball and Aerospace Technologies Corp 12).
The context imager (CTI) works simultaneously with the HiRISE. It produces medium resolution images of the planet. Unlike the high resolution HiRISE that has a limited coverage on the planet at any given time; CTI covers a large fraction of the planet. This enables the scientists to gather a variety of medium resolution images that they interpret with respect to the images produced by HiRISE. CTX has been able to provide data about the relationships between different surface features.
Such information is essential in the provision of new insights into local, regional as well as global features of the Martian atmosphere and climate (Zurek, and Smrekar 7).
Installed in the MRO is the Shallow Radar (SHARAD). Its purpose is to unveil more properties of the planets subsurface. The previous missions to Mars had detected several features in the subsurface. Some of the features include buried craters, which have some ice deposits. They had also detected layers of ice on the northern plains or rather the North Pole. Similar features were also detected in the South Pole. The instruments that scientists had previously used to do these detections were installed in Mars Odyssey.
The SHARAD has a significantly higher vertical resolution power than the Mars Odyssey instruments. Unlike the Odyssey facilities, the SHARAD is able to penetrate the planet’s subsurface to a depth of half a kilometer. Through its ability to probe many meters into the surface, the SHARAD will be able to provide information that will assist scientists in defining the relationship between the ice found on the planet’s subsurface and other features.
Scientists will be able to tell whether the ice is merely at an atmospheric equilibrium at any given time of the planet or whether it is at the top of a deeper permafrost regime or a deeper cryosphere. The information is also important in testing various models of the patterns of climate change associated with changes in orbital eccentricity or rather phasing. The information further intensifies the study of the Martian regolith.
MRO’s support to other MEP missions/spacecrafts
Orbiter relay is one of the support mission objectives. It revolves around the value of telecommunications’ support by orbiting spacecraft. This occurs through the relay of a series of commands from the control system on earth to the landed spacecraft on the planet. It also incorporates the downlink of scientific data/information from the landed spacecrafts (on Mars) to earth (Dunbar 3).
One of the systems that has been able to relay such information is the 2001 Mars Odyssey (ODY) which supports the Mars Exploration Rovers. To ensure that this support objective is achieved, the MRO flies a UHF antenna and a radio relay package (Electra). They were able to support the Mass Science Laboratory in 2010 and the Phoenix Lander in 2008.
The MRO also helps in site characterization that is accomplished by the scientific instruments. The instruments provide information that enhances the identification of sites on Mars for future exploration. The two properties that aid in the identification of such sites are the freedom from hazards and the area’s potential for further scientific study in the planet.
One of the initial priorities as far as site characterization is concerned was the observation of the prime candidate landing sites for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) and Phoenix.
The MRO flies two demonstration technologies namely the Ka-Band operations and the Optical Navigation Camera to accomplish its technology demonstration goals.
The two operations are carried out on non-interference basis with the principal mission science. The Optical Navigation Camera provides precise navigation information by imaging the moons of the Mars on approach (Mustard 308). The information is fundamental in guiding spacecrafts to a highly direct entry into the Martian atmosphere. Consequently, it reduces the landed error eclipse.
The Ka-band function of the MRO characterizes the utility of Ka-band frequencies for the purpose of routine data return via the earth’s atmosphere. Unlike all the nominal X-band packages that NASA employed in its previous missions to Mars, the Ka-band has the ability to transmit data at a very high rate using less power and with a greater bandwidth.
The contribution of the MRO in understanding Mars
There have been several missions to Mars. All the missions are geared towards providing information that is essential in understanding the nature of the planet. The MRO has been able to identify and characterize the water found in the planet. With the help of the HiRISE aboard the MRO, scientists have been able to identify five craters in the planet that are 1.5-8 feet deep. Inside the craters are several white bright blotches. Scientists identified the blotches as ice due to the capability of the HiRISE to provide clear high-resolution images.
Further monitoring of the bright blotches led to the realization that the water that exists in Mars is in pure form, i.e. it did not contain any extraneous materials such as duct (The New York Times 7). After a few months, the bright blotches in the crater disappeared. A close observation of the rate at which the blotches, previously identified as ice, disappeared with the help of computer simulations, scientists concluded that the water was in pure form.
The MRO has also enabled scientists to find the position of certain features of the planet relative to the Equator. Contrary to prior information provided by other spacecrafts in the planet, scientists have evidence to prove that the ice in the mid-latitudes was very close to the Equator. Additionally, they have been able to conclude that in the past high humidity was one of the key characteristics of the Martian climate (The New York Times 12).
The MRO has helped in the identification of landing sites for other spacecrafts on Mars among which is the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL). The MSL landed in Mars early last month. The core business of the MSL is to find whether the planet has the capability of supporting life with specific interest on the life of microbes or rather microorganisms.
Therefore, its main mission is to determine the inhabitability of the planet, which is of much value as far as the Mars Exploration Program is concerned. Other than the landing of the MSL on the planet, the MRO continues to provide more information essential in identifying sites for the landing of future spacecrafts on the planet.
Conclusion
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is one of the most advanced spacecrafts in the Mars Exploration Program. It has a set of scientific instruments that has enabled it to provide different types of information to scientists. As aforementioned, the MRO has four main goals. The MRO is involved in the identification and characterization of sites that have experienced hydrothermal/ aqueous activity on the surface of the planet. It seeks to identify safe sites for the landing of future Mars Missions.
It also provides information that enables scientists to understand the Martian atmosphere and climate. Furthermore, it plays a supportive role in enhancing the relay of information from spacecrafts landed in Mars to Earth for scientific analysis. It has also enabled the landing of other spacecrafts in Mars, e.g. the Mars Science Laboratory that has the role of finding the ability of the planet to support life.
The MRO thus acts as a multidisciplinary gadget that enables space agencies such as the NASA, ESA, and ISA establish scientific information about Mars. From the above discussion, it is evident that the roles of the MRO can be divided into three main categories: global mapping, high-resolution targeting of specific spots on the surface of the planet as well as regional surveying.
Works Cited
Ball and Aerospace Technologies Corp. “Ball Aerospace High Resolution Camera to Launch on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.” 2010. Web.
Mustard, John et al. “Hydrated Silicate Minerals on Mars Observed by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter CRISM Instrument.” Nature, 454 (2008): 305-309. Web.
Zurek, Richard, and Suzanne Smrekar. “An Overview of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Mission.” Journal of Geophysical Research 112. 5 (2006). Web.
Mars is one of the planets that make up the solar system. It is the fourth planet from the sun and borrows its name from the teachings of Roman mythology. Pritchard posits, “Its name denotes a Roman deity associated with war and conflicts” (1). The association of planet Mars with a Roman deity denotes the significance of the planet among residents of Earth. Planet Mars is at times referred to as the red planet due to the Iron Oxide ring, which makes it appear red when observed from a distance.
Pritchard alleges, “Mars is a sublunary planet with various features that have similarity to those on the surface of Earth” (3). Its surface has features like volcanoes and craters, majority of which are recurrent and common phenomena on Earth’s surface. One of the features that distinguish planet Mars from other planets is Olympus Mons (a supercilious mountainous element in the solar system).
Besides, the planet has “Valles Marineris, which is among the most expensive canyons within the solar system” (Pritchard 13). The bigger portion of the planet is covered with Borealis Basin that is one of the remarkable features on the surface of Mars. Additionally, the planet has Deimos and Phobos, which are nebulous and miniature moon features. The two features resemble Trojans and asteroids (Barlow 24).
There were conjectures and suppositions that there is water on the surface of planet Mars prior to its exploration. Telescopic observation revealed the presence of dark and light patches on the plane of the planet leading to scientists claiming that the lesions comprised of water. Nonetheless, further observations proved that many of these patches were imaginary and illusion (Mallama 52-55).
Geological experts and independent researchers allege that expansive and enormous water bodies once occupied the planet (Kipp 24). In 2005, “observations depicted a huge presence of icy water bodies at the polar extremities of the planet. Subsequent studies in 2008 showed high presence of water in samples of soil from the surface of the planet” (Kipp 28).
Mars is small relative to planet Earth. Hence, the planet does not have significant gravitational influence on Earth. Despite the size of the planet and its distance from the Earth, Mars is said to cause, “Martian water tides on the earth, which is small relative to the lunar tides caused by the moon” (Crossley 15).
However, some scientists assert that the Martian tides are too small to detect. Scientific exploration of Mars is having significant influence on cultural beliefs of varied societies. “The cult of Nergal associated the planet with the war-god Nergal, Prior to its exploration” (Cochrane 35). The cult used to give sacrifices to the war-god to appease him. However, exploration of Mars is making the cult to change its perceptions about the planet. The cult no longer associates the planet with bad omen.
Since scientists learnt about the planet, it has had significant influence on planet Earth. Planet Mars has led to increase in exploration activities. Ever since the scientists learnt that there were traces of water on the surface of Mars, they initiated numerous explorations aimed at determining if the planet can support life (Moore 17-25).
Scientists are currently in the process of determining the factors that contributed to climatic changes in the planet. Presently, there is a spacecraft on the surface of Mars, which helps scientists to study the geological structure and climate of the planet. Many scientists believe that there are possibilities of future life in Mars. At the moment, efforts are underway to see if living organisms can survive on planet Mars with many people hoping that they will once live in Mars.
Scientists believe that Mars offers a solution to current energy problems experienced on Earth. Hence, they currently working on base building modalities to help in exploitation of the Martian raw materials, which they believe may be useful on Earth (Lewis and Lewis 115). Scientists believe that one day they will establish a novel branch of human civilization on planet Mars.
This study aimed at gathering all relevant information about planet Mars. There are volumes of scholarly and scientific literature that touches on the solar system. Majority of the literature touches on individual planets, their features, as well as their contribution to the solar system. Nonetheless, not all information about the planets was relevant for this research. Hence, to come up with relevant and adequate information about the planet we had to distribute work among the group members. We divided the members into three groups.
The first group was to analyze all scholarly articles that touch on the physical features found on the surface of Mars. The second group focused on telescopic images that show the surface of the planet, while the third group searched for scientific documents that account for past and present explorations. The members were to analyze their materials and select only those that offer relevant information. This article was compiled from materials that the different groups collected.
When gathering information, group members had to sift through and critique numerous materials to determine their credibility in actualizing this exercise. Because of the nature of this study, members were required to exercise caution and demonstrate a high level of professionalism when evaluating the available academic materials.
The members focused mainly on peer reviewed articles and books to enhance credibility of this study. A study ought to bear resonance with respect to stance and quality for it to be valuable. Hence, the members had to select research materials based on their value and quality.
Compiling a quantitative and/or a qualitative research paper calls for precision with regard to selection of relevant academic resources. This was a principal problem for this group since the majority of the available scholarly resources did not meet the academic research threshold. Many of the academic materials contained general information about the solar system and the planets. On the other hand, some of the scientific materials were too complex and beyond the scope of this study.
Therefore, the group had to avoid such materials since it did not want the research to appear neither too general nor complex. To avert such pitfalls, the group focused on books and peer reviewed articles, which contained reliable academic information. Failure to sift through the existing academic resources would have made the group come up with a research paper, which is either too shallow or too complex.
Majority of the online resources are not peer reviewed and they only express the opinion of the writer. Consequently, the group decided not to use online materials to compile the research paper as it was hard to identify online resources, which are peer reviewed. Besides, the group decided to do away with audio visual recordings that document contemporary scientific explorations.
The reason behind this decision was that video recordings are too complex and it requires time to acquire and analyze them. The group decided to use publications that depict telescopic images of the surface of Mars to help members to understand and explain some of the physical features that exist on the planet.
Besides, to understand the influence of Mars on Earth, the group searched for books and peer reviewed articles that explain the ongoing explorations and their significance to planet Earth. We did away with online articles like Wikipedia since they are not detailed. At times, one may get crucial information from Wikipedia. However, in many cases the information is shallow and inadequate (Brophy and Bawden 500-509). Hence, the group decided not to use Wikipedia for quality purposes.
Group members used a number of questions to evaluate and select academic materials. Among the questions that helped in the selection of academic resources included the following.
Does the material meet the set academic threshold? What is the credibility and professional inclination of the academic resource? Does the material bear reliable academic information or it is too general? Is the material peer reviewed? Are the telescopic images resolute or they are hard to elucidate? These questions guided the group in selecting the academic materials to use in compiling the study.
The exercise did not go without encountering challenges. At some point, group members could not agree on some of the academic materials to use. While some felt that the materials were good for the study, others claimed that they were either too general or too complex.
In such cases, the group selected two members to analyze the contested materials in line with the research objectives as other members went on looking for other resources. Later, the group adopted the decision made by the two members. This approach helped in time management and selection of quality academic materials.
Besides, none of the group members had research experience. Hence, to accomplish the study, we copied methodologies of similar researches. We had to look for a study that somewhat resembled this research and adopt its methodology. However, this approach did not go without some technical hitches, especially in areas where the methodology drifted from the study. In such cases, members were forced to use intuition and critical thinking to identify the appropriate course to take to spearhead the study.
Another major problem that affected the study was the lack of access to requisite academic resources. The school library did not have adequate materials for the study. In addition, we did not have access to published information that concerns scientific and geological explorations.
This contributed to slow compilation of the study. To address the problem, the group liaised with a local public library, which agreed to help with the publications it required to complete the study. Moreover, the group contributed money to cater for online research. Three members had to visit a cyber café and look for more information from online journals and other scholarly materials. The group managed to address the problem of inadequate academic resources through the help of the local public library and online academic resources.
The success of this study depended on finding reliable and detailed academic resources. One of the mistakes that students do is to depend on resources like Wikipedia, which are not detailed. Such resources weaken the findings of the research making it hard for researchers to defend their thesis.
To get detailed and reliable academic materials, the group depended on library. Majority of the scholarly and peer reviewed materials used for the study were obtained from a local public library. Besides, the group used the internet, which hosts numerous reliable scholarly and peer reviewed journals.
Works Cited
Barlow, Nadine. Mars: an introduction to its interior, surface and atmosphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print.
Brophy, Jan and David Bawden. “Is Google enough? Comparison of an internet search engine with academic library resources.” Aslib Proceedings 57.6 (2005): 498 – 512. Print.
Cochrane, Ev. Martian Metamorphoses: The Planet Mars in Ancient Myth and Religion. New York: Society for Interdisciplinary Studies, 1997. Print.
Crossley, Robert. Mars: A History of Scientific Evidence. London: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
Kipp, Steven. Mars. New York: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.
Lewis, John and Ruth Lewis. Space Resources: Breaking the Bonds of Earth. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. Print.
The acceptable reality for now is that no research has managed to conclusively show or document that there is life or no life in Mars. This research paper is of the opinion that the argument about life or lack of it in Mars should seize, until such a time when conclusive evidence to support arguments on either side will be attained. Until then, researchers need to do the hard work of verifying or refuting existing theories and counterchecking any new evidence that could be contained in the Martian meteorites
Is there evidence of life on Martian meteorites?
According to Buseck et al, Nanocrystals of Magnetite(Fe3O4) compounds in meteorites found from mars are the strongest, yet the most controversial indicators that there is extraterrestrial life in Mars(13490). The allegation attached to the Fe3O4 is that they resemble crystals found in Meteorite ALH84001, which are formed by specific terrestrial bacteria. The ALH84001 was found in the Antarctica and later recognized as meteorite whose origin was Mars(Mckay et al 924).
McKay Et al authored startling report based on chemical and structural features of ALH84001 (295).The report indicates that there was indeed life in mars. McKay Et al based their arguments on four chemical and structural features of the meteorite and although they admitted that the individual features could not prove their allegation, they sought to convince the general public as well as scientists that the four features taken collectively were evidence enough that there was indeed life in Mars(Friedmann et al 562).
The first basis for their conclusion was the “igneous Mars Rock”. According to their report, the rock was of unidentified geologic context and had pores and fractured spaces that were permeated by a fluid. Their second reason was that the igneous rock was older than the carbon globules found there in. The third reason was that the TEM and SEM images captured of the carbon globules had features that resemble microfossils, terrestrial-biogenic-carbonate structures, and terrestrial micro organisms.
Fourth, the Fe-sulfide and magnetite particles indicated that the oxidation and other reductions reaction had occurred on the compound, thus indicating the presence of microbial systems and finally, there were Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)on the compound thus indicating that its original surface(Mars)had carbonate globules(McKay et al 930).
Buseck et al, notes that although the McKay et al theory has been criticized and largely questioned, no one scientist or researcher has been able to disapprove it(13490).The report starts by acknowledging the fact that the 1975 Viking lander experiments managed to negate the possibility that there was life on Mars.
However, the report states that the conclusion from the tests cannot be meant to conclude that there was absolutely no life in Mars. This was especially because the Viking experiments were too localized to offer a conclusive report regarding life or lack of it in Mars(McKay et al 924).
The deduction by McKay Et al that meteorite ALH84001 has enough evidence regarding life in Mars has been criticized by many scientists with Thomas-Keprta et al(2164) saying that the evidence offered was based on “presumptive bio-signatures”. In their own research, Thomas-Keprta et al classified Fe3O4 crystals and identified them to be similar to the intracellular magnetite released by MV-1(a magnetotactic bacteria-strain).
In the research, Thomas Keprta et al states that the magnetite populations are chemically pure and from a single-domain(2164). They also observe a “unique” crystal habit, which they define as truncated hexaoctahedral(2164). They argue that since there are no known reports which could explain the truncated hexaoctahedral observations, the presence of the MV-1 strain of bacteria was most likely as a result of Natural selection rather than organic activity.
They however argue that the only possibility where the magnetite crystals could be used to indicate that there is life in Mars, is if there are “unexplained inorganic processes on Mars that are absent on Earth and hence forms the truncated hexa-octahedral magnetite” (2165). Overall, Thomas-Keprta et al manages to support rather disapprove the McKay et al deduction that the ALH84001 is an indicator that there is life in Mars.
Their argument does not however go unchallenged. Buseck at al, states that the “Truncated hexa-octahedral” crystals they refer to are not as unique as they make people to believe (13494).Buseck et al argues that the term means that the crystals of ALH84001 have a combination of octahedron, dodecahedron and cube faces. These according to them had been observed in other meteorites and hence were not a unique aspect at all.
Buseck et al(13490) criticizes both studies done by Mckay Et al(929)and Thomas-Keprta et al(2165) saying that the two arguments are flawed. He claims that without the micro structural or chemical evidence to back the allegation that the features in the ALH84001 are indeed magnetite crystals, then any evidence produced thereafter is inadmissible.
He further argues that magnototactic bacteria are ever-present on the Earth, despite the fact that intact chains of the nano-sized magnetite crystals from such bacteria are hard to find in earthly geological samples.
As such the intact chains as found by McKay et al(925)would be hard to find because it would be unlikely that they would survive biological processes. Friedman et al acknowledges that it is quite difficult to understand how the magnetite chains hypothesized by McKay et al survived in their intact form(2176).This only serves to cast further doubt on the allegation of McKay et al and subsequent research conducted and documented by other authors like Friedman et al and Thomas-Keprta Et al(2164-2169).
Golden et al neither refute nor support the allegation by McKay et al(370-375).They however proved that just as much as the formation of carbonates, sulfides and magnetite on ALH84001 could be attained in temperatures that support life, the same can be formed inorganically. Golden et al through a combination of precipitation and heating processes developed simple inorganic process, which they claim can offer an alternative explanation to the carbonate, Fe-sulfide and magnetite found in the meteorite ALH84001(370).
The acceptable reality for now is that no research has managed to conclusively show or document that there is life or no life in Mars. This research paper is of the opinion that the argument about life or lack of it in Mars should seize, until such a time when conclusive evidence to support arguments on either side will be attained. Until then, researchers need to do the hard work of verifying or refuting existing theories and counterchecking any new evidence that could be contained in the Martian meteorites.
Discussion
By2007, there were 12 meteorites that had been studied or still were being studied for ingredients that would suggest life on Mars. The meteorites were thought to have originated from Mars due to their unique(often peculiar) chemistry (Kimball 1). Of all the 12, the ALH84001 has been the single most meteorites subjected to extensive study.
The three most cited ingredients in the ALH84001 that suggest that there could be indeed life processes in Mars are the presence of PAHs. However, scientists note that PAHs are not unique to meteorites from Mars only. According to Kimball, meteorites from other places in the solar systems are known to have PAHs too even though it has been established that there are no traces of life there(1).
The mineral within the meteorite(magnetite, carbon and Fe-sulfide)is the other indicator that some scientists use to suggest the presence of life activities in Mars. However, as seen above, some researchers have proven that it is quite possible to generate the minerals without biological processes.
The time that the minerals were deposited in the meteorite is also suspect because as Kimball(1)indicates, the minerals seems to have been deposited in the specific rock later in its history, which raises the question, is it possible that the rock picked the minerals on earth rather from its origin? Stephan et al notes that the rock had fusion crusts, and mineralogical and well as chemical differences(113).
These differences could have led to the contamination of the inner rock through the cracks, which could have happened during handling or in the Antarctic environment before the rock was discovered.
An answer to this question is provided by Stephan et al, who after a study concluded that it was highly unlikely that the PAHs in the ALH84001 had an extraterrestrial origin(113). The study further provided evidence that the meteorite was contaminated by lead, which is evidently a terrestrial material. Studies by Golden et al also allude that ALH84001 continues to be contaminated with terrestrial microbial materials hence suggesting that ‘maybe’ the PAHs had been picked in its Antarctica location (374).
The third reason that some researchers like McKay et al (924) and Thomas-Keprta et al(2164)suggests indicates some signs of life are the objects that resemble fossils in tiny micro-organisms when observed under a microscope.
This argument is however discredited by Kimball, who argues that the fact that the largest of the “nano-fossils” got from the rock had a diameter of 100 nanometers, is evidence enough that it does not have the necessary volume to support life(1).The Smallest microorganism on earth is the Mycloplasmas and has 300 nanometer diameter. Scientists indicate that a micro-organism would need at least a 200 nanometer diameter in order to support life (Kimball 1).
In addition to the ALH 84001 meteorite, other meteorites of Martian origin include “Shergotty, Nkakhla and Chassigny”. Nakhla was the first meteorite of Martian origin to be found on earth(Glavin et al 8835), and just like the LAH84001, the meteorite contained carbonates and some hydrous minerals. Research on Nakhla indicated that the rock had been exposed to some aqueous solutions after its formation, and this was the first indication that researchers need to conclude that in deed there were aqueous processes on Mars.
The length of time that such processes persisted however remains a pertinent question to this day. As opposed to ALH84001 meteorite which had an estimated terrestrial age of almost 13,000 years, the Nakhla meteorite fell on 9 am 40 kilometers to the East of Alexandria in Egypt in 1911. The fall was observed and most of the specimen rocks were collected within days of the fall (Glavin 8834).
On observation, Nakhla was found to contain d-amino acids, which were not present in the ALH84001 meteorite. According to Glavin et al, the d-amino acids were not extraterrestrial in nature and had been deposited into the rock when it hit the ground in the Nile region (8836).
This conclusion was reached because in addition to finding similar d-amino- acids around the Nile soil, the amino acids would have been racemic if they were formed on Mars(Glavin 8836). The D/L ratios, which could have determined the amino-acids of Martian origin in the rock, were not possible due to the low concentration of the same.
Another meteorite EETA79001 was found to contain l-enantiomers components of amino-acids (Mcdonald & Bada 1179).Such are common in proteins and thus indicated that this rock too had been exposed to terrestrial contaminants, specifically from the Antarctic ice where the meteorite had been collected.
Is (was) there life in Mars?
According to Glavin & Bada, life in Mars just like on earth would be possible in the presence of water and “a continuous supply of pre-biotic organic compounds”(1022). The exogenous delivery of meteorites on earth from Mars has given researchers and scientists the chance to determine if indeed there was or there is life in Mar. Unfortunately this is not always possible due to the exposure of the meteorites to different substances as they fall to earth and on impact with the earth.
Other attempts to identify whether there is life in Mars collectively known as the Viking Studies involved the placement of television cameras on Mars surface to detect any presence of life. This turned no results. Gas chromatograph and Mass spectrometer were also used for purposes of checking the Martian soil for organic molecules.
This too showed negative results. The labeled-release equipment was set up to check for catabolic activities by microorganisms that could be present in the Martian soil. Again, the result for this was negative. The Pyrolytic-release experiments turned negative too and had been set to capture any anabolism evidence that could be generated by microorganisms that would be in the Martian soil.
Finally, a gaseous exchange experiment was conducted on Mars but showed no biological evidence in gaseous formation. The Viking studies showed that there were no signs of life in Mars(at least not as we know it one earth). However, the meteorite evidence could be a possible answer to the question that has been nagging scientists for decades now.
Conclusion
Although there is a possibility that there is evidence contained in the Martian Meteorites that life was or still is in Mars, researchers face enormous challenges in proofing the same.
The single most challenge lies in avoiding the exposure of Martian meteorites to terrestrial environments. Right from Nakhla to ALH84001,it is evident that terrestrial environment is able to affect the rocks thus making it even harder to determine if the observations made on such are endogenous or simply as a result of the contamination from terrestrial environments.
Evidently, whether there is life on Mars or not is a subject that needs more research. Unfortunately, studies by (Buseck et al 13492; Golden et al 375)indicates that meteorites like ALH84001, Nakhla and EETA79001 show different components between different researches thus indicating that their exposure to the terrestrial environment is making them less valuable for research as the days go by.
As indicated in my thesis statement, researchers should concentrate on deciphering any evidence to either side, which can be deducted from the available meteorites.
Works Cited
Buseck, peter, Dunin-Borkowski, Rafal, Devouard, Bertrand, Frankell, Richard, McCartney, Martha & Midgley, Paul. “Magnetite Morphology and Life on Mars.” The Natural Academy on Sciences.98.24 (2001):13490-13495
Friedmann, Imre, Wlerzchos, Jacek, Ascaso, Carmen & Winklhofer, Michael. “Chains of Magnetite Crystals in the Meteorite LAH84001; Evidence of Biological Origin.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of Americ. 98.5 (2001):2178-2181.
Glavin, David, Bada, Jeffrey, Britnton, Karen & McDonald, Gene. “Amino Acids in the Martian Meteorite Nakhla” Geochim Cosmochim Acta 96.16(1999):8835-8838.
Glavin, David & Bada, Jeffery. “ Isolation of Purines and Pyrimidines from the Murchison Meteorite using Sublimation.”Lunar and Planetary Science Xxxv (2004):1022-1023.
Golden, David, Mind, Douglas, Schwandt, Craig, Lauer, Howard, Socki, Richard, Morris, Richard, et al. “A Simple Inorganic Process for Formation of Carbonates, Magnetite, and Sulfides in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.” American Mineralogist 86.1(2001):370-375.
Kimball, John. “Is(was) there life on Mars?” Aug. 2007.10 March 2010. Web.
McDonald Gene, Bada Jeffery. A Search for Endogenous Amino Acids in the Martian Meteorite EETA79001.Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 59.6 (1995):1179-1184.
McKay, David, Gibson, Everett, Thomas-Keprta, Kathie, Vali, Hojatollah, Romanek, Christopher, et al. “Search for past Life on Mars: Possible relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001.” Science 273.5277(1996):924-930.
Stephan, Thomas, Jessberger, Elmar, Heiss, Christian and Rost, Detlef. “TOF-SIMS Analysis Of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Allan Hills 84001.” Meteoritics & Planetary Science 38.1(2003):109-116.
Thomas-Keprta, Kathie, Clemett, Simon, Bazylinski, Dennis, Kirschvinki, Joseph, McKay, David, et al. “Truncated hexa-octahedral magnetite crystals in ALH84001: Presumptive Bio-Signatures” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98.5(2001):2164-2169.
Over the years, human beings have contemplated on the possibility of existence of life in Mars. It is important to question the conventional assumption of the requirement for a planet to have to life (Grinspoon 304).
In the history of mankind, people have told fictional stories about the Martians who had invaded the Earth at one time in history. Others have acted on movies to depict the presence of Martians, the people from Mars.
This has increased peoples’ anxiety of knowing whether there is any form of life on Mars. Scientists have now moved from fantasizing about life on Mars and are now investing through telescoping and planned landings on this planet on the presence of life signals on the existing rocks, soils and its atmosphere.
This essay endeavors to ague by scientific examples that there is no scientific evidence that indicate existence of life on Mars.
Comparison between Mars and Earth
Mars has several similarities to our planet Earth. It is also near the Earth in proximity. Astronomers have found that the length of a typical day in Mars is similar to that of the Earth. Scientists have also proven that Mars has seasons just like there are seasons on Earth.
The only difference is that seasons in Mars are a bit longer compared to those on Earth. The two planets tilt almost at a similar angle, hence these similarities. However, earlier speculations of the existence of water in form of seas and canals were dismissed as illusions of the eyes (Percival 23).
Absence of water therefore indicates that there cannot be any form of life in Mars. All living organisms require water to carry out metabolic activities hence no life can exist without water.
Similarly, theorization of the existence of water in form of seas and existence of land by William Whewell in 1954 did not hold any truth. Scientific analysis of Mars on spectroscopes demonstrated that the planet had neither water nor oxygen. These are elements essential for survival of a living thing.
The report by Mariner four that successfully flew by Mars in 1965 indicated that Mars was arid, did not have any rivers and therefore no life would exist there. The dryness of this planet would therefore desiccate any living organism that would try inhabiting it.
Absence of water was also affirmed by the indication that the atmospheric pressure of Mars is 0.6kPa. This means that no amount water that can exist there in form of liquid. Water is a necessity for any life to exist.
They also pointed out at the absence of magnetic fields whose presence in the globe protects living organisms from deadly rays, for example cosmic type of rays. Liquid water exists on earth because its atmospheric pressure is about 101.34kPa.
We can therefore infer that since multi-cellular organisms require presence of water to support their lives, then they cannot exist in Mars.
Research on presence of micro-organisms
Since earlier reports indicated that no multi-cellular organism could inhabit Mars, scientist turned to investigate whether unicellular organisms like bacteria would exist. The Viking report was set out to investigate Martian soils for any form of life.
However, the report did not give a conclusive testimony. Although the report indicated a likelihood of organisms that emitted carbon IV oxide in one of the samples, many scientists have rejected the idea that this gas was as a result of micro-organisms.
The gas has therefore been associated with chemical reactions of some elements in the soil samples. This further shows that scientists have not found any tangible evidence of the existence of micro-organisms in Mars.
Another report by Phoenix that used a spacecraft in the form of robot indicated that in Mars, soil contained perchlorate element. This element is unfriendly to any form of life. In addition, its potential for hydrogen ions could not support any micro-organism.
No evidence of past life in Mars
Could life have existed in Mars in ancient times? This is a question that many space scientists are still working on. Some reports like that of the Viking orbiters indicated that there were valleys on Mars that could have been as a result of rivers or water erosion (Bianciard 14).
However, scientists maintain that if there was any water, life could have existed and fossils would still remain to show evidence of past life in Mars.
Scientists have also collected about 34 meteorites from Mars. From these, three meteorites are said to have evidence that there was life on Mars in the past. Some microscopic features that resemble the fossils of bacteria have been observed.
However, scientists have drawn varying reports and conclusions after analysis of these meteorites. There is no clear empirical evidence today that indicate the presence bacteria fossils on those meteorites.
Researchers are still working on better methods of analyzing the meteorites for any evidence of life. However, most scientists argue that the three meteorites do not clearly depict presence of any bacteria fossils that would lead to inferences of presence of life in Mars.
Ancient Mars and liquid water
Another area of focus in search for life on Mars is the presence of liquid water in the ancient Mars. In 2004, scientists found a mineral called hematite in Mars. This mineral is said to be formed only when there is presence of water.
Since Mars has very low atmospheric pressure, liquid water cannot exist on the surface. The temperatures are also extremely low for water to exist inform of liquid. This would perhaps explain why scientists have not found liquid water on the surface of Mars.
Without liquid water, it is therefore not possible for any life to exist on the surface of Mars. But is there any likelihood of life existing under the surface of Mars since there has been evidence of the existence of subsurface water? In 2000, subsurface water was found annexed to Mars liquid core. This was in gullies of flood-like form (Heldmann 66).
To counter this evidence, in 2006 similar evidence of gullies was found on the surface of the moon. Since the moon is believed to have never had any liquid water, then a co-relation of the two can only be interpreted as impacts of micrometeorites activities. Therefore, presence of these gullies was not enough evidence to infer presence of water in Mars; it could be the impact of the similar meteorites.
In addition, reports from Mars Global Surveyor of 2006 indicated that water rarely flow on Mars surface. This means that there is no water existed on the surface of Mars.
Presence of Methane in Mars
There have been traces of methane in Mars. Since this gas cannot exist freely in the atmosphere, there must have been some sources necessary to maintain it in high levels. Researchers indicate that these gases were emitted by meteorites that were converted into methane as a result of exposure to ultraviolet rays (Moran 277).
However, there is no evidence of methanogenic micro-organisms in Mars. This therefore indicates that the methane gas found in Mars was not as a result of micro-organisms activities but as a result of meteorites that were exposed to ultraviolet rays.
Presence of geysers in Mars
Frosting occurs in the south parts of Mars in some seasons. As a result, some channels that are spider-like are formed. This later forms geysers that erupt cold fluids. Scientists have associated these geysers with micro-organism that are capable of carrying out photosynthesis. These micro-organisms are said to heat their surrounding ice during this process and dries up when ice melts.
This has been the foundations arguments by Hungarian scientist that there is life in Mars. However, the same scientist accepts that these geological effects and structures can occur even without the presence of life. This has watered down earlier arguments that there are micro-organisms in Mars.
Presence of cosmic rays in Mars
The presence of strong cosmic rays in Mars has also been at the centre of this debate. People have argued that since these rays would only penetrate to not more than seven-and- a half meters depth of the surface, then life is possible beyond this depth.
Cosmic rays are lethal and no life can survive in their presence. They destroy the ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the di-ribonucleic (DNA) acid compositions in any living organism hence killing it. This would therefore mean that there can neither be any form of life on Mars surface nor within its seven-and-a half depth from the surface.
Though this has widely gained acceptance, there is no scientific research that has been carried out to investigate whether there would be living organisms beyond this depth. However, absence of oxygen and water as argued earlier would still affect the survival of any life in that depth.
Conclusion
In conclusion, although many hypothesis, fictions and speculations have been formulated to suggest and justify the presence of life in Mars, there has been no empirical evidence to qualify the allegation. The multiple researches in form of telescopic researches and physical landings have not yet scientifically proven the presence of life on Mars.
Although scientist have tried testing whether life can be supported by Martian environment by growing lichens in a similar environment, no empirical evidence has been found. We can therefore argue through merit that there is no life on Mars (Baldwin 2012).
This can be proven by the fact that there is no oxygen gas in Mars, no liquid water, the atmospheric pressure is not conducive for any life to survive, the temperatures are very low and that there is presence of strong cosmic rays that are lethal to any form of life.
Presence of ancient life in Mars has also been overruled by scientific evidence of lack of fossils that would depict that any form of living organism ever lived there.
Therefore, regardless of the much speculations on the presence of life on Mars, scientific evidences currently shows that there has been no life in Mars and there is no life in Mars today. Prospects of having life in Mars are therefore not likely to yield any positive results in the near future.
Works Cited
Baldwin, Emily. “Lichen survives harsh Mars environment”. Skymania News. 26 April 2012. Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 110, Issue E5. Print.
Bianciard, Giorgio, et al. “Complexity Analysis of the Viking Labeled Release Experiments.” International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences (2012). 13 (1), 14-26. Web.
Grinspoon, David. Lonely planets: The natural philosophy of alien life. New York: ECCO. 2003. Print.
Heldmann, Jennifer et al. “Formation of Martian gullies by the action of liquid water flowing under current Martian environmental conditions.” Journal of Geophysical Research (2005). Web.
Moran, Mark, et al. “Desert methane: Implications for life detection on Mars.” Icarus, Volume 178, Issue 1, 1 November 2005, 277–280. Web.
Percival, Lowell. Mars and its canals. London: Macmillan, 1907. Print.
Mars is a planet that is similar and closer to earth than other planets. The planet has soil and rocks on its surface, and it has some gases in the atmosphere. Earlier researches indicated that there was a possibility of having some water, which is an essential aspect of life. According to astronomical researches, Mars has a cold climate, and the length of days and nights in Mars have a pattern similar to the one on Earth.
Moreover, since the axial tilt of Mars is similar to Earth’s axial tilt, the two planets experience the same seasons. The mentioned findings cause much anxiety as scientists suspect that the planet may support life.
If the assumptions are true, it would be necessary to find out if there was some ancient life on Mars and the possibility of having life on Mars. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration agency (NASA) has done several aerospace types of research to find out if indeed the planet can support life. This paper will take a stringent analysis of the research findings to determine the possibility of life on Mars.
The Surface of Mars
In 1864, some curious astronomers gazed at Mars through telescopes, and they perceived the surface of Mars to have some vegetation. However, a spacecraft was able to arrive on Mars a hundred years later, and interestingly, there was no vegetation on Mars. The land was bare, and there was no evidence of water or life. Since then, several robotic spacecraft have arrived on the planet, but none has proved that Mars has a sign of life.
The most interesting thing to note is the earth’s magnetic field that turns away dangerous radiation particles in the space. Mars has no magnetic field to turn away the dangerous radiations; therefore, the planet is hostile to any form of life (Space Place, 2014, para. 5). The magnetic shield protects the atmosphere from losing moisture; therefore, lack of it makes the planes susceptible to losing its atmospheric moisture to the solar wind.
Mars has less air than the earth does, and there is no evidence of water on the planet. In case there was water on the planet, it must have been too saline to support life. The scientific experiments facilitated by robotic spacecraft that arrived in Mars never revealed any sign of living microorganisms in the soil.
Indeed, the absence of living microorganisms in the soil is a clear indication of the absence of water on the red planet. NASA has also employed efforts to find out whether the soil particles might contain tiny fossils that would be a sign of ancient life on Mars. So far, the aerospace research reports have not found any feasible results indicating the presence of life in the cold desert.
The Atmosphere
The Red Planet’s surface temperatures lie between -143oc and +27oc, and indeed, these temperatures are considerably low. The most controversial fact about Mars is the thin atmospheric pressure that is about 1% of that on earth (Turner, 2004, p. 306).
The air is dry with no liquid water, and the ultraviolet radiations in the atmosphere cannot support life in any way. It is noteworthy that Mars’ polar caps have frozen carbon dioxide, which would thicken the atmosphere if released into the air through warming.
Interestingly, there is no rain on Mars, and the planet obtains less sunshine than the Earth due to its long distance from the sun. Although carbon dioxide that is necessary for photosynthesis is plenty on the Red Planet, it is almost impossible for the planet to support plant life because of the lack of light energy (Hunter, 2013, p. 22). In the absence of the plants, herbivorous cannot survive, and consequently, the carnivorous cannot survive on the Red Planet.
Controversial Issues about Mars
No one can tell the truth about the images that show large river channel networks on the Red Planet. Explorers are wondering if the layered sediments may imply that Mars had some flowing rivers in the past. There are assumptions that Mars was a warm and wet place, but for unknown reasons, everything dried up.
It is noteworthy that air and water are the most important aspects of life; interestingly, Mars cannot support liquid water because of its low temperatures. Secondly, the atmospheric pressure on Mars cannot allow the exchange of gases. While animals need high atmospheric pressure with plenty of oxygen, the plants need small amounts of oxygen, and the two living things exchange gases for survival.
Some researches indicated that there were some traces of methane gas in the atmosphere, and thus it is impossible for the planet to support life (“Life of Mars,” 2013, p. 2). Nitrogen is another very important element of life, but the nitrogen levels in the atmosphere are considerably lower on the Red Planet.
Moreover, no biological process supports nitrogen fixation into the atmosphere. Thus the planet cannot support life. However, scientists believe that initially, the planet had a thick atmosphere, and people can do something to make the place habitable.
The Idea of Transforming Mars
Indeed, scientists are seriously considering the idea of transforming Mars into a habitable planet. The first thing that came up was heating the polar caps to release the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The approach would help in thickening and warming the atmosphere, which would support liquid water that is essential for life. The considerably low temperatures would increase to manageable levels that can support life.
Scientist thought of mirrors that would reflect extra light onto the poles and warm it up. They also thought of the black color that absorbs heat, and they had the idea of sprinkling dark dust onto the poles of the Red Planet.
The most promising idea was introducing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to warm up the planet (Marinova, 2008, para. 7). Indeed, the latter idea would be the most viable provided the scientists used greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetimes. This would ensure that the entire exercise would have minimal effects on the ozone layer of the planet.
Later on, researchers found out that the best greenhouse gas that can warm up the planet is perfluoropropane. This hybrid gas is a combination of all gases released by industries in the entire globe, and the gas is not portable. Therefore, the idea of introducing greenhouse gases into the red planet’s atmosphere would hold if industries were set up on Mars.
The issue was politicized, and the opposing group could not find it worthwhile to introduce the greenhouse gases that have already proved to have negative effects on the climate on Earth.
On the other hand, the scientists, who were for the idea indicated that planet Earth has an evolved ecosystem, explored the existence of various life forms; however, there is no ecosystem in Mars. Although there may be some organisms living underground, they cannot prevent explorers and scientists from undertaking their experiments.
The Idea of Preserving the Planet
Although some scientists are strongly proposing that they should try to establish ways through which Mars can support life, others are arguing that it is unreasonable to tamper with natural creation. Some people feel that Mars is a beautiful planet that ought to be preserved for future generations.
This is because if scientists manage to heat Mars, they may find it difficult to introduce oxygen into the atmosphere of the planet. People will have to wear oxygen masks and struggle to survive in the high-pressure atmosphere. Indeed, Earth is unique because of its ability to support life, and therefore, trying to transform Mars may sound to be theoretically feasible, but it is practically impossible.
Summary and Conclusion
From the discussions, it is evident that scientists are desperately looking for ways to enable Mars to support life. They are curious about finding any evidence about the ancient existence of life on the Red Planet. The scientists are not ready to quit, and they are keeping on with the search for complex organics that support life.
Although some scientists said that they had found a habitable environment on Mars, they have not shed enough light of the habitable environment on the Red Planet. Currently, there is no life on Mars, as the planet is much drier and colder than it was in the ancient days.
The scientists are continuing with their research of the ways of transforming Mars into a habitable place. It is about 50 years since the first aircraft was able to reach Mars and scientists have not yet found a viable solution. The research is ongoing, and it may take quite some time before the scientists find a way of establishing life on Mars.
References
Hunter, M. G. (2013). Life on Mars 3: More study of NASA’s Mars photos. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation.
Life on Mars fades after curiosity rover methane findings. (2013). The Australian, 35(9), 1-2.
Marinova, M. (2008). Life on Mars: Terraforming the Red Planet. Web.
Space Place: Is there life on Mars? (2014). Web.
Turner, M. J. (2004). Expedition Mars. New York, NY: Springer.
What is the Approximate time taken for a trip to Mars?
In contrast to a direct projection in a rectilinear focus of a target, a practical venture into the exploration of the Mars is more of a circular motion than linear as illustrated in the figure shown below for a hypothetical minimal cost trajectory. Scientists regard this phenomenon as the Hohman Transfer Orbit which is the core principle underlying interplanetary space travel, research, clinical and psychological tests on the heave of the trip to Mars and also during the post-mars exploratory exercise.
It takes an approximated period of nine months for one to travel to Mars along the minimal cost trajectory, which normally happens when Mars is nearest to the Earth. This occurrence is known to be evident only once in every 1.6 years. It is therefore important to note that the time taken in making a trip to Mars is greatly depended on the intricate variables which relate the orbit taken by the astronaut from the Earth to Mars. In this regard, it is currently appreciated that some plasma rockets can trace high-velocity transfer orbits and thus minimize the time taken to make a trip to Mars even to the measure that the trip to Mars can take a period as short as four months (Geissler 1).
It is a common astronomical observation that whereas the Earth takes one year to revolve around the Sun, Mars revolves around the Sun in approximately 1.9 years and in essence one can draw this logical induction that the elliptical orbit through which an astronomer moves from the Earth to Mars is relatively shorter than the elliptical orbit of Mars and accordingly longer than the elliptical orbit of the Earth around the Sun.
Thus, it can last about 1.5 years for a rocket to traverse the elliptical orbit from the Earth to Mars, as shown in the figure above by the dotted line. Given that it is somewhat conducive for one to feel at home on Mars and spend some scientifically valuable time on Mars, our focus shifts to just one-way trip which is shown in the figure above by a continuous line.
This is in facts half of the total elliptic distance which would only take half of the approximated time to the Mars which may be more or less than nine months. The lesser alternative of which would require one to burn the rocket engines for a prolonged period and drawing more of the fuel is technologically wanting and thus needs further technological developments for it to be fully harnessed.
Attaining Synchrony of the Earth’s and Mars’ Orbits
It is a common astronomical fact that all planets revolve around the Sun and thus in the approximated 9 month-period within which one travels to Mars, one must acknowledge the fact that Mars would have moved some considerable distance in its orbit within the same period of time (it has actually been established that Mars would have covered an approximate distance of around three-eighths of its orbit in nine months).
This points to the fact that mathematical certainty must be established beforehand to synchronize the relative elliptical orbits of the rocket and that of Mars. The practical implication of this though is that the rocket may start its trip if and only if the Earth and Mars are in the mathematically predetermined synchrony which does not happen every other time, but it is an occurrence which is known to take place once in twenty-six months. Thus, in every twenty-six months, there is only one launch window which must be optimally utilized (ESA 1).
The rocket had taken at least nine months on its orbit to Mars in addition to the time taken by the astronauts in doing Mars exploration, then the return journey is somehow comparable to the initial trip because by this time the Earth would have covered some substantial distance in its orbit around the Sun and thus the Earth would not be at the very same position where it was at the inception of the initial trip to Mars.
On the Parking Orbit of Mars and the fro-trip
To elope out of its elliptical orbit about the Sun to that around Mars, the rocket would have to burn more fuel and if one desires to explore the terrain of Mars, fuel would not be spared in getting the ladder from the rocket to the terrain of Mars. It is imperative for one to know that only a small part of the ship should be brought to rest on the surface of Mars which is an energy saving effort because if all of the cargo were to land on the surface of Mars, it would automatically call for an enormous amount of fuel to once more propel it up.
In this manner, therefore, part of the ship must be left in the parking orbit of Mars as well as part of the crew attends to the business of exploring the surface of Mars. In the same manner in which the launch of the rocket awaits the synchrony of the Earth and Mars orbits for the to-trip, so does the fro-trip during which synchrony must be established before the rocket starts its way back to the Earth (Astronomer 1).
Works Cited
Astronomer. “How long would a trip to Mars take?” Ask the Astronomer. (2011). Web.
ESA. “Life after Mars”. Esa’s Participation in Mars500: Human space lift. (2012). Web.
Geissler, Paul. “The serpent Dust Devil of Mars”. High resolution imaging science experiment, the University of Arizona. (2012). Web.
An extensive study of the outflow channels among other geological properties show that Mars has the most hospitable climatic conditions after Earth in the entire solar system.
These studies carried out by outstanding Mars scientists have been successful through various robotic explorations and missions to Mars. Here, the success of these missions is based on the fact that autonomous rovers have the ability to traverse through Mars thereby enabling the scientists to make various observations within limited areas (Arny & Schneider, 2010, p. 1).
So far, the Mars Exploration Program (MEP) undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) aims at searching for various evidence suggesting past life in Mars, exploring the hydrothermal habitats in Mars, searching any form of past or present life, and discovering the evolution of mars (Rapp, 2008, pp. 1-5).
Accordingly, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (n.d., p. 1 of 3) notes that the series of missions to Mars have so far been carried out in three stages, that is, Flybys, Orbiters, and Landers/Rovers. Furthermore, additional studies note that the future of Mars exploration will entail Airplanes & Balloons, Subsurface Explorers, and Sample Return (Arny & Schneider, 2010, p. 3). To this end, this research paper presents a detailed account of the past, present, and future missions to Mars.
The past, current and future missions to Mars
Flybys
During the early days of Mars exploration, the missions to Mars involved the Mariner 3-4 and Mariner 6-7, which were spacecrafts with the ability to take pictures as they flew past the surface of Mars. The Mariner 3-4 and Mariner 6-7 were among ten identical spacecrafts weighing approximately half a ton without including the onboard rocket propellant, which were designed by NASA in 1962-1973.
The ten Mariners were to fly by the inner solar system including the planets Mercury, Mars, and Venus (Rapp, 2008, p. 15). However, the first flybys to be launched to Mars include the Mariner 3 and 4. On November 5, 1964, Mariner 3 launched on an Atlas rocket but failed to reach Mars.
And on November 28, the same year, the successful launching of Mariner 4 saw the spacecraft flying past Mars by July 14, 1965, and thus enabling the scientists to discover lunar-type impact craters on the surface of Mars. Due to its longer survival than expected design lifespan, Mariner 4 enabled the scientists to study the wind environment of the solar system relative to measurements made by Mariner 5 located in Venus by then (Arny & Schneider, 2010, p. 9).
The second pair of spacecrafts to be launched to Mars includes Mariner 6 and 7. The two robotic spacecrafts were launched in February 24, 1969 and March 27, 1969 respectively. In this dual mission to Mars, Mariner 6 and 7 enabled the scientists to analyze the surface of Mars and the Martian atmosphere through the remote sensors in the spacecrafts besides the Mariners taking and sending several pictures of the Mars surface.
Unfortunately, Mariner 6 and 7 did not capture some aspects of the surface of Mars, which were explored later such as the gigantic northern volcanoes and the Grand Canyon (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d., p. 1 of 3).
Orbiters
The spacecrafts located in the orbit surrounding Mars are referred to as orbiters, which include Mariner 8-9, Viking 1-2, Mars Observer, Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Climate Orbiter, 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The third pair of spacecrafts to be launched to Mars in the early 1970s includes Mariner 8 and 9. As opposed to other flybys, Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 were the first pair of orbiters designed to spend some time around Mars rather than flying past its surface (Arny & Schneider, 2010, p. 10).
Despite that Mariner 8 failed to launch, on May 30, 1971, Mariner 9 become the first successful artificial satellite to enter the Martian orbit thereby completing its transmission by October 27, 1972. Here, studies note that Mariner 9 collected pictures of about 100% of the Martian surface, the two Martian moons (Phobos and Deimos), gigantic volcanoes, and the equatorial Grand Canyon (Rapp, 2008, p. 23).
Subsequently, NASA embarked on a project that saw the designing of a pair of orbiter-lander spacecrafts in the hope that if the orbiter and lander flew to Mars together, they will eventually separate with the orbiter entering the Martian orbit and the lander settling on the Martian surface. The Viking 1 and 2 orbiters launched on August 20, 1975 and September 9, 1975 respectively while the Viking 1 and 2 landers successfully landed on July 20, 1976 and September 3, 1976 respectively.
With various science instruments on board, the landers took pictures of the Martian surface besides conducting three major science experiments aimed at investigating any signs of life in Mars. Despite that the Viking orbiters/landers were meant to last for 90 days, they continued to send data until the early 1980s (Arny & Schneider, 2010, p. 18).
The most recent orbiter launched in August, 2005 is the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which consists of the most advanced camera with the capability of capturing and sending images of detailed aspects of geology, the structure of Mars, and any other details that could influence the landing of additional rovers and landers in the future.
This device consists of a sounder (which aids in discovering subsurface water), multitasking/multipurpose spacecraft (for mineral identification), and the interplanetary internet to link communication between the Earth and Mars. As a result, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter forms the basis for future advancement in planetary explorations (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2011, p. 1 0f 7).
Landers and Rovers
Besides the Viking 1 and 2 landers/orbiters discussed above, the NASA’s MEP has used several landers and rovers in its missions to Mars including the Mars Pathfinder, Polar Lander/Deep Space 2, Mars Exploration Rovers, Phoenix, and now the most anticipated Mars Science Laboratory (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, n.d., p. 1 of 3).
In December 4, 1996, the Mars Pathfinder was launched with the aim of discovering alternative means of delivering instrumented landers and free-ranging rovers to the Martian surface. The lander and rover reached the surface of mars successfully besides outliving their design lifespan, and thus sending in more information including the observations made by scientists that Mars was warm and wet at some point in the past.
However, according to the Astronomy (2011, p. 28), the most recent and advanced lander/rover projected to launch in fall 2011 and reach the Martian surface by fall 2012 is the Mars Science Laboratory.
Relative to the earlier design of other Mars Exploration Rovers and the successful innovation undertaken by rover geologists in 2004, the Mars Science Laboratory is more advanced, and thus it is projected to carry out rock/soil sampling and analysis to discover the organic compounds responsible for past, present, or future life in Mars. The laboratory contains a hydrogen detector (for water detection), a Meteorological package, and a Spectrometer for various analytical measurements.
Besides, the laboratory is said to use advanced landing techniques compared to other spacecrafts in order to land on a specified location on the Martian surface. Furthermore, using laser technology, the laboratory is anticipated to perform various analyses to detect acids/bases, proteins, amino acids, and atmospheric gases (Astronomy, 2011, p. 31).
Conclusion
Overall, using the technology displayed by the Mars Science Laboratory, there is the possibility that the future missions to mars will enable scientists to explore the greater detail of Mars including various underlying aspects of the Martian surface such as geologic processes, water circulation/distribution, the Martian atmosphere, the composition of gases, and the chemical state of different gases in the Martian atmosphere.
Furthermore, based on data collected from earlier missions to mars, the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (2011, p. 1 of 7) notes that the future explorations to Mars will entail Airplanes and Balloons, Subsurface Explorers, and Sample Returns, which will give the finer details of Mars from a broader perspective including carrying to the Earth the samples of soil, gases, and rocks from Mars for analysis in human-manned laboratories.
References
Arny, T., & Schneider, S. (2010). Explorations: Introduction to Astronomy. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Astronomy. (2011, June 9). Next NASA Mars mission rescheduled for 2011. Astronomy Magazine, 135, 28-31.