Cathy Song is one of the most popular poets whose works have been highly recognized in academic circles, and many people still enjoy reading her literary works even today. In 1955 she was born at a place called Honolulu in Hawai’i. “She later went for her studies at Wellesley College in America where she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1977” (Nina, 1999).
She also did a Masters degree at Boston University and graduated in 1981. She started developing her skills in poetry while in high school and she continued writing even in college. Her literature works came to the limelight in 1983 when she wrote a poem called “picture Bride” (Nina, 1999). “This poem became the best during that year, and she won the Yale series of Younger Poets competition that was indeed a very prestigious national poetry award” (Song, 1983).
Most of her poems majorly revolve around multicultural and family issues. She used her poetic skills to express her passionate feelings of multiculturalism. For example, she was originally an Asian but she embraced western culture when she went to America.
She was one of the poets who extensively participated in Asian American poetry, which is one of the schools of thought used in writing poems in U.S.A. Most of the poets who subscribe to this school of thought majorly examine the idea of cultural diversity. Another characteristic of this school of thought is that it widely recognizes the importance of involving women in writing poems as can be seen in the case of Cathy Song.
Her works acted as a great source of inspiration to not only American women, but also to other poets who were not Asians. “Asian Americans generally have resisted the common stereotypes as the exotic or good minority, but they have made a comparison between Asian and Western literary traditions” (Song, Cloud moving hands (pitt poetry series), 2007).
One of Cathy’s most striking poems is called “Picture Bride” and it can be analyzed as follows. Picture bride is a free verse poem which has a total of thirty four lines. The title of this poem may signify “the vision of a stereotypically picture-perfect bride decked out with veil, lace, and train” (Song, Cloud moving hands (pitt poetry series), 2007). However, its title is talking about the matching practice which is associated with many Asians.
In this poem, the persona is trying to figure out how her grandmother felt at the age of twenty three years, when she travelled to Hawaii and got married to a laborer who was thirteen years older than her. Most of the lines in this poem contain questions which are meant to create the travelling scene. The poet also used a lot of images to develop the rhythm in her poem hence it can be easily recited. Some styles have also been used in the poem to enhance the theme (Song, 1983).
Even though Cathy Song emerged as a great poet, her works have met some criticism from some scholars who contend that she over emphasized on familial images. For example, “Gayle K. Fujita-Sato has argued that Picture Bride describes both a personal history and a paradigm for analyzing multicultural writing” (Song, Cloud moving hands (pitt poetry series), 2007).
Hence, Picture Bride has been seen to be describing a “third world paradigm” of writing. In addition to this, Richard Hugo also questioned Cathy’s level of restraint in poetry. Nonetheless, Cathy Song made a great contribution to Asian American poetry and she has left a great legacy of poets (Song, 1983).
References
Nina, B. (1999). Norton anthology of American literature. New York: Norton and Company.
Song, C. (2007). Cloud moving hands (pitt poetry series). Washington. D.C: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Song, C. (1983). Picture bride ( Yale series if young star poets). New York: Yale University Press.
Rita Joe’s “Song of Rita” received huge following due to its comprehensive scrutiny of historical and contemporary Canadian life. Rita was a renowned writer; she received copious accolades because of her resilience and expertise in writing. Rita is still revered all over the world by both her critics and supporters for the robustly textured books she wrote. Rita was born in 1932 in Whycocomagh, Cape Breton, she was orphaned at a tender age of ten (Macleod 1). The Canadian poet overcame several obstacles to become a world-renowned writer. Rita died in 2007 from Parkinson’s disease (Paul 1). This paper will critically analyze Rita’s book “Song of Rita”.
Summary
Rita is a Mi’kmaq writer who provided an enlightening story in her book “Song of Rita”. In the book, Rita narrates about her remarkable life during youth and adulthood. Rita talks about her education in Indian residential school as well as the daily obstacles she had to overcome to succeed. The author talks about the daily struggles she faced in her effort to battle with family issues in her aboriginal heritage. Rita also narrates about her turbulent marriage.
Moreover, she talks about her differences with the community, which she loved. Rita also narrates about her fight against racism, and poverty. Also, Rita talks about her fight against sexism, which was rife at the time. Interestingly, Rita also talks about personal demons, which were evident in her first poems. Nonetheless, the author finally manages to reclaim her status as aboriginal. Moreover, the poems help Rita to deepen her enduring spiritual quest (Joe 1).
Analysis
Rita Joe’s poems in “Song of Rita Joe” are well refined and succinct. Rita uses the poems to outline her main challenges, which are reminiscent of the challenges, which faced aboriginals of her time. The book articulates Rita’s defiance in fighting racism, poverty, and sexism. The author shows her struggles with community traditions. Also, it outlines the dominant issues, which affected aboriginals. Rita’s story highlights the strength of women in inspiring the social lifestyles of society. Rita uses persuasive gentleness to send her message to the Mi’kmaq nation. The author stands out as an educator throughout the book. Also, Rita sticks out as an activist who uses gentle persuasion to enlighten her community. The poems in the book are well rhymed, which shows Rita’s prowess in poetry (NUP 1).
Rita uses the book to show her patience in an abusive marriage which she endures to have eight children. Rita’s story is reminiscent of aboriginal people popularly known as the lost generation. This generation left their traditions and cultural practices for modernity. In essence, Rita uses the poem to remind the aboriginals of the times when they lost their heritage. Interestingly, the author does not moan over the trauma of life she faced. Instead, Rita writes her poems with aspiration and fervor to illustrate her life and that of her people, the Mi’kmaq. She ends up as a leader in her community out of the unwavering spiritual strength from the Mi’kmaq culture (Newhouse 1).
Conclusion
Rita Joe is a renowned poet with international accolades. Her book Song of Rita entails an absorbing life story of a woman struggling to solve societal problems such as sexism, racism, and poverty, among others. Rita comes out as a leader who works to revitalize her Mi’kmaq community. The book is well written with astute correctness. This book is inspiring and educative to viewers (Adams and Clare 9-11).
Whitman’s concept of the self as illustrated in the poem Song of Myself is radically different from what Thoreau and Emerson envisioned in their works, Walden and Nature respectively. Whitman advocates for conformity while Thoreau and Emerson subscribe to individualism. For Whitman, the self should be unified with other selves and nature as well, a view that is castigated by Thoreau and Emerson who feel that the individual self should be self-reliant and ought not to conform to the environment.
In the poem Song of Myself Whitman presents the self for modern times in various ways. First, Whitman adopted the direct address style of rendering the poem. He takes the conversational tone in order to appeal to all the others in an effort to reconcile selves to create unity: “And what I assume you shall assume” (Whitman p. 1, line 2).
This is contrary to Emerson’s impersonal approach in his essay, Nature. Whitman seems to be inviting others to join him in his great quest for unity. This could have been informed by the racial segregation and discrimination that was rife in America at the time when Whitman was constructing the poem.
Whitman’s poem not only addresses the audience in general, but is also directed to specific individuals. In the poem, the speaker is observing nature when the presence of a lady comes by. He asks: “Where are you off to, lady? for I see you”. This is a further illustration of the poet’s quest to bring everybody on board.
He also does not hesitate to address various elements of nature in order to achieve unity with the environment. To the earth, he says: “Smile, O voluptuous cool-breath’d earth!” (Whitman p.1, line 9). And to the sea: “You sea! I resign myself to you also…” (Whitman p. 22, line 1). This denotes the speaker’s attempt to reconcile with nature.
On the other hand, Emerson and Thoreau vouch for solitude and self-reliance. Emerson’s essay begins thus: “To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as from society” (Emerson chap. 1, par. 1). It implies that unity with others in the immediate environment is of secondary importance. The same view is held by Thoreau, to whom nature is nothing, but a source of solitude. Any attempt to reach out to nature in order to make peace and nature is not considered in friendly terms.
Whitman also redefines the self to the modern times through repetition. Repetition serves the purpose of developing the plot of the poem as well as enhancing its subject matter. The style is quite appropriate in the poem as it is used deliberately to advance the poet’s motive. In his attempt at unifying people and nature, the speaker has to lay emphasis on certain aspects.
For example, in order to foster equality among people, he says: “Whoever degrades another degrades me” (Whitman p. 22, line 7). This was perhaps meant to break the barriers that existed between the blacks and the whites in America at that time.
Whitman’s determined pursuit for equality in society is quite relevant to the modern times. Presently, there is widespread inequality the world over, manifested politically economically, religiously and even socially. Basically, humanity is dichotomized into two groups: the haves and the have-nots. The former despise the latter and, more often than not, subject them to some of the worst forms of infringements. It would be necessary that people treat each other equally without regard to one’s social or political standing.
Whitman’s use of symbolism is also notable in redefining the self to the modern times. The most remarkable symbol in the poem refers to grass: “A child said What the grass is? Fetching it to me with full hands” (Whitman p.6, line 1). Grass is used to symbolically refer to the masses.
The masses in the poem are the target of the poet as he aspires for unity. One outstanding feature of grass is its uniformity and closeness as it grows. The poet engenders this attribute in the poem thus: “Or I guess it is a uniform hieroglyphic/ And it means sprouting alike in broad zones and narrow zones” (Whitman p. 6, line 8-9).
This is in sharp contrast to Thoreau’s “bean” in which the beans do not grow uniformly. This is due to their different planting times: “… for the earliest had grown considerably before the latest were in the ground” (Thoreau p.109). Unlike grass, beans can hardly be used to represent the masses since they are too unique to be used in making generalizations.
Emerson, on his part, does not envision unity between people and nature. In the essay Nature, Emerson clearly identifies a disconnection between man and nature: “To speak truly, few adult persons can see nature.” (Emerson chap.1, par. 4). In this essay, Emerson does not see any aspect of nature that represents unity, like grass. Nature is, therefore, not a source of oneness since each individual reacts towards it differently. This further emphasizes the individualistic nature of the self as opposed to Whitman’s collective psyche.
The use of an all-encompassing voice in the poem Song of Myself is also a clear indicator of a redefined collective self for the modern times. The speaker in the poem assumes an omnipotent being representing many people. Thus, the speaker seems to be speaking for all, not just for themselves: “I am large, I contain multitudes” (Whitman p. 51, line 6).
The speaker’s desire to lend voice to the plight of the masses is thus illustrated: “It is time to explain myself – let us stand up” (Whitman p. 44, line 1). The speaker wants us to stand up because the explanation to be offered is on our behalf. Standing up for others is a true application of a redefined self to the modern times when there are so many injustices in the world.
This is not the case for Thoreau’s Walden and Emerson’s Nature. Walden depicts Thoreau’s personalized experiences. There is no attempt to stand up for others as the individual is preoccupied with his own soul-searching. In this case, Thoreau narrates his own experiences at Walden, where he even sets up a bean farm. The essay Nature also subscribes to the same principle: everybody to their own devices.
Rhetoric questions have also been used extensively in Song of Myself. They engage the mind of the reader in a manner that is riveting; hence leave a lasting impression. This is a powerful tool used by literary artists to draw attention to what would otherwise be ignored as mundane.
The issue of unity is not new; therefore, people may easily be tempted to brush it aside. But this would not be the case after interacting with Song of Myself. The readers are drawn into examining the meaning of their existence and reevaluate themselves more critically: “What is a man anyhow? what am I? what are you?” (Whitman p. 20, line 3).
Whitman’s poem is essentially a free verse. This could possibly suggest that it was the poet’s intention to reach as many people as possible through the poem. People may fail to appreciate a given poem due to the literary complexities associated with it.
These complexities include the use of rhyme scheme, regular rhythm, equal length of lines, uniform stanzas, and poetic language among others. In order to achieve the rubric of poetry, sometimes meaning has to be compromised. Nevertheless, this is not the case for Whitman. He discards some of the traditional poetic tenets in order to make the poem easy to appreciate.
Whitman seems to be aspiring to make the poem universal by giving it a simple easy to read structure. The simple language structure further lends credence to the intended universality of this poem.
This is a poem that takes the readers on a journey of self-discovery with the view of understanding, accepting and finally reconciling with each other. This is why the poem asks: “What is man anyhow…who are you?” (Whitman p. 20, line 3). This is relevant even in the modern times because one cannot begin to appreciate others before he has fully grasped his own self.
In conclusion, Whitman seeks a collective self, one that is at peace with other selves around and also with nature. Emerson and Thoreau aspire for solitude in which the individual selves are free from the forces of conformity. It is important that people be able to reconcile between the individual and the collective selves.
Works Cited
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Nature. American Transcendentalism Web, n.d. Web.
Thoreau, Henry D. Walden,or, Life in the Woods. Charleston, South Carolina: Forgotten Books, 1927. Web.
Whitman, Walt. Song of Myself. Modern American Poetry, n.d. Web.
Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” can be discussed as the extended poetic meditation and reflection in relation to the role of an individual in the world and the relations of humans with nature. “Song of Myself” consists of fifty-two sections which are combined with the help of the main theme and style. In spite of the fact that Whitman discusses a lot of important questions in his poem, all the presented issues are closely associated with the theme of the human’s unique connection with nature as the main force in the world. The author’s wisdom and devotion to each element of nature despite its size and significance are also reflected in Section 31 of “Song of Myself”. Whitman’s poetry unites the principles of Romanticism, Realism, and Transcendentalism, and characteristic features of these movements can be observed with references to Whitman’s “Song of Myself”. The role of nature in the people’s lives and the role of an individual in the natural world is one of the main themes in Whitman’s poetry that is why Section 31 of “Song of Myself” is connected in its theme and style not only with the other parts of the poem but also with the other poet’s works which are similar regarding the Transcendental ideas.
Main Body
The main idea and theme of Section 31 are represented in the first line of the first stanza. Thus, Whitman states, “I believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey-work of the stars” (Whitman 1). This statement is the presentation of the poet’s idea that the smallest elements of nature can have enormous effects on the whole life of the world and on an individual. Whitman focuses on ‘a leaf of grass’ as the symbolic reflection of his opinion, and this symbol appears in the other parts of “Song of Myself” as well as the complete work which includes the discussed poem is also named Leaves of Grass. The image of grass as the symbol of growth can be observed in several parts of “Song of Myself”, and these references help unite the large work into a single piece connected by the single idea. Furthermore, it is also important to focus on a leaf of grass’ as the symbolic representation of a man in the world. Thus, one leaf of grass can affect the whole natural development when one person is also important for the progress of the whole society (Bohan 14-18). That is why the symbol of ‘a leaf of grass’ in relation to the main theme of the work can be discussed from many perspectives.
The main idea of this poem’s part is further discussed in the next lines. The author concentrates more on the unique role of each smallest element in the natural world, “the pismire is equally perfect, and a grain of sand, and the egg of the wren, / And the tree-toad is a chef-d’œuvre for the highest, / And the running blackberry would adorn the parlors of heaven” (Whitman 2-4). Moreover, Whitman pays attention to the fact that there are no products of machinery that can be compared with the pieces of nature. Whitman draws the audience’s attention to the lines “And the narrowest hinge in my hand puts to scorn all machinery, / And the cow crunching with depress’d head surpasses any statue, / And a mouse is miracle enough to stagger sextillions of infidels” (Whitman 5-7). Thus, objects made by a human cannot be compared with the miracles of nature.
The closeness of the author to nature and his distance from social life is emphasized in the third stanza of the part where all the lines begin with the phrase ‘in vain’. Whitman uses the simple style, free verse, repetitions, and parallel constructions in order to present the idea easily but to make accents on the important parts. The repetitions provide the effect of listing which is important for the author to reflect the increase of importance in relation to the aspects discussed in the poem.
Similar ideas are also reflected in such works of Whitman as “Give me the Splendid, Silent Sun” and in “Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking”. Whitman appeals to the forces of Nature in “Give me the Splendid, Silent Sun”, focusing on these forces as the source of relief for the poet. In “Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking”, the author also accentuates the connection with nature, and the character compares himself with a bird. The connection is very strong, and Whitman uses the idea of brotherhood to explain these unique ties (Bloom 112-120). “Give me the Splendid, Silent Sun” is similar to section 31 of “Song of Myself” regarding the stylistic peculiarities because of many repetitions and parallel constructions.
Conclusion
Walt Whitman focuses on the role of nature in many of his works, and “Song of Myself” is a vivid example of the author’s considerations on the problem presented in the perfect poetic form. In spite of the simple style and language, the poem effectively reflects the author’s philosophical spirit and ideas.
Works Cited
Bloom, Harold. Walt Whitman. USA: Infobase Publishing, 2009. Print.
Bohan, Ruth. Looking Into Walt Whitman: American Art, 1850 – 1920. USA: Penn State Press, 2006. Print.
Walt Whitman’s poetry uniqueness is expressed in both its form and content. It includes a powerful charge of historical optimism and is inspired by the heroic era in America’s destiny, the era of hopes and illusions born due to the collapse of slavery. The Song of my poem by Whitman is a centerpiece of the “Leaves of Grass” collection which became a kind of poetic manifesto of the author (Habich 5). It is an extensive yet plotless poem consisting of 52 domes and devoid of any dramatic conflicts. The poem flows as a lyrical monologue of the chain of memories and imaginary pictures of the lyrical character.
It seems rather important and exciting to examine the mentioned poem from the historical approach as it presents a completely new character associated with the new epoch and the end of civil war. As it was stated above, the Song of Myself has no plot in the conventional sense, but it contains the lyric center: a movement of thought and feeling creates the lyrical character. In contrast to a romantic image that is usually lonely, rebellious, and challenging society, Whitman’s character is connected with humanity and, as a part of it, is associated with all that is happening in the world. This subsistence character is expressed in the following poetic formula: “Walt Whitman, a cosmos, of Manhattan the son” (Perkins 500).
Whitman’s lyrical character is unique in his ability to be implicated in the troubles and joys of others reincarnating in them. He is an old artilleryman and the lover who comes to his beloved one at the same time. The poetic “I” of Whitman constantly moves to other people and even natural phenomena philosophically synthesizing everything around him. Widely speaking, his “I” belongs to “all ages and lands” (Perkins 355). This “I” is all the people together and each person individually. Overall, the character of the poem is a typed image that encompasses all the features of the Americans of that time.
In the Song of Myself, the author looks at humans from a different angle than the poetry of that time reminding about the attitude of the ancient Greeks (Gale 17). Consequently, there was no coincidence that a puritan America did not accept the poet. Romanticism poets wrote about the human soul while Whitman valued the harmony of body and soul. Most clearly, this point is expressed in the Song of Myself that is unusually polyphonic; its sound might be compared to the choir sound.
However, the historical and also philosophical content is much wider. It might be recognized as a hymn to life on earth. Having passed all the diversity of life at the moment when a squatter is clearing land for houses, a teamster is chasing a herd, and a president is conducting a meeting, the poet glorifies a human life as the greatest miracle. Whitman’s democratic views that are sympathetic to people of all professions, religions, and skin colors should also be noted. The lyrical character has no obvious responses to the questions asked and he cannot always explain things occurring around, but he appreciates life in its diversity.
Therefore, through his poetic “I”, Whitman comprehends the nature, humanity, and universe. A characteristic feature of his lyrical perception is the tendency to integrate the world. In this connection, the Song of Myself poem calls for the resumption of the broken harmony to preserve the moral foundations of human existence.
Works Cited
Gale, Mary. A Study Guide for Walt Whitman’s Song of Myself. New York, NY: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.
Habich, Robert D., and Robert C. Nowatzki. Romanticism and Transcendentalism, 1820-1865. New York, NY: Facts On File, 2010. Print.
Perkins, George. American Literature Since the Civil War – 2015 edition. McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions, 11/2008. VitalSource Bookshelf Online.
The notion of conceptual metaphor is one that deals with understanding of one concept in terms of another within the same conceptual domain. According to Evans & Green (2006), it is an important aspect of cognitive linguistic, which has been in existence for a long time. The two entities used are source, also known as the vehicle and the target.
A more familiar concept is used as a source in order to help in the understanding of a target. A conceptual mapping is a concept that is present whenever there is the use of conceptual metaphor. Through the use of this concept, the metaphor is understood better and meaning of the source and target is easily understood. Conceptual metaphors are also understood in terms of bodily experience.
The conceptual metaphor theory is useful in the understanding of the vital components of a conceptual metaphor. Unidirectionality of the metaphor, metaphorical entailments, the invariance principle and metaphor system, are the components of the conceptual metaphors theory.
Three types of conceptual metaphors have been identified. They include: structural, orientational and ontological metaphors. The paper also notes that conceptual metaphors are used in people’s daily lives and in their everyday conversations.
Metonymy is a linguistic concept whereby one concept is used in place of another. This makes it easier for someone to understand the idea that is being communicated. Metonymy can be understood as a cognitive and also as a conceptual domain. It can also be understood in terms of its scope of operation and the different types.
Introduction
In traditional grammar, a metaphor is a tool in the rhetoric which entails a direct comparison of two things without the use of comparison words such as ‘like’ or ‘as’. Metaphors are common in the language spoken by people when carrying out their daily chores.
Conceptual metaphor is a concept in the cognitive linguistics, which deals with understanding of a certain concept through the use of another more familiar concept (Kövecses, 2002). This helps one to have a deeper and clearer understanding of the idea that the person is trying to understand. One of the most common human emotions that are understood in terms of conceptual metaphors is love.
Most of the times, love is used as the abstract target that is linked to a concrete source, for instance, a container. This is evidenced by the many conceptual metaphors that are used by people when talking about love. For example, people who love each other tend to refer to their relationship as being in love. It is therefore possible to infer from such expressions the conceptual metaphor that ‘RELATIONSHIPS ARE CONTAINERS’.
In such a case, the association between love that exists between lovers and a container is depicted. Moreover, the correspondence between people in love and the contents of a container is also depicted. There are a number of love-related expressions that are commonly used, which show clearly this correspondence. For example, when people are in a love relationship, they tend to use the expression that they are in love.
However, if something happens and they terminate the relationship, it is common to hear people say that they have fallen out of love. Again, people who feel that they would like to move out of a relationship but they are not able to do so may refer to their situation as being trapped in the relationship.
It is also common for people to use love related expressions, which validate the conceptual metaphor that LOVE IS A JOURNEY. In this expression, lovers are associated with travelers whereas their love relationship is associated with the various modes of transport. The problems encountered in love relationships correspond with difficulties that one may encounter while traveling from one point to another.
Typically, a traveler’s journey may involve encountering bumps along the way of other unforeseen problems, such as a puncture or shortage of fuel. Some of the expressions that are commonly used and that help to validate the conceptual metaphor that love is a journey include: their relationship is at a crossroads.
This is used by people who do not know what to do because their relationship seems to have major problems, which they do not know how to solve. Again, people are fond of saying that love is a two-way street or using the expression that they went their separate ways, whenever a relationship between two people breaks.
The main assumption is that a conceptual metaphor is more of a thought system concept than a linguistic concept. The metaphorical language that is used as an everyday language seems to have a close relationship with a fundamental metaphor system.
The metaphor system is viewed as a system of thought. When using a conceptual metaphor, not all conceptual domains are applicable in the description of one item in terms of another similar one
Metonymy is also a linguistic aspect that has some relationship with metaphors. This is because; both conceptual metaphors and metonymy are linguistic aspects that important in language and cognition of concepts in the English language. However, there are some major differences that exist between conceptual metaphors and metonymy.
Contrary to the way conceptual metaphors use two domains of experience in order for the concepts to be understood, metonymy uses only one domain of experience. Moreover, conceptual metaphors are based on similarities that exist between the concepts being understood, whereas metonymy is based on the concept of contiguity. In metonymy, certain entities are used in place of another.
This means that one concept in the resultant expression is understood in terms of another. Simply put, metonymy can be in form of concept A standing for concept B. This paper shall address the linguistic concepts of conceptual metaphors and metonymy. The song, Angel in Your Eyes by John Michael Montgomery, shall be used in the analysis.
Reasons for choosing the topic
This topic was chosen because it deals with very important linguistic aspects that are used in day to day life. The two aspects dealt with in this paper are conceptual metaphors and metonymy. These two are considered as very vital in day to day conversations among people because the fundamental role they play in the cognitive process.
Metonymy allows one to use a particular aspect of a given experience in place of another portion of the same experience. Metonymy entails the use of a single domain of experience, unlike the conceptual metaphor, which requires the use of more than one domain.
In conceptual metaphor, the two domains that are used are the target and the source domain. Love songs are particularly fond of including lyrics that are loaded with conceptual metaphors as well as metonymy to put across their messages effectively.
In every conversation that is carried out everyday, it is a common occurrence to note the use of conceptual metaphors and metonyms. It is these linguistics components that make understanding of even complex issues easier and more interesting.
The love song, Angel In Your Eyes by John Michael Montgomery, was chosen to help in expounding of the two concepts because, the area of love is one of the topics that use conceptual metaphors and metonymy to pass across messages that could not have been easy to do so if another method or if merely plain language was used.
Discussing pop song lyrics is also an avenue through which one can enter into the lives of people and know how they view love. While trying to understand this, it is clear in many pop songs that many linguistic concepts are used to express one’s emotions. It is not uncommon to find many lyrics in the pop songs full of metaphors, metonymy, idioms and similes, among other linguistic features.
This makes the lyrics a perfect tool to use to explore the concepts in depth as well as understand love through the eyes of different pop artists. According to Colin (1996), pop songs are seen as a reflection of the state of the society. These kinds of songs are very popular with many people, regardless of age and status.
The reason why many people listen to them is not because they have an educative value, but because of the emotions they cause on their listeners and the effect they have on the relationships of the listeners. Plutchick (2003) observes that the lyrics of many love pop songs evoke different emotions such as love, grief or even anger, to the people who harbor unresolved emotions.
The songs also deal with relationships with a person who is loved. This implies that closeness is supposed to exist between the two parties. Although love songs seem to portray the existence of this closeness between lovers, a close examination at the lyrics reveal otherwise and the closeness implied is not real.
Lack of this important aspect is mostly disguised in the lyrics of the songs, which are well structured and use linguistic concepts to make the story in the song believable. Lyrics of love pop songs can be described as ones which bring out a non-existent social-emotional world. Pop songs therefore mostly deal with an imagined emotional world dealing with love, which is characterized by a lot of exaggerations.
Pop songs were also chosen as the best material for exploration of conceptual metaphors and metonymy because of the way they use ordinary everyday language, which is full of conceptual metaphors and metonyms.
In pop songs, it is very easy to understand the different emotions that are present at different stages of love because emotions and feelings are named and discussed in depth using linguistic aspects such as conceptual metaphors. These feelings and emotions, which can not be seen by our naked eyes, are therefore understood in a clearer manner through the lyrics of a pop song.
For example, the lines: ‘For every second she’s here with me, I wanna hold her in my arms’ show a strong emotional feeling towards the loved one. So strong is the feeling for her that he just wants to hold her in his arms. The same expression of strong feelings and desire are duplicated in other love songs.
Research methodology
A literature review on conceptual metaphors and metonymy was carried out. At first, there was a lot of literature dealing with this topic that was encountered in the course of the review. However, the literature to be used was carefully selected in order to remain with the literature that addressed the specific areas of interest of this research paper.
To discuss the two concepts, metaphor and metonymy, which are parts of the cognitive linguistics, the pop song, Angel in Your Eyes by John Michael Montgomery, will be used. There were numerous other love pop songs but this song was chosen because of how well the artist has incorporated the different aspects of the cognitive linguistics and specifically, metaphors and metonyms.
The song will help to shed light on how conceptual metaphors and metonyms are useful in the expression of deep emotions such as love. All these emotions are facets of love that people encounter as they go on with love relationships.
By using pop songs, many artists are able to easily express their feelings towards a person they love without much strain and in a manner that is appealing, even to the rest of the people who will hear the song. Hatfield and Rapson (1993) observe that the love pop songs also portray love as an emotion akin to madness. This is mostly done through the use of conceptual metaphors and metonyms.
This is evident in the song ‘angel in your eyes’, where the artist uses conceptual metaphors as well as metonyms to express his strong feeling of love towards the lover. Most of these expressions are full of exaggerations, which depict the state of his mind as it relates to the feelings of love towards the person the song is meant for. Many times, he describes the lady as his day and also his night.
He refers to her as an angel. These are some of the things that are not commonly done by sane people in other contexts except when expressing their love to another person. It is these exaggerations that portray love and the manner in which it is expressed as an emotion that is similar to madness.
Some of the key words identified were: conceptual metaphor, vehicle/source, target, domain, conceptual mappings, conceptual metaphors theory, metonymy, Contingency, Contiguity and pop song.
The notion of conceptual metaphor
The notion of a metaphor is that of conventional relationship between two entities which have similar characteristics. This is according to Croft & Cruse (2004). The conceptual aspect deals with understanding of a metaphor in relation with the conceptual domain used. Conceptual metaphors can be described in terms of source and target domain.
The source is usually a concrete thing and the target is normally an abstract thing. For example, the linguistic expressions …She is my day, she is my night…in the song Angel in Your Eyes by John Michael Montgomery, needs conventional knowledge on the two conceptual domains used in the expression. The conceptual domains in this case are ‘she’ referring to a lady who is somebody’s lover, and ‘day and night’ referring to time.
Both concepts are easily understood within the lay man’s language because they are familiar things. However, through the use of the two, those listening to the song are able to understand the emotional attachment between the singer and the person to whom the song is directed. This association can lead to the formation of a conceptual metaphor ‘LOVE IS TIMELESS’.
In the conceptual metaphor, LOVE IS TIMELESS; love can be described as the target domain. It is also an abstract domain and is the aspect which is being described by the metaphor. ‘Timeless’ is the source domain and it is a concrete domain. It is the one that is used to describe the target.
The source and the target help in bringing out the conventional conceptual link between the two distinct items. This is what is referred to as a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor is generally understood in terms of the target and the source.
It is possible for diverse languages to use the same conceptual metaphor. This has led to speculations by different scholars that the conceptual mappings that take place during the usage of conceptual metaphors have a direct relationship with neutral mappings that occur in the brain of a human being. Conceptual metaphors are present in people’s everyday language.
They are also vital in shaping the manner in which people think about things as well as how they do the same things. This means that conceptual metaphors are important in the cognitive processes of a person during communication. This happens many times, although it is often overlooked because it has become a common occurrence in people’s lives.
The use of conceptual metaphors therefore happens subconsciously for most of the people because it is something that has been registered in their subconscious. The use of conceptual metaphors when talking about love or when two people in a love relationship are talking to each other is very common.
This is clearly depicted in the song angel in your eyes, where the artist uses various conceptual metaphors to put across his point. Talking about the lady in question, he refers to her as his ‘day’. For most of the people, the concept of day is understood in terms of a gift. Each day that one is given to live is usually considered as a gift from God, therefore, something to be cherished and lived to the fullest.
Moreover, each day is considered to be unique as one has never seen such a day in their lives. When these two aspects are combined, it is possible to deduce that the singer views the person he is singing to as a gift that is supposed to be cherished and also as a person who is unique and different from all the rest that he may have encountered previously. Conceptual metaphors entail a lot of thought processes not merely words.
Structures of metaphoric expressions which are related in various ways are used when coming up with a conceptual metaphor. To understand the underlying meaning of these expressions, the mind is involved to unravel the hidden message that is being communicated by the conceptual metaphor.
The use of an abstract concept in the place of a target domain and a more concrete concept as the source domain further makes understanding of the conceptual metaphor require a lot of mental energy to unravel the meaning that was intended.
Conceptual mappings
A conceptual metaphor, which usually consists of a target and a source, has another component known as conceptual mappings. For example, She is my night, in the song Angel in Your Eyes by John Michael Montgomery, can be analyzed in terms of conceptual mappings. ‘She’ is inclusive of many people such as a lover, a wife, a close friend or a fiancée, depending on the person singing the song.
‘She’ can also be analyzed as an emotion of intense feelings of love that has been personified. ‘My night’ includes moon, stars, dreams and sleep. The conceptual metaphor ‘LOVE IS TIMELESS’ can be understood through cross-mapping both the source and the target domain together.
She is my night could therefore be interpreted to mean that lovers consider each other as an integral part of their lives and people who are always there by their side to cheer them up and brighten their lives when it is dark, just like the stars and the moon do. Lovers are therefore mapped onto the night as an aspect of time.
The metaphor could also be used to show how loving a person is a continuous act, as day and night appear continuously without failing.
Again, the metaphor, ‘She is the breath that gives me life’ is used to bring out the picture of ‘one is as good as a copse if they lack love’ the love the person gets from his lover is therefore mapped onto life. The breath that gives life is an important aspect of one’s life and therefore, the singer sees his lover as a very vital and integral part of their life.
Conceptual metaphors and bodily experience
According to Croft & Cruse (2004), the experiences of a person may dictate the use of conceptual metaphors. For example, it is clear to everybody that when one pours out something in an empty container, it is going to be full. Emptiness of something can therefore be eliminated by filling it with something.
There is a relationship between the vertical elevation of the liquid in the container and the quantity of the liquid being poured in the container. As one pours in the substance into the empty container, there is an increase in the level of the container that was once empty.
For example … That she fills my heart, she fills my soul, expresses the idea of the existence of a relationship between the quantity of love that is being poured out on another person’s heart and the amount of love present in their heart. The more the love is poured out in the heart, the more love there will be in the recipient’s heart. The words ‘fill’ express the idea of pouring out from one source too another that is primarily empty or not full.
This shows some emptiness in the person’s life and the need for the lover to fill the emptiness by pouring some love in their heart. This is supposed to be a free will action and it serves to show love as an action that can not be forced on someone but has to be deliberately chosen by the party engaging in it.
Love is here presented as something that is concrete and possesses the ability of being poured out or retained in a certain place. Its movement from one ‘heart’ to another has to be through the process of pouring, whereby there is a person willing to pour and a recipient willing to receive.
The Conceptual Metaphors Theory (CMT)
The conceptual metaphors possess certain characteristics which are also their distinguishing features. They include:
The unidirectionality of the metaphor
According to Croft & Cruse (2004), this property of a metaphor suggests that conceptual mappings can only happen in the order of a source domain to a target domain. The opposite can never happen. For example, love, in the expression ‘LOVE IS A SYMBOL OF ETERNITY’, which can be inferred from the two lines: She is my day, She is my night, can only be interpreted as the abstract target domain.
On the other hand, eternity can be described as the source domain. Interpreting the conceptual metaphor vice versa, to mean that love is the source domain and eternity is the target domain would create the impression that ‘eternity is love’. This is a wrong concept and does not make sense. In another example, people and supernatural beings can be considered as two domains.
The conceptual metaphors PEOPLE CAN BE SUPERNATURAL BEINGS can be forged. From this, linguistic expressions such as ‘She’ll always be an angel in my eyes’, found in the song are commonly used in the context of love. An angel is a supernatural being and the man calls his lover an angel.
Angelic qualities such as beauty and being perfect are mapped onto people. Another conceptual metaphor, heavenly bodies are people can also be formed. In this case, the heavenly bodies are considered to have human like qualities.
For example, ‘And I thank my lucky stars’, gives the impression of the stars having human-like qualities of being able to accept appreciation from people. The human ability to receive appreciation which is an animate feeling is mapped onto the star, an inanimate thing.
Common source and target domain
There are several most common domains that act as the source domains. They include the human body and its various parts such as the heart, feet, ears and head, among others (Ungerer & Schmid, 1996). In the song, the expression, ‘I get a chill runnin’ down my spine’ has been used as one containing a part of the body, the spine, as a source domain.
Animals are also used as source domains and expressions such as crocodile tears are not uncommon in day to day language.
Some expressions use plants as the source domains. For example, it is common to hear people use the metaphor ‘to bear fruit’.
The use of food as a source domain is also a normal occurrence in many people’s lives. For example, someone may ask for ‘a piece of cake’.
Lastly, forces are also used in the making of metaphors. An expression such as, he was pushed to do the job, uses force as the source domain.
Emotion is one of the target domains used in many metaphors. For example, one may say that highly overjoyed because of a certain achievement. In the statement, ‘she fills my soul’, the emotion of love is conceptualized as an object, capable of being transferred from one person to the other. In this case, there is the giver and the receiver of the emotion.
Morality can also be used as a target domain. An example of such is the expression: she gave into her demands.
Personal thoughts are a common target domain. For example, I can see trouble coming.
Another common target domain is the human relationships. For example, they cultivated their friendship.
Time is last target domain that people use in their everyday speech. An example of its usage is the expression, much time has been spent.
Metaphorical entailments
Metaphorical entailments are supplementary materials that a conceptual metaphor carries, which are not directly stated but can only be inferred (Kövecses, 2002). For example, when one says that LOVE IS TIMELESS, the idea that one can fall in love anytime is explicitly stated. Also, those in love are not limited by time when showing their affection to one another, anytime is appropriate.
Love is also explicitly portrayed as an eternal concept. Some other things can only be inferred from the statement because they are not mentioned in a direct manner. For example, there is always a starting point for any love relationship and some of them do not last eternally as suggested.
The expression shows how the sense of time is erased once a person falls in love and all fears of breaking up subside and the memory of the starting point also seem to fade, making the concept of love as something that cannot be placed in the confines of time. Time is also a valuable commodity that once it is lost, it can never be recovered. Love here is portrayed as such, once it is lost, it becomes impossible to recover.
For example, it is possible to say concerning a broken relationship that, ‘their love relationship hit a dead end’. Close scrutiny of an expression is necessary for someone to understand the metaphorical entailments of an expression.
This is because; they are not directly visible by a single glance at the conceptual metaphor. There can be several metaphorical entailments in just a single conceptual metaphor if one takes a closer look at it and thinks about it critically.
Metaphor system
Metaphor system refers to how a distinct metaphor relates to another one to form another metaphor that is more complex (Holme, 2009). Such relationships are common in most metaphors.
The invariance principle
According to Kövecses (2002), the invariance principle of a metaphor refers to the consistency that exists between the source and the target domain. The source domain is supposed to be chosen depending with the target domain and the intended message. When this happens, mapping is not a spontaneous happening but it is the structure of the target and source domain that limit the metaphorical mapping of that particular metaphor.
For example, the phrase, ‘She’ll always be an angel in my eyes’ is a positive one that is aimed at praising the lover. ‘She’ the target domain, is understood in relation to the source domain, in this case the angel. If counter example such as, ‘she’ll always be a devil in my eyes’, is used, the conceptual metaphor may seem eccentric.
This can be explained by the fact that the source domain ‘devil’, does not match up with target domain, ‘love’. ‘Angel’ gives an accurate picture of the beauty and other positive traits of the lady in question, who is the target domain. On the other hand, ‘devil’ does not have any correspondence with the inherent make up of the target domain, who is the lover being praised in the song.
Types of conceptual metaphors
Structural metaphors
These types of metaphors are those which have one of the concepts structured in a metaphorical manner. This same concept is then used as a target and understood in terms of another in a metaphor (Holme, 2009). For example, she is my day.
Orientational metaphors
These are metaphors characterized by certain orientations. For example, when the artist in the song says ‘Sometimes we laugh’, this can be described as them being up. However, when he says, ‘sometimes we cry’, this can be described as feeling down.
Ontological Metaphors
Holme (2009) describes ontological metaphors as a type of metaphors which are derived from experiences of human beings as they interact with their physical environment. This experience enables the human beings to see abstract things such as emotions as concrete and tangible things. For example, the heart is a container, is suggested by the artist when he says, ‘That she fills my heart’.
Conceptual metaphors around us
Kövecses (2002) says that conceptual metaphors are present in our daily lives as people engage in conversations while using certain linguistic expressions. For example, she is my day, she is my night. ‘She’ in this case is the target domain which represents a person who is loved; while day and night represent an aspect of time. The conceptual metaphor, LOVE IS TIMELESS, can be used to bring out their combined meaning.
Again, the following statements carry the same idea and can be summarized by a single conceptual metaphor. She is the breath that gives me life, she’s the closest thing to Heaven and she’ll always be an angel in my eyes are all used in reference to love.
She is the target domain that represents love, while ‘breath that gives me life, the closest thing to Heaven and an angel in my eyes’ all infer to a supernatural being. The conceptual metaphor, LOVE IS SUPERNATURAL, can be used to sum up the idea in the three expressions. Conceptual metaphors vary from one language to another.
Metonymy
According to Ungerer & Schmid (1996), metonymy is also a concept in linguistics which deals with derivation of meaning through association of one entity with another that it is related to. Metonymy can be understood by looking at it as a concept whereby, one a certain expression in linguistics is used in place of another. Both the expression that stands for the other and the one substituted are linguistic entities.
For example, I thank my lucky stars, in the song. Lucky stars stands for a divine being to whom the person extends their gratitude. ‘Day’, in the expression, She is my day, could have several interpretations such as the light. ‘Night’ in the line, She is my night, could be used to mean rest, since nights are associated with people resting.
Metonymy can also defined as a mental process which involves the use of two conceptual entities, known as the source and the target. The two entities are used within the same conceptual domain.
Metonymy as a conceptual domain
The linguistic concept of metonymy can be termed as part of humans’ daily ways of thinking. It is dependent on one’s experience and is a useful tool in the organization of one’s thought processes and manner of acting. For example, she is the breath that gives me life. ‘The breath that gives life’ is used in reference to the vital requirement for one to continue living without which a person would die.
The expression is used to show the value of the lady in the life of the singer. The survival of a person is dependent on the presence or absence of the breath. Someone without the breath that gives life is termed as a dead person. The use of such a strong metonym serves the purpose of expressing the importance of the lady in the artist’s life. The metonym breath, which is used in place of life, is very common.
Metonym as a cognitive process
As a cognitive process, metonymy incorporates two aspects: contiguity and contingency (Ungerer & Schmid, 1996). Contiguity refers to the close association between the physical and the causal entities in the metonym. For example, she’ll always be an angel in my eyes, shows a close and explicit relationship between the lady in question and an angel. This would be in reference to the beauty or the perfection of the lady in the singer’s eyes.
Contingency refers to the aspect of a metonym being able to have one entity draw attention to another within the same concept. This can be illustrated by the line, ‘She’ll always be an angel in my eyes’. The context in this statement is love. ‘An angel’ has been used to draw attention to the concept of beauty in relation to love.
Metonymy’s scope of operation
According to Croft & Cruse (2004), the scope of operation of metonymy is limited to a single conceptual domain. The mode of operation is such that a single conceptual unit serves as an avenue for mental access by another conceptual unit. The two conceptual units operate within the same domain.
This can simply be explained by the concepts of vehicle and target. Both the target and the vehicle are drawn from the same conceptual domains. The vehicle is used as a means of drawing attention to the target. Metonymy therefore becomes the route for doing this.
Different types of metonymy
Several types of metonymy have been identified by linguists. For example, there is the producer for product type of metonyms. In this case, a certain product is referred to by the same name as the producer. For example, ‘She’s the closest thing to Heaven’. The artist uses the word heaven, to refer to the Supreme Being who created it. Heaven is therefore used instead of God.
Another type of conceptual metonymy is whereby an object is used in place of the user. For example, she fills my soul. ‘She’, in this context is used in place of another thing, which is love. This is because it is not possible for a person to enter another’s soul, but the expression is commonly used to refer to the love one gets from another.
Some metonyms are also used in a way that part represents whole (Croft & Cruse, 2004). For example, she fills my heart. My heart in this statement is a part of the body of the singer and it implies the whole of him. Just because the other parts of his body are not mentioned does not mean that they are not inclusive in the statement but it means that the heart has been used to represent everything in the body.
The title of the song too, angel in your eyes, is used in a manner that part represents whole. ‘Your eyes’ in this context refers to the person as a whole but not the eyes only.
Relationship between metaphor and metonymy
The two are conceptual processes which help in understanding of certain concepts. They are useful to the human conceptual systems. In language, they emerge as a mirror of the existing conceptual system. Metonyms and metaphors therefore interact in the conceptual system and the results of these interactions are exhibited in the resultant semantic structure (Ungerer & Schmid, 1996).
Since both metonymy and conceptual metaphors are linguistic features, which try to appeal to the cognitive of the human mind, they serve common purposes in most cases whenever they are used. However, metonymy gives one an opportunity to focus on particular aspects of the concept that is being explained.
Metonymic concepts such as ‘She’ll always be an angel in my eyes’ are common in our day to day lives, especially for those in love relationships. This is replicated in conversations that people engage in as well as songs that are sang to express one’s love to their lover, especially the ladies.
This is because; this expression can have diverse interpretations. For instance, one could mean that the lady who is being told this words is extra ordinarily beautiful such that she can only be compared to an angel. Again, the expression can be used to show how detached the two are because angels are believed to reside in heaven, a place that is perceived to be very far.
The expression could also mean that she is a close companion in times of need and just like angels are believed to offer human beings help in their times of need, the lady is very prompt in meeting the needs of the person saying these words. The person could also mean that the lady is of a rare species that is very hard to find.
Just like angels are not found everywhere and can not be accessed by any person, the lady is unique and it is very hard to find people like her. Metonymic concepts are therefore part of everyday language that people use, although most of the times they are not aware that they are using them.
Conclusion
The application of cognitive linguistics in people’s day to day lives is not something uncommon. People tend to use concepts such as metaphors and metonyms either consciously or unconsciously as they carry on with their daily businesses. The area of love pop songs is one that has extensively used these two concepts to evoke emotions of love, fear, grief and even anger, among others.
Many people result to listening to these songs because of the emotional satisfaction they get from them. Although it has been argued that these songs tend to create a social-emotional world that is non-existent, people still listen to them, especially because of the way linguistic aspects such as conceptual metaphors and metonyms are used.
The use of conceptual metaphors and metonyms in love pop songs helps in expressing and bringing out a clear picture of emotions that are otherwise not visible by our naked eyes or when simple, ordinary and plain language is used.
Recommendations
Cognitive linguistics is found in many areas of people’s lives and play a great role in communication. Love pop songs have been used for a long time as avenues of expressing human emotions. The songs are very effective in communication of emotions that would rather be kept private rather than be made known to other people.
Emotions such as guilt and shame are not easy to express, but through pop love songs, people have been able to freely express such emotions.
Training of cognitive linguistics, especially the areas of metaphors and metonyms can be very helpful to artists who compose these songs. Such training would help the artists to come up with music that is not overly imaginative, but which is able capture the emotions of people in a real world. This would also help in the minimization of exaggerations in the songs.
Upcoming musicians can also be taught about the importance of using conceptual metaphors and metonyms in order to pass across their message in a simplistic manner. The teaching of cognitive linguistics in schools should be taken seriously and more effort should be put to ensure that students do well in this area because it is going to help them in their endeavors.
Metonyms and conceptual metaphors can be very useful in addressing issues of social relationships. This is because; at times it is hard to confront people directly because of their failures and especially in the context of love. Pop songs, laden with conceptual metaphors and metonyms, can be an effective tool of doing this without being offensive to the party involved.
It also becomes easier for the person addressing the issue, be it a conflict, heartbreak or just expressing feelings of resentment, because of personal dissatisfaction with a relationship. The combination of conceptual metaphors, metonyms and pop songs are therefore very useful in the restoration of social order and resolving of conflicts.
Reference List
Colin, V. (1996). Human Attachment. Philadelphia: Temple U. Press.
Croft, W. & Cruse, D. A. (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P90
Evans, V. & Green, M. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Hatfield, E. and Rapson, R. (1993). Love, Sex, and Intimacy. New York: HarperCollins.
Holme, R. (2009). Cognitive Linguistics and Language Teaching. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kövecses, Z. (2002). Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Plutchick, R. (2003). Emotions and Life. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Ungerer. F. & Schmid, H. J. (1996). An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. London/New York: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock does not contain the glorification of the beloved, the rapture of the power of feeling expected from a love song. We can’t even be sure that this song is dedicated to a particular lady. There is no portrait of a “certain person” in the poem, all the signs of femininity (hands, bracelets, skirts, shawls) are given in the plural, so we cannot say with complete certainty that they belong to Prufrok’s beloved. Instead, they create the impression of a hero revolving in female society, surrounded by women, and in this society, he feels himself a stranger. The Love Song seems to be a complaint of a middle-aged, lonely, hypersensitive person about the impossibility of love and simple mutual understanding. The protagonist does not dare to speak to a woman, but he confesses to the reader.
Prufrock’s monologue is permeated with colloquial intonations, saturated with images that were considered impermissibly rude for poetry at the beginning of the century. It opens with a description of a city walk:
Let us go then, you and I, When the evening is spread out against the sky Like a patient etherized upon a table;
Evening spread out “like a patient etherized upon a table” is not just an unusual metaphor. The author immediately introduces us into the world, as if under anesthesia, into the world of Prufrock, where the sensations of real-time and space are anesthetized and frozen. After this reduced sketch of the ugly, poor streets, the images of the real city disappear from the poem forever. Even quite real, unsightly streets become a way to move not in physical space, but in spiritual space. This spiritual space is the hero’s consciousness and subconsciousness, where fragments of his inner drama are played out, and the repetitive refrains set the form for the intermittent space of the poem.
Relation to Dante’s Epigraph
These are the words of Count Guido da Montefeltro, who is punished for the sly advice he gave to Pope Boniface VIII. The count agrees to tell his story, confident that his listener will never return to the world of the living, and they will not know about his (the count’s) shameful act on earth. A superficial parallel to Prufrock’s intent is obvious. Prufrock also hesitates to sing his song, fearing that others will find out about his secret desires. But the epigraph from Dante carries another idea that is important for understanding the Eliot text. Before committing a sin, Guido repented. However, salvation did not come, and he ended up in Hell. This is where Eliot’s principled motive of inauthentic repentance arises: Prufrok’s confession is just as false as Guido’s repentance. The image of the romantic hero whom he sees in himself is just a conventional mask, a stamp of the 19th-century culture.
Interestingly, although Walt Whitman presents his poem a song of myself in first person narration, he implicitly expresses the theme of democracy. Reflecting on the social and political environment in America during the nineteenth century, he uses collective terms to pass his message to the audience.
Whitman writes his poem in free verse style for clarity and easier expression of his mind. Succinctly, he applies a simple style in his poem to emphasize on the aspect of humanity, which the American society had just embraced. Whitman combines both his artistic and poetic nature to honor and appreciate societal apprehension of democracy as critically analyzed in the next discussion.
By reading the first line of the first stanza “I CELEBRATE myself and sing myself” (Loving), the first impression the audience gets is that the poet is focusing on an individual’s life. However, as the poem unfolds the audience understands that Whitman is appreciating and honoring the democracy that prevails in America. For instance, in the seventh line of the seventh stanza, Whitman writes, “I am the mate and companion of people, all just as immortal and fathomless as myself “(Loving).
Intuitively, he is using his own personality or character to confirm the spirit of togetherness that is common in his society. According to Whitman, all people regardless of the race are equal thus; he is not only appreciating the spirit of democracy but also compelling the society to embrace the same. Therefore, Whitman uses the poem, writing it in a unique style to call for a change in the social lives of the Americans.
Furthermore, he couples a free verse style, first person narration with a unique rhythmic pattern to elaborate his message. For instance, in section one, he writes in a rhythmic nature when he says, “Houses and rooms are full of perfumes” (Loving), to show the happiness that democracy brings in households.
The application of phrases in plural form brings out the rhythm in the poem. Moreover, he applies many collective words in the poem, which highlight the issue of unity. For example, in stanza thirty-one he says, “And the pismire is equally perfect, and a grain of sand, and the egg of the wren” (Loving line I). In addition, he constantly refers to grasses, which highlight togetherness. Authentically, grass and sand cannot exist singularly thus; his cautious choice of words is to motivate people to continue practicing democracy.
On the other hand, Whitman uses his experience in journalism to express his feelings about the socio-political aspects present in the society. Professionally, Whitman had acted as an instructor and a journalist with a specialty in editing articles. Therefore, his poem entailed artistic qualities due to professionalism. Literary, although he embarked on a unique writing style, the theme, rhythm, tone and other features of literature seem perfectly expressed.
In brief, from the title of the poem the song of myself, an individual may be unable to unravel the message the poem is yet to express. However, through his eloquent choice of words, Whitman expresses his satisfaction in democracy.
Besides, using the first person narration to express his message he explicitly uses the free verse style of writing that was rare in the literary world during his time. Critically, when compared to other literary works, Whitman’s poem is not only perfect but it is also important in learning institutions especially where American literature is in the curriculum.
Works Cited
Loving, Jerome. Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself. California: University of California Press, 1999. Print
Introduction: Persuasion through the Prism of Time
Talking about the impact that Jane Austen had on the English Romanticism takes hours. Jane Austin created a number of other works that touch upon not only personal, but also social and ethical issues. One of these works, Persuasion, is famous for the moral issues serving as the key themes of the novel.
Thesis statement
Despite the fact that Austin raises a wide range of social issues in Persuasion, Jane Austen’s novel actually revolves around two basic themes, i.e., persuasion and pride; making it clear that there is a close relation between the two, Austen shows graphically that the tortures of persuasion that the leading characters trap themselves and the people close to them into stem from their pride and inability to overcome the latter.
The Main Themes: Reading between the Lines
The trap of tautology: persuasion in Persuasion
As it follows from the title of the novel, persuasion actually is its major theme, which the entire plot revolves around; indeed, considering the motivations of each character closer, one will see inevitably that their actions have little to do with what the characters actually want.
Guided either by their own principles, as in case of Sir Elliot, or by the convictions of others, as in case of his daughter, the key female protagonist in the story, the characters act on the basis of what is believed by the society to be the best choice instead of analyzing their own feelings and doing what they think is best for them:
“If I was wrong in yielding to persuasion once, remember that it was to persuasion exerted on the side of safety, not of risk. When I yielded, I thought it was to duty; but no duty could be called in aid here. In marrying a man indifferent to me, all risk would have been incurred, and all duty violated” (Austen Chapter 23).
The given excerpt shows that, deluded by their own misconceptions, the characters in the novel were guided by persuasion instead of the call of their hearts, which made the characters unhappy.
For instance, persuasion rules the life of Anne, the leading female character mentioned above. Persuaded by her vain father and Lady Russell to reject the love of her life and choose a wealthier man as her husband, she is a rather complex character: “I have loved none but you. Unjust I may have been, weak and resentful I have been, but never inconstant.” (Austen Chapter 23).
Her rejection of Captain Frederick’s love can be interpreted as either a result of her father and Lady Russell’s persuasion, and as a well thought-out step of a very strong-willed person, who has decided to sacrifice her own happiness for the sake of her relationships with her father and the ability to support her family later on, even though she realizes how ethically wrong it is.
Hence the conflict between ethics and moral duty appears, making Anne’s character even more complex: “When I yielded, I thought it was to duty; but no duty could be called in aid here. In marrying a man indifferent to me, all risk would have been incurred, and all duty violated” (Austen Chapter 23), she would explain later on to Mr. Elliot.
By saying this, Anne clarifies that she was not only under the persuasion of her father when being pushed into marrying the man whom she never loved. Instead, Anne was under the persuasion of her own, i.e., the delusion that her marrying someone according to her father’s will would be the right thing to do. Therefore, under the persuasion of her father and society regarding what her duty is, Anne decides to sacrifice her love.
It would be wrong to assume that Anne is the only character who acts under the guidance of persuasion. Her father can also be considered the victim of persuasion. The fact that Sir Walter is continuously forcing himself to do what his vanity accepts, he makes his daughter suffer.; however, after Sir Walter realizes that Anne would be much happier with Wentworth, he fights his persuasion successfully:
“When he saw more of Captain Wentworth, saw him repeatedly by daylight, and eyed him well, he was very much struck by his personal claims” (Austen Chapter 24).
Despite the fact that Sir Elliot’s vanity persuaded him to direct his daughter’s life the way which he considered right, he finally manages to see past his vanity. As a result, his persuasion subsides.
However, one person in the novel still manages to get out of the tight grip of persuasion and pride. This person is Frederick Wentworth, who finally manages to swallow his pride for the sake of his happiness:
“This nut … while so many of its brethren have fallen and been trodden under foot, is still in possession of all the happiness that a hazel-nut can be supposed capable of” (Austen Chapter 10). While his pride and convictions also rule his life, he finally manages to fight his persuasion and make the first step towards his reconciliation with Anne.
A matter of pride: where persuasion stems from
Perhaps, even the greatest writers tend to repeat themselves; once a certain issue has been raised in one of the novels, it can also be found in the rest of the creations. However, only the true masters of literature can weave these concepts into the story canvas without hurting the plot, the characters or any other relevant part of the novel.
Sir Walter is not the only character, whose pride hurts too much to take the right step; the rest of the characters are also tied with their decision to follow their mind instead of their heart and, therefore, suffer greatly. Austen makes it clear that in most cases, a hart-to-heart talk would have solved half, if not all, the complexities between the characters; however, each of them prefers silent pain.
One of the most graphic examples concerns Captain Frederick Wentworth and Anne Elliot. Austin makes it especially clear that these two characters only have to make a tiny effort; yet the wall of pride that they have built between each other keeps them safely alienated: “I was proud, too proud to ask again” (Austen Chapter 8), Wentworth confesses.
Whenever these two characters come to speak to each other, one can feel a tangible air of pretense and willingness to take a grip of one’s emotions; yet they prefer suffering their pain instead of sacrificing their pride.
“His cold politeness, his ceremonious grace, were worse than anything” (Austen Chapter 8); however, Anna prefers to grind and bear it instead of explaining herself. Therefore, pride can also be considered the motif of the novel.
Conclusion: Silence! The Mind Speaks
Intertwined in a single motif, persuasion and pride seem the only basic themes in Jane Austen’s Persuasion; the novel could have been named Persuasion and Pride, for that matter.
While Austen also touches upon a range of important social issues, including the ones related to family, as well as the conflict between a person’s desires and inclinations and his/her call of duty, and a number of other social issues relevant for the epoch portrayed in the novel, the focus is on the issue that have always been topical and will remain topical centuries later – the conflict between one’s heart and mind.
Ringing in every paragraph of the novel, persuasion as the key motivation of the characters and the resulting suffering clearly are the key motifs of the novel, and the compromise is its natural outcome.
Women are valuable members of society as they ensure the character development of their children. They care for the children right from the early developmental stages. The mother also immensely contributes to the success of the father. The conspicuous void left when the mother is away cannot be filled by anyone else. Both the children and the husband will definitely miss her because she is the epitome of their comfort and sustenance.
“The Mother Return” by Dorothy Wordsworth is a highly sensational poem. It talks about the great bond between children and their mothers. This is evidenced by the high sense of expectancy expressed by the son when the persona reveals that their mother, whom they have missed for a whole month, is about to return. The boy cannot wait for tomorrow. He needs to see the mother immediately! The poem foregrounds the pivotal role played by the mother and the extent to which her absence can disturb the children’s minds. Ironically, the persona does not encourage the boy but tells her the mother is far away. This, however, does not weigh down the boy. He keeps hoping for the mother’s return.
The song, “Oh mother” by Christina Aguilera is a great appreciation of the singer for the great upbringing from her mother. She immensely appreciates the pain and suffering persevered by her mother to make her who she is. The mother had tackled the challenges in a way that left the singer stronger. She argues strongly in defense of the mother asserting that the mother is the one who will sick closer even if everyone in the world neglected you.
Both the song and the poem echo the idea of appreciating the mother. Whereas the poem gives welcoming remarks to the mother and invites her to revert to her rightful position and role in the family, the song offers gratitude for the role she has already played. The personas in both cases yearn for the mother’s company and abhor anything that would separate them. Mothers go through a lot to ensure their children have a bright future. Due to this fact, Christina really appreciates her mother for her womanly act of taking care of her well. As the song begins, it seems the persona is addressing the mother just shortly before her return. It is only later in the song that we discover that as soon as the mother returned, the persona sang this song to welcome her. This aspect of parallelism in both the poem and the song shows that the mother in both cases had been away from the children and this culminates into a great urge for a reunion. That is why the mother’s return in the poem calls for a celebration.
“And she tomorrow will return/ tomorrow is the happy day” (Wordsworth 3-4).
Since the first words of the song are in the past tense, it could be predicted that the mother is perhaps dead.
“She was so young with such innocent eyes, she always dreamt of a fairytale life” (Aguilera 2-3).
However, we later learn that this is not the case. The mother lives on and continues to care for her precious daughter. From the theme of the song, we can comfortably say that the predictions made are only imaginative. The first line does not give any hint of the mother returning the same day. This is different from the poem where the first line is in the past giving possible allusion to the mother’s death.
“A month sweet little one is past/ since your dear mother went away” (Wordsworth 1-2).
Unlike in the song, the use of the past tense in the poem is of little impact. We cannot confusedly say that the mother is dead from the phrase “went away” because our hope for her return is ignited almost immediately in the subsequent lines. The mother is greatly missed in the poem heightening the hope for her return and the desire for a family reunion.
The language that the poem uses is easy to understand and the events are recounted in chronological order. One is first introduced to the duration when the mother was away and then tipped on what will become of the family on her return. The song uses communicative language and has an emotional touch brought about by the tears the mother has to shed and the difficulty with which she raises the singer. The singer’s sense of appreciation and gratitude to the mother is also something I find highly efficacious. The poet progressively utilizes figurative language. Similes and metaphors are tactfully employed to foreground the joy that the mother’s return brings to the family.
“A month sweet little ones are passed/ since your dear mother went away” (Wordsworth 1-2).
However, the poetic license to shorten words has caused the negative effect of compromising the reader’s comprehension of the poem.
“We told o’er all that w had done” (Wordsworth33).
This use of syncope as a style in the word “o’er” to mean “over” can be confusing to some readers and therefore does more harm than good.
Although the song is written in simple language that everyone can understand,
“She was so young with such innocent eyes/ she always dreamt of a fair life/ and all the things that your money can buy” (Aguilera 2-4).
It also contains complex styles that may hinder audience comprehension. Moreover, its literariness is questionable since it recounts events in a straightforward way that is not characteristic of literature. This brings it closer to prose than poetry. In comparison, the language of the poem is quite more complex than the song. However, the poem’s use of similes and metaphors to emphasize foregrounds its literariness.
“Her joy is like an instinct joy/ of kitten, bird or summer fly” (Wordsworth 21-22).
Instead of the poet addressing the kids to explain the mother’s return, it would make much more sense if the father and the mother were addressed for being away and then celebrating the family reunion. Appreciation and praise of the mother makes her proud of her role in the family. If I were the mother, I would not neglect my children for that long. I would rather be present to make sure they are brought up well. The author’s aim for writing this song is for the family members to appreciate the significance of the mother. The author’s praise for the mother is thus justified.
“When the mother returns, joy would fill the family, O blessed tidings!” (Wordsworth 5).
The fact that the kids wait eagerly for the mother will make her happy on her return. She will be delighted to hear a song sang in her praise. Indeed the efforts of the mother to raise the kids deserve praise.
“O mother we are stronger/ from all the tears that you have shed” (Aguilera 10-13).
The sadness of the children caused by the mother’s absence will culminate into merry making when she finally returns. Although her return should be a joyous moment, the mother is also to blame for the children’s emotional torture. However, the somber mood of the children will change into a joyous one when she arrives.
Mothers need to know the essential family roles that they have to play. They are the major unifying factor in the family. However, they should serve their children for their good future, without necessarily expecting anything in return. They should not abandon children at tender age. In the article, “The power of a mom’s Love.” By Laurie Cameron, we find a mother who despite her child’s disability and societal neglect, she does her best to secure a good future for the child by looking at the child positively. Due to this experience, she goes further to extend a hand of help to other special needy children in the society.
“By now, Laurie is ill in as a mother dedicated to helping not only Luke but other special –needs children- and their parents. She left Fortune five years ago, and since then, she has bubbled over with ideas” (Nocera 2).
Both the poem and the article explain the role of the mother in the family. We are what our mothers made us to be in our toddlerhood, and they remain to be our heroes. Responsible motherhood is a key element in the family that should be embraced by all mothers. All members of the family should also offer gratitude to the mother for her efforts. The persona in the poem makes the children sad by saying the mother is still far away and her arrival is tomorrow, not today. Even though the mother might sometimes be away for valid reasons, her absence should not be prolonged. Whether the children are disabled or not they need unconditional love from the mother. Our mothers took care of us to reach where we are and they deserve appreciation. The song rightly educates those who disregard the fact that their mothers contributed immensely for their upbringing.