Toni Morrisons various books have frequently made use of magic, African-American spiritual beliefs and religious values to construct and convey a strong narrative element. The Song of Solomon works on an absolute assumption that all magic experienced by the books characters is real.
Therefore, African spiritual elements are recurrently used as metaphors for each and every episode that takes place in their lives. So, we have women who can be born without a navel like Virgin Mary, grown men who can fly around the town like the experienced aviator Charles Lindhberg, murdered babies returning from the dead fully grown into adults and conjurers practicing various forms of African pagan spiritualism including Voodoo (Beaulieu, 2003, p.89).
To the untrained reader, the first layer of the narrative would appear downright illogical due to its extensive interweaving with the world of magic and ghosts. However, as one starts looking past these mysterious elements, it becomes a fascinating exercise to observe the several subtle, hidden layers in the plot which traverse an entire gamut of emotions ranging from mirth to sorrow. An example,
The men and the dogs were talking to each other. In distinctive voices they were saying distinctive, complicated things. (Morrison, 1987, p. 277)
The sense of anthropomorphism in the above sentence is basically an abstract literary device which attempts to convey the principle of vital existence as a basic element of human well-being. Several sentences like this have been sprinkled throughout the plot to convey the entire range of inner emotions that the characters are going through at any moment.
In that sense, Morrisons dependence on surreal elements of magic to convey various plot elements can be equated to the twisted allegory of a world where words create magic, literally, since conjurers are an integral part of the narrative flow (Beaulieu, 2003, p.89).
The key protagonist Macon Milkman Dead, an African-American male character, is depicted as a confused person who wants to uncover the historical truth and bitter realities behind his family name Dead . The name was accidentally soaked up by his grandfather, a newly freed Negro slave from the Civil War era whose Master was dead and hence, the man was re-born into this new identity that made him increasingly distantly from his African roots. Macon Milkman Deads feelings on this historical incident are summarized as:
Macon Dead never knew how it came about how his only son acquired the nickname that stuck in spite of his own refusal to use it or acknowledge it. It was a matter that concerned him a good deal, for the giving of names in his family was always surrounded by what he believed to be monumental foolishness. (Morrison, 1987, p.15)
Three generations after the slave name became a part of their family destiny, Macon Milkman Deads journey of self-exploration takes him in the direction of the mythical town of Shalimar where he believed there was hidden gold, a fortune he wanted to use for personal benefits (Morrison, 1987, p.112).
Instead, Milkman learns up the stark history of his familys inglorious past. One of his ancestors, Solomon by name, had managed to break free from the manacles of slavery, to escape to Africa leaving twenty-one children behind.
Milkman was able to conjure up the vision of this poignant past with the help of Pilate, his aunt and a soothsayer who is depicted throughout the narrative as a woman with amazing clairvoyant abilities and a motherly nurturing instinct. Pilate is also shown responsible for the very conception of Milkman. Being a soothsayer, she saw the arrival of this child even before his birth.
Having learned that there was not much love was lost between the parents, she fed the father a magical concoction which forced him to take the necessary steps towards procreation. Through Pilates character, Morrison basically portrays a closer look into the world of magic realism which consists of elements of Voodoo, black magic and the healing art of African midwifery. All rituals portrayed in the book are replete with the mysticism and ghostly allure attached to African spirituals.
The objective behind using the allegory through Pilate by Morrison is to represent the woman as the manifestation of Mother Earth herself, a character so pious and invigorating that she is above sin herself. The allegories of Virgin Mary are also represented through Milkmans two sisters, whose names were picked by their parents by sticking pins in the Holy Bible itself (Morrison, 1987, p.22).
In contrast to these deeply content and pious characters, Milkmans own life is shown as one of bitter conflicts, acrimonies and a search for true identity. Towards this end, fairy tale elements such as Hansel and Gretel and Rumpeltiltskin have been used by Morrison to convey the sense of hope and exhilaration experienced by Milkman to challenge the frustrations of his life. He also runs into hostility several times into the story with his own father who habitually used to hurt his mother.
In order to depict Milkmans constant struggles with his own self-esteem issues, Morrison uses another allegorical ploy, of dreams (Morrison, 1987, p.23). Through these dreams, he is able to magically visualize his life through various scenes which start unfolding in real life as well. Pilate visualizes the father guiding her through the forest. There are also depictions of princesses riding a chariot into a world of eternal and ethereal bliss (Morrison, 1987, p.111).
Another key allegorical element in the book if of human flight. In the first chapter itself, the character of Robert Smith is shown with attached wings, in an attempt of figurative flight. According to Morrison, there can be several interpretations of this flight attempt. One, it could indicate the acquired skills-set of a pioneering African-American aviator.
Two, in the world of magical realism into which Morrison attempts to draw the reader to, the flight indicates a form of escapism which was the mainstay of many African-American lives who bore the brunt of racial prejudice due to unjust Jim Crow laws.
Three, the flight also could have been interpreted as a suicide attempt for a failed insurance agent, perhaps depicting the struggles of the Great Depression era, during 1931 where the plot is loosely based on. Following in the foot-steps of Robert Smith, Milkman is shown to attempt his own loose flight towards the end of the narrative.
In this case, he is shown as someone who wants to escape from the bitter realities of life. In the same vein, it may be understood that Milkman wants to soar like an eagle by being transformed into a world of magic realism where there are infinite possibilities in life. A message of hope is left towards the end.
If you surrender to the air, you can ride it. (Morrison, 1987, p.337)
Solomon done fly, Solomon done gone, Solomon cut across the sky, Solomon gone home. (Morrison, 1987, p. 303)
References
Beaulieu, E.A. (2003). The Tony Morrison Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Morrison, T. (1987). Song of Solomon (Oprahs Book Club). New York, NY: Penguin Books USA.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the theme of Family as showcased in the books; Song of Solomon and Life & Times of Michael K. Theme analysis is vital in the understanding of the books and the central message of the authors. More than that, the theme of Family in the two novels is understanding the Song of Solomon and the Life & Times of Michael as the characters and the situations in the stories play around them to bring out the subject matter clearly to the readers. Lastly, this analysis contrasts the presentation of the theme of Family in the two novels, analyzing their similarities and differences in a manner that is more personal and triggering family memories of any reader.
The Theme of Family in the Novel, Life & Times of Michael K
The relationship among the family members has always inspired everyone and more so writers because the bond of the Family is an everlasting one. Family is one of the fundamental units of the society which source happiness, love, and sense of belonging. In the story of Michael, when he was delivered, the nurse said his mother, Anna, that children with harelip could bring good luck. Yet, Michael was raised in the Orphanage but not with his mother. There is a wonderful example of an inspiring relationship in the Family in the novel; Life & Times of Michael K., which showcase an unconditional love of a son. In the story, the author, J.M. Coetzee, talks of Michael. The latter is abandoned by his mother and forced to spend his entire childhood in a terrible situation in an orphanage institution.
In the terrible Orphanage, he is neither loved nor pampered enough like other children, and thus, it is naturally expected that Michael would grow emotionally and socially unbalanced. However, Michael still grows up loving his mother. His love for his mother grows stronger each day to an extent that he develops the courage to leave the city even without a travelling permit, but to find his way and take care about her until the very end. When he had grown up, he obtained a position of a gardener in Cape Town, but his mother who was at one point worked as a servant, began to feel worse and sores with each new day. There were civil wars in the country that prompted the use of the martial law. At the time, the health is Michael’s mother, Anna, began to decline terribly, thus making Michael comply with the wish of his mother to go to Prince Albert. She later died in hospital and the devastated Michael continued with his journey to bury the ash of his mother in the place he promised her.
The Theme of Family in the Novel, Song of Solomon
In the novel, Song of Solomon, the author, Toni Morrison explores the idea of Family is a unique way, using the story of Macon ‘Milkman’ dead and his family, going back three generations. The novel explores the complexities existing at home, the power of the family kin to uplift and suppress as well as transform or reform the relationships in the Family. The author uses other themes such as slavery in America, the enduring stain of racial discrimination, politics, economy as well as culture to develop the subject matter of Family and the wounds these other factors brings to the Family.
The Family in the novel comes in the form of both pleasure and pain obtained in the Family. Solomon’s Family is fractured in the aftermath of his magical flight. Solomon and his wife, Ryna have 21 children, and when she loses her mind, the children are virtually left alone to fend for themselves. In the process, the stage is set for a dysfunctional family relationship involved with either too much closeness or none of it at all. Macon obtains the nickname, ‘Milkman’ because Ruth continued to breastfeed him well into his childhood.
The reality of the Solomon’s Family is compounded to extent that Macon Jr. and his sister, Pilate, never experienced the kind of a bond that exist between the parent and children or a parent/child bond. The theme of pain and emotional trauma in the Family is climaxed when Macon Sr. is murdered right before his children’s eyes by an affluent white family, known as the Butlers. It is said that the Family of the Butlers wanted to seize Lincoln’s prosperous farm (heaven) where Macron Sr. had labored for years to build. After the death of their father, Pilate and Macron Jr. lived apart, thus establishing the Family, prosperity, and independence their father, who was born a slave, had toiled to create for them in for the years when the Civil War period shall have ended. This is the reality with which the Family of Milkman must cope with, dealing with the contradictory aspect of estrangement, independence after loss, and dysfunctional attachment of the family bond.
Comparison and Contrasts
Both novels explore the theme of Family diverse and similar ways. The similarities in the family theme usage in the two stories are that both showcase a situation where children grow up without their parents. Michael in Life & Times of Michael K grows in the Orphanage and misses a more significant part of his mothers and his father’s lives. His childhood experience had neither loved nor pampered enough like other children and thus, it is naturally expected that Michael would grow emotionally and socially unbalanced. In the similar manner, in Song of Solomon, the children of Macron Sr. and his wife grew without their parents after their lost her mind and Macron Sr. was murdered by the affluent white Family, known as the Butlers.
The circumstances of these children in both the novels growing without their parents are different and the manner is different too. For instance, Song of Solomon, the children of Macron Sr. and his wife grew without their parents after their lost her mind and Macron Sr. was murdered by the affluent white Family, known as the Butlers. In Michael in Life & Times of Michael K, Michael grows in the Orphanage, because of the health condition of his mother.
In these two novels, the importance of a family and the essentiality of the family bond are critically explored through the aspects of the dysfunctional families. Family is among the top essential factors in the life of everyone, especially for a child. Children growing up without parents or in dysfunctional families find it rough as they grow up and may become unbalanced emotionally, socially, or physically for lack of parental or Family love.
The concept of flight is a motif that is displayed all throughout Song of Solomon. From the very beginning of the novel, the epigraph (“The fathers may soar / And the children may know their names”) already establishes that flying, symbolized in various manners, would be a prominent motif in the novel. This could indicate the desire to escape an unfavorable situation, moving to greener pastures, but it does not necessarily escape the consequences arising from the ‘flight.’ The fathers who soared may have left the children who eventually grew to know their names.
The first instance of flight was portrayed by Mr. Robert Smith’s suicide attempt during the opening of the book. The act of committing suicide usually indicates that the person wishes to escape the feeling of suffering, to fly towards a better place, but the person does not realize that although he/she is liberated, those who are left behind will end up hurting. Smith aims to ‘fly’ in the novel by literally leaping off a roof. Suicide is generally regarded as a negative event; however, in the novel, those watching him do not seem to understand that this leads to death and further encourages him and celebrates the act because they interpret this as an attempt at flying. Additionally, those in Shalimar also believe that the story regarding Solomon’s flight is a literal story and actually occurred. This pushes the novel towards the genre of magical realism, because the characters in Song of Solomon believe that human flight is possible.
The transition from Smith’s leap to the introduction of the main lead, Macon Dead III aka Milkman, was made through a comparison of Smith’s and Milkman’s characters. The day after Smith’s death, Milkman was born and upon growing up, became very disappointed upon finding out that humans are not able to fly, which Mr. Smith realized after jumping off the building. Milkman’s suspicions on the possibility of flight versus the common belief of the community causes him to feel alienated and isolated among the crowds, being looked upon as a strange child. Smith, like Milkman later on in the story, wishes that his flight would cause change in how things currently are. Flight for these characters are an act done with the motivation of demanding for progress. For the community, flying is a heroic act, thus Milkman is less alienated once he affirms his belief in the possibility of flight.
Milkman’s leap in the ending happens over Pilate’s body who had been accidentally shot. This characterizes Milkman’s outlook on Pilate. She was always looked at as an oddity; from the lack of her navel to her eccentric aura and demeanor. More importantly, she was a woman whose life was centered entirely on her children and her obligations. This, to Milkman, is an indication that Pilate had done another odd and seemingly impossible act: to fly without needing to lift her feet off the ground. She is liberated without having to leave anyone behind, and to Milkman, that is a sign that she has mastered the act of flying. Her body on the ground juxtaposed with Milkman jumping over her symbolizes Milkman’s selfish and personal drive to fly contrasting with Pilate’s flight being successful without her actually vying to achieve it.
The theme of flight also unfolds as a symbol of a journey of life or, more specifically, the stage of getting mature. The song Pilate sings during the novel’s opening scene with Smith (O Sugarman done fly away / Sugarman done gone / Sugarman cut across the sky/ Sugarman gone home….) foreshadows Milkman’s journey as he searches for means to leave home, become free and independent, and to get to know his roots. Milkman, as represented in the song as Sugarman, finally learns to spread his wings and fly in the end; although this does not come without any costs. Thus, he is symbolically compared to a bird who gets mature and leaves the parental nest.
Leaving Not Doctor Street and traveling to Shalimar meant liberation for Milkman but also caused pain, grief, and eventual heartbreak for Hagar. Likewise, Solomon’s flight to Shalimar caused his freedom from slavery in the cotton fields of Virginia, but in turn, he left his wife Ryna, also a slave, to take care of their twenty-one children. Another is Mr. Smith’s jump, in which he left a note that the suicide as an act committed out of love, but secretly masked with hopelessness and pain. Furthermore, their acts are all ambiguous and open-ended. The leaps of these characters shown in different ways are not purely happy endings; a display of situations not being strictly black or white. The people (particularly women) left hurting certainly do not think of these as happy endings, and not as heroic acts but selfish choices.
Human beings possess unique characteristics, some of which may be appealing, while others might be malicious. The basics of our characters are defined by how we behave, handle and approach things in our daily dealings. Understanding one’s personality is the route towards establishing friendships and the step towards comprehending how an individual should be treated. Similarly, Songs of Solomon by Toni Morrison is a novel which exhibits diversity in character. The Author builds on different aspects and employs the variety in style in substantiating different themes. Therefore, this contextual text endeavors to critically scrutinize and pay attention to trivial details and remarks about the temperament of Milkman in the Songs of Solomon.
Life is a journey, and a master plan is a map, guider, as well aa a driver. However, a lack of uniformity explains why different people take differing courses in life. All decisions should be critically assessed to ensure that the demerits are eventually achieved. Otherwise, regrets, failures, and hassles are never appealing to anyone. Nonetheless, carrying on a life without a purpose is not something you will find Milkman involving himself in as an individual. In a close analysis, he is the most narcissistic and conceited individual in the novel. However, his attitude is fascinating and thus, embarks on a journey to look for gold. Alongside this journey, Milkman resolves to establish another small expedition in finding out about the antiquity of his family.
Nevertheless, it is no that Milkman wants to trace his routes; accordingly, he is motivated by his greed. As mentioned earlier, demerits of this king’s decision have been carefully analyzed. Surprisingly, throughout his journey, his ravenousness and egocentric nature are transformed into a compassionate, considerate, and selfless individual.
It is accurate to state that Milkman took his haughtiness from his father. As the story opens, the Author substantiates Milkman’s character using Macon Dead 11(Morrison, 2004). Macon Dead 11 is among the few affluent personalities exhibited in the novel; hence, Milkman is nurtured in an environment where difficulty, hardship, and hunger never appear in their school of thought. Thus, he grows up with so much confidence and dominance, which later come to define his character. Macon Dead was cold-hearted in almost all his dealings. His obliviousness was written all over his face. For helpless tenants, he never aspired to comprehend or apprehend them when it comes to collecting rent. Additionally, sending them to the street was as easy as ‘can they make it on the streets?’ (Morrison, 2004).
What is more, he is so arrogant that he fails to show empathy for a mother who has no means and even hopes to filling the stomachs of his children (Morrison, 2004). The rationale behind his vindictiveness is the intention to tie knots with the physician’s daughter. To illustrate, he states; ‘it was part of those keys that he could dare to walk over to the part of Not Doctor Street and approach the most important Negro in the city. To lift the lion’s paw knocker, to entertain thoughts of marrying the doctor’s daughter was possible because each key represented a house which he owned at the time’ (Morrison, 2004, p.22).
Additionally, he attributes his accomplishment in amassing the wealth to his unpleasant character. To him, egotism is the ultimate initiative concerning accruing possessions. This means that he is proud of his nasty trait; hence, he will strive to embraces it. It is what he believes in as an individual. Consequently, in as much as Milkman tries to avoid the spiteful and unlikable character of the father, his system, or rather a subconsciousness does not have any trait to embrace if not his father’s. However, Milkman does not like his father, and vice versa is also right (Morrison, 2004). Despite the existence of hatred between them, Milkman always wished to live like his father; therefore, he had no choice but to follow his footsteps without any moderation.
Furthermore, all he wanted was to be commended by his father, who never even tried to do so. The authors also emphasize the use of specific words to bring out the temperament of Milkman. For instance, in his description, he refers to Milkman as a strut and never a limp in any case (Morrison, 2004). As a result, the two words bring into attention that Milkman has an arrogant attitude. The Author, however, posits that lowering himself was difficult because his complexity surfaced a certain hindrance that is only understood by Milkman himself.. Besides, he is used to superiority, a rare privilege in society. Thus, having a mild limp in the community was not an option for him. Equally, his reputation meant a lot to him, and he did everything in his power to maintain it.
Both Macon and Milkman were flooded with greed and the urge to amass more and more wealth. The resolution to go on a journey in search of gold is associated with the similarity in ravenousness between both Macon and Milkman (Morrison, 2004). Macon understands the value of gold. For that reason, he persuades and influences Milkman to go on a treasure to obtain gold. In doing so, Macon wittingly moved his son to acquire gold, for that will benefit both of them. As mentioned earlier, Macon is mean and does not acknowledge the efforts of his son to brings his footsteps. However, on this occasion, Macon appreciates his son, nonetheless, the intentions are clearly ill-motivated. Morrison states that the incidence was one of a kind when Macon decided to salute his son (Morrison, 2004). Additionally, he accords Milkman with a lunch that cherished (Morrison, 2004). Since, all his life, Macon has been struggling to impress his father, the opportunity was readily available, and he had no option but to take it graciously.
On his journey to find treasure, of which in this case is gold, Milkman meets face to face with the real world and appreciates the fact that money is not everything in life. As his character drastically shifts. The father’s son resemblance in style disappears in thin air and is substituted with a sensitive and affectionate kind of trait. Building on this, Morrison posits that Milkman wanted a change. He had realized that his family history was its present.
Additionally, there was little hope for change. He is worried that he will take on the legacy of his parents as his parents took on the legacy of his grandparents (Morrison, 2004). For sure, he was desperate for some transformation that would better his life. Besides, his parents were not only in an unhappy relationship, but also; their lives were also were miserable and not praiseworthy (Morrison, 2004). He specifically hated the life lived by Macon Dead 11(Morrison, 2004).
Nonetheless, the resolution he wanted to make was robust, and the only what to make it easy is to get enough gold, which facilitates his way of life. Nevertheless, he is sidestepped from reaching home by police officers on the road. In his fading arrogance and ruthlessness, he demands an explanation from the police for stopping a non-speeding vehicle. To his surprise, he received a rude answer, which states, ‘they stop anybody they want to’ (Morrison, 2004, p. 204). Up to this point, Milkman always had previously embraced self-centeredness. However, this was the incident that jerked his consciousness to accept that he was just like any other black person on the streets (Morrison, 2004). This resulted from the fact that he was stopped for no reason and arrogantly treated without any consideration of his high social status. His transformation began manifesting as converses with Reverent Cooper. The reverend provides a brief history of Milkman’s family history.
Contrary to the prejudgment set for him, Milkman shows a sense of humility in his opinions about his family (Morrison, 2004). Additionally, he admittedly states that the Butlers harmed innocent people in their quest to quench the thirst for more wealth and satisfaction. In this instance, Milkman cares and is concerned about other people as compared to Macon. Therefore, he advocates for equality, urging the whites not to mistreat blacks because of their skin color (Morrison, 2004). To add, Milkman assist a stranger. The action is a surprise to those who previously knew him. In consistence with his previous efforts, Milkman has never whatsoever performed a selfless act not just in public but also in his personal life. Therefore, the Guitar was surprised by his deeds (Morrison, 2004). He had become considerate, caring, and sensitive to a character that is entirely different from his father (Morrison, 2004).
In conclusion, Milkman’s character, which is inherited from his father, is unappealing. Additionally, it is oppressing and totally out of the typical norms of society. He comes to realize that there is so much in life that concentrating on money alone is just but a limitation to finding a purposeful life. This happens on his journey to steal gold from Pilate. After realizing that, he resolved to sidestep from his parents’ way of life. He wanted a life of his own. After an encounter with the police, Milkman is transformed into a considerate and caring man.
Essential Question: What does Toni Morrison mean when at the conclusion of Song of Solomon she says “it did not matter whether milkman or guitar died in the arms of his brother . . . you surrender to the air you could ride it.” What are things that impede flight, enable flight? And how does milkman acquire knowledge between the two?
Toni Morrison, in the Song of Solomon, uses a flight motif to depict the figurative and allegorical image of flight as a means of escaping throughout the novel. The characters who experience flight are all trying to escape difficult circumstances and prevent tragedies, but through this avoidance, tragedies become inherent. The complexity of the flight motif revolves around the tragedies that are born; each time an individual tries to escape the consequences of their actions become more apparent as it tends to affect those the characters care most about. Moreover, the decision to escape results in the decision to abandon prior existence (social atmosphere). Toni Morrison first introduces the flight motif as a concept of escaping in the novel’s epigraph: “The fathers may soar/ And the children may know their names,” these articulations establish the devastating effects of escaping, reinforcing the concept that flight as a means of escape insights more harm than can be seen. When a father leaves (soars), the children may know their name, suggesting that the children may become aware of who their fathers are. However, this is not necessarily the case, the children may not become aware of their father’s existence which can contribute to a host of issues (self-hatred, anxiety, anger, etc . . . ) The way in which flight as a means of escape is used and the effects on other characters vary. Some characters use flight to escape without abandoning those they love, whilst others use flight as a means to escape which in turn abandons those they love. Ultimately this essay will examine Milkman’s character development and understanding of the concept of flight, while also examing what impedes and enables flight throughout Toni Morrison’s magnificent construction of the Song of Solomon.
Toni Morrison begins the novel with the accounts of Robert Smith’s and his conceptual idea of flight. Robert Smith is an insurance man the entire community watched, as he promised to “take off from Mercy and fly away on [his] own wings” (Morrison 3) and attempt suicide. Furthermore, Robert Smith had a literal understanding of flight prior to his death. Toni Morrison states that Mr. Smith had “learned earlier – that only birds and airplanes could fly . . .” (Morrison 9). This implies that up until Robert Smith leaps from the hospital, he believed that his ability to fly was similar to other things. Yet, it was not until after his leap, did he realize that flight was not possible. But by then it was too late, Robert Smith had already died. Toni Morrison introduces Robert Smith’s suicide, to establish the first reason people enable flight. The first reason flight is enabled is to escape overwhelming situations. Lastly, Toni Morrison foreshadows the association between flight and disappearance in the suicide of Robert Smith. Prior to Robert Smith’s death, a woman begins to sing a song that follows “O Sugarman done fly/ O Sugarman done gone” suggesting that when things fly away they leave other things behind (gone) (Morrison 9). Toni Morrison uses the first encounter of a character to establish this belief of flight and creates the first reason people seek flight (as a means to escape).
The story of Solomon fabricates Milkaman’s understanding of flight, along with the residents of his town. Solomon was a slave who flew home to escape slavery. The story is told that through flight, Solomon was able to escape his abhorrent condition. Toni Morrison proclaims that Solomon launched himself into the air, “cut across the sky,” and “gone home” (Morrison 303). Ultimately this myth would shape the outcome of many who lived in that community. In addition, the story of Solomon introduces the risk of flight. When Solomon escaped and became free through flight, his family was left behind to live in an environment without him. Solomon’s wife Ryna, “fell down on the ground…[and] threw her body all-around” in grief (Morrison 303). Ryna’s emotions suggest that pain is involved with Solomon’s flight. When one flies away, those who love them have to live with the burden of their absence and you can see this idea through Ryna’s emotions. Even though there are many outcomes to one’s flight, the pain associated with flight can outweigh freedom. Leaving people to consider if the flight is worth it after all? Through Solomon and Robert Smith’s experience with flight, Milkman’s journey/experience with understanding flight begins.
Milkman’s journey for self-discovery and understanding of flight stems from the stories of Robert Smith and Solomon, which ultimately result in Milkman experiencing the phenomenon of flight. Milkman became the first “colored baby…born inside Mercy [Hospital], following the death of Robert Smith.” There’s a link between the two characters that go beyond the “blue wings”, both men discover that only birds and airplanes could fly (Morrison 9 ). As a result of Milkman’s discovery, “he lost all interest in himself” (Morrison 9) suggesting that he no longer knew who he was for the truth that was widely accepted by everyone was not true. If the flight was possible, and Solomon flew, why are only birds and airplanes allowed to fly? This conceptual difference makes Milkman become fascinated with the idea of alienation and escape. Throughout Toni Morrison’s brilliant composition of Literature, Milkman doubts flight; an idea widely accepted by everyone in his community (Due to the story of Solomon). Milkman finds that in order for him to come to terms with this truth, he will have to experience it.
To Conclude, Toni Morrison’s flight complex is presented throughout the piece as a means for escape, finding one-self, and accepting the truth. Ulitamelty it is not until someone can accept the truth that they become free and take flight. The Song of Solomon presents various of ideas, but none more important than the idea of flight.
The Jewish rabbi Akiba, who lived in the first century C.E., expressed his appreciation of the Song of Solomon in the Jewish Mishna with the following words: “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel.” (“All Scripture is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” 1990, p. 115)
The book Insight on the Scriptures, Volume 2, described the Song of Solomon to have been written by King Solomon at about 1020 B.C.E. in Jerusalem and several years after the temple has been completed. The poem was composed when Solomon had 60 queens and 80 concubines. (1988, p 994)
Although the Jewish Church accepted the book as part of the Biblical Canon, a handful of critics tried to question its canonicity and dismissed it as merely an ordinary love song. (Speckard, n.d., p. 2) Two main points were raised against the canonicity of the Song of Solomon: 1) it was not cited in other parts of the Bible, and 2) there was no mention of God throughout the text. (“All Scripture is Inspired of God and Beneficial”, 1990, p. 115)
This paper will seek to review different secular and religious texts as to the canonicity of the book of the Song of Solomon and thus offer a conclusion.
Highlights of the Song of Solomon
The song was written by Solomon for a Shulammite girl who rejected his expressions of love because of her loyalty and love for a shepherd boy (“Insight on the Scriptures, 1988, p. 994).
The first part, Song of Solomon 1:1-3:5, contains Solomon’s praises for the Shulammite girl who he described with the following words: “Look! You are beautiful, O girl companion of mine. Look! You are beautiful. Your eyes are [those of] doves.” It also described the girl
appealing to her friends not to arouse her interest in Solomon for she would like to stay loyal to her shepherd boy.
The second part, Song of Solomon 3:6-8:4, contains a vivid description of the Shulammite girl’s dream about her lover; Solomon’s expressions of endearment for the girl; and the Shulammite girl’s resistance to Solomon’s speech.
The third part, Song of Solomon 8:5-14, contains a description of the Shulammite as a “wall” that has withstood the temptation to succumb to a king’s expressions of love for the love of a shepherd boy.
Hebrew Scriptures – Test of Biblical Canonicity
The word “canon” is taken from the Hebrew word qa·neh´ which means something that serve as a rule or measuring device. (“Revelation and Scripture,” 1990, p. 1) Insight on the Scriptures (1988) mentioned that the apostle Paul applied ka·non´ to the “territory” measured out as his assignment, and again to the “rule of conduct” by which Christians were to measure how they acted. The “Bible canon” came to denote the catalog of inspired books worthy of being used as a straightedge in measuring faith, doctrine, and conduct.
J. Hampton Keathley (2007), in his article The Bible: The Holy Canon of Scripture, offers the following tests of canonicity:
Did the book indicate God was speaking through the writer and that it was considered authoritative?;
Was the human author recognized as a spokesman of God, that is, was he a prophet or did he have the prophetic gift?; and
Was the book historically accurate? Did it reflect a record of facts? “
Another set of criteria for determining a book’s canonicity was described by Norman Geisler (1974) in his book From God to Us: How we got our Bible. “He mentioned five criteria:
Authority – Does the book claim to be of God?;
Prophetic – Is the book written by a servant of God?;
Authentic – Does the book tell the truth?:
Dynamic – Does the book have the life-transforming power of God?; and
Reception – Is the book received or accepted by the people of God for whom it was originally written as being from God?”
This paper will thus examine the book in the light of the criteria mentioned above and the basis of the two points raised by its critics – it’s not being quoted by other Bible writers and the absence of the word “God” throughout the text.
The canonicity of the Song of Solomon
The Song of Solomon was mainly unchallenged and early Bible scholars accept it as part of the Hebrew canon. The ancient Jewish church never doubted the authenticity and canonicity of the book. “It was even included in the Greek Septuagint, the first actual written translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Greek-speaking Jews used it extensively up until the time of Jesus and his apostles” (“All Scripture is Inspired of God and Beneficial,” 1990, p. 115).
Some, however, have questioned the book’s canonicity on the ground that there is no reference to God in it. The absence of any mention of God would not disqualify the book any more than the mere presence of the word “God” would make it canonical. The divine name does appear in its abbreviated form in chapter 8, verse 6, where love is said to be “the flame of Jah.” The name “Jah” is the shortened form of the Tetragrammaton (YHWH) name for God. Thus, it is not true that there is no mention of God in the book.
H. Speckard (n.d., pp. 2-5), in his essay Summary Interpretation of the Song of Solomon, made a detailed analysis of the claim of critics that the Song of Solomon has never been cited by
the other writers of the Bible. He mentioned several texts in both the Old Testament and the New Testament which quoted directly or indirectly from the Song of Solomon. Speckard mentioned the similarity in the description of the vineyard in Matthew chapter 21, verse 33, and Song of Solomon chapter 8 verse 11. The praise uttered by Solomon in chapter 1 verse 15 is parallel to what is written in Psalm chapter 45 verse 11. The assumption, therefore, of critics that the book was never quoted by other Bible writers, is not well-founded.
But does the Song of Solomon meet the criteria set by Bible scholars to be able to be considered as “inspired” or part of the “canon”? “Let us examine the five criteria set by Geisler in his book From God to Us: How we got our Bible” (1974, pp. 67-68).
Authority and Prophetic – The writer of the book, King Solomon, has written several other passages in the Bible which have been quoted by other Bible writers. He wrote two other books, Ecclesiastes and some parts of the Proverbs. Jesus described himself as “more than Solomon” in Matthew 12:42: “The queen of the south will be raised up in the judgment with this generation and will condemn it; because she came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Sol´o·mon, but, look! something more than Sol´o·mon is here.” His wisdom has divine backing as described in 1 Kings 4:29-31: “And God continued giving Sol´o·mon wisdom and understanding in very great measure and a broadness of heart, like the sand that is upon the seashore. And Sol´o·mon’s wisdom was vaster than the wisdom of all the Orientals and than all the wisdom of Egypt. And he was wiser than any other man, than E´than the Ez´ra·hite and He´man and Cal´col and Dar´da the sons of Ma´hol; and his fame came to be in all the nations all around.”
Authentic – The authenticity of the Song of Solomon can be proven by its historical, geographic, and geological accuracy. David Mallick, in his Introduction to the Song of Songs, mentioned “the author’s correspondence with natural history corresponds to the report about him.” His description of geographic areas during his reign was proven accurate by secular historical accounts.
Dynamic – Religious and non-religious people alike find inspiration from the kind of love expressed in the Song of Solomon. For those who believe in the allegory presented in the book, it is a heart-warming assurance of God’s love for his people as well as Christ’s love for the Christian congregation. On the other hand, for those who explain the book as an account of a literal love story, it is an example of an undying and loyal love that may inspire a couple to remain faithful to each other.
Reception – The Jewish church has never doubted the right of the Song of Solomon to be part of the Bible. Christians in the first century C.E., likewise, accepted the book as part of the “scriptures” mentioned by the apostle Paul in Romans chapter 15 verse 4: “For all the things that were written aforetime were written for our instruction, that through our endurance and through the comfort from the Scriptures we might have hope.”
Allegorical Meaning – Song of Solomon’s harmony with the rest of the Bible
The Jews gave a symbolic meaning to the book. The article “The Loved Woman of the Superlative Song” from the journal The Watchtower explained the symbolism: “They understood the girl to picture the Jewish church from the days of the prophet Moses onward. The object of
that church’s affection was God, who was accordingly pictured by her shepherd lover” (December 1957, p. 722).
Rob Harbison (n.d., p. 4), in his article Song of Solomon, mentioned several verses in the Old Testament that support this allegory. In Isaiah chapter 54 verses 5-6, God was described as a “husbandly owner” and Israel as “a wife of the time of youth who was then rejected.” Jeremiah chapter 3 verse 1, God’s holy nation is considered to be in relationship to him as a wife, and unfaithfulness to him is “prostitution” (“Insight on the Scriptures”, 1988, p. 34). Ezekiel chapter 16 verses 8-14 is parallel to what is described in Song of Solomon chapter 5 verses 2-6 which made mention of “nakedness” and “prettiness” (Awake, 1982, p. 23).
In Christianity, the symbolism is the love between Jesus and the congregation. Volume 2, page 995 of the Insight on the Scriptures, mentioned the Bible verses from the New Testament to show this allegory. Ephesians chapter 5 verses 25-32 describes Paul’s counsel to husbands to love their wives just as “the Christ also loved the congregation and delivered up himself for it, that he might sanctify it, cleansing it with the bath of water by means of the word, that he might present the congregation to himself in its splendour… This sacred secret is great. Now I am speaking with respect to Christ and the congregation.” Christ’s “marriage” to the congregation was described in 2 Corinthians chapter 11 verse 2. The congregation was described as a “chaste virgin to the Christ.” This “marriage” was also described in Revelation chapter 19 verses 6-9. Jesus was mentioned as the “Lamb” and the congregation as his “wife.”
Conclusions
From the foregoing, it can be seen that the book of Song of Solomon can not be dismissed as merely a love song based on an analysis of several secular and religious accounts.
First, the book has never been questioned by the ancient Jewish church. The book was recognized as part of the Hebrew Scriptures which were used until the first century C.E. by Jesus and his apostles. It was believed to be an allegory of God’s relationship with Israel and Christ’s relationship with the Christian congregation. This belief is based on other passages in the Bible which describe the relationship of God and Israel, of Christ and the Christian congregation as that of a husband and wife.
Second, the book meets the criteria set by Bible scholars as to the canonicity of a “holy writing”. It was proven to be of divine origin since its writer was described in other passages in the Bible as having wisdom from God. In the book of 1 King, Solomon was described as being given “wisdom and understanding in very great measure and a broadness of heart, like the sand that is upon the seashore.” It’s historical, geographic, and geological references are accurate proving its authenticity. Its effect on the lives of people then and now can never be questioned proving its dynamic character.
Third, the two main issues raised by critics against the canonicity of the book—the absence of the word God in the book and it is not being cited by other Bible writers—have no basis at all. Chapter 8 verse 6 of the Song of Solomon, says, “Place me as a seal upon your heart, as a seal upon your arm; because love is as strong as death is, insistence on exclusive devotion is as unyielding as She´ol is. Its blazings are the blazings of a fire, the flame of
Jah”. The name “Jah” is the shortened form of the Tetragrammaton name (YHWH) for God. Thus, it is not true that there is no mention of God throughout the whole book.
Also, there are several passages both in the Old Testament and the New Testament which are parallel to what can be found in the Song of Solomon. Some examples are Matt. 21:33 with Song of Solomon 8:11; Luke 12:35–37 with 5:3; John 7:33, 34 and 8:21 with 5:6; John 3:29 with 5:1; Matt. 26:6, Mark 14:3, and John 12:3 with 1:3, 12; Eph. 5:27 with 4:7; Rev. 3:20 with 5:2; Eph. 5:32 with the whole Song. In the Old Testament, compare Ps. 45; Ezek. 16; Isa. 35:1–3; Isa. 54; Jer. 31:3; Lam. 2:13; Hos. 2:19, 20 and 11:8 with Song of Solomon 6:4.(Speckard, p. 2). These parallel texts in the Bible show that the book was cited by other Biblical writers and that they recognize its authenticity and canonicity.
The article Song of Solomon: Symbolic Love Language for the Bride in Waiting gave this conclusion: “this is truth that the Song of Solomon is not just describing an earthly lover’s fiery obsession—that quickly fades with the highs and lows of human emotion—but love, it is God.” (International House of Prayer, 2007, p. 1)
Several other books in the Bible have been criticized much like the Song of Solomon. An objective and thorough analysis of internal and external evidence of their authenticity and canonicity prove most of these criticisms wrong. The Bible, which has existed for thousands of years, will continue to inspire religious and non-religious people alike.
Bibliography
Bible Book Number 22 – Song of Solomon. (1990). All Scripture Is Inspired of God and Beneficial. Pennsylvania: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 115-117.
Geisler, NL. (1974). From God to Us: How we got our Bible. Chicago: Moody. 67-71.
Song of Solomon was a 1977 award-winning novel by Toni Morrison highly appreciated in the time it was published and nowadays. In this novel, Morrison, from her feminist viewpoint, depicts the successful quest for the personal and national identity of the main character Milkman, who finds the solution in African national values and the act of flying symbolizing freedom.
Song of Solomon is the only one of Morrison’s novels in which the character successfully completes the search for personal identity and psychological autonomy. The nicknames are common to most of Morrison’s novels and essential for understanding the main influential factors affecting the personal identity of the characters. For example, Milkman is the nickname received by the main protagonist of the novel Macon Dead III, because he was breastfed by his mother in his childhood through his age was not appropriate for it. This nickname provides readers with valuable insights into some of the underlying causes of Macon’s aggression as well as his unloving relationships with his mother. Another important aspect undoubtedly affecting Milkman’s identity is his African-American ancestry. He was the first black child who was born in a local hospital.
The racial discrimination significantly affects the self-perception of the main character as well as his attitude to others. Therefore, the driving forces leading to the search for personal identity are obvious. Another important question is how Milkman manages to successfully complete this quest for identity and psychological autonomy. Going beyond the limitations of African-American discourse, Morrison uses traditional African values and community as the answer to the questions posed by the main protagonist in his quest for personal and national identity. In contrast to the two approaches of assimilation (promoted by the Dead family) or radical separatism (promoted by Milkman’s friend Guitar) as the solution to the problem of racial discrimination, Morrison emphasizes the importance of accepting his African ancestry. Milkman obtains psychological autonomy by revealing the legends of his folk and understanding the importance of cultural traditions and values.
One of the most important values depicted in the context of legends was freedom and hope. The act of flying is used by the author as a metaphor for the characters’ search for changes and hope for the better. The most frequent keywords in the story deserving serious consideration are “fly” and “mercy”. Notably, the narration starts from the failure and suicide when a man attempts to fly, but falls from the roof and dies. The black men suffering in captivity had a superstition that if they murder themselves, their souls will fly to Africa. Therefore, the metaphor of flight is an integral element of African culture and contributes to the national coloring of the narration. Since the opening paragraphs in which the insurance agent Robert Smith jumps from the roof, Morrison poses an important culture-bound question, whether the self-murderers fly to Africa on their wings or die.
The dream of flying was a crucial aspect which accompanied the main protagonist Solomon Dead throughout his entire life. “When the little boy discovered […] the same thing Mr. Smith had learned earlier – that only birds and airplanes could fly – he lost all interest in himself. To have to live without that single gift saddened him” (Morrison 9). Even the events from his routine daily life make the main protagonist think of flying. This dream plays a subliminal role in his life, even though in the first part of the novel, he does not fully understand the meaning of this wish. However, in the second part of the novel, after Milkman gains a sense of personal self, the main character associates the act of flying with his destiny. The open ending in which Milkman leaps into the air can be regarded as the celebration of his self-knowledge because he finally understands his wishes.
Another important motif detected in the novel is Morrison’s feministic views. Although some scholars did not accept this aspect in the narration pattern, some of the plotlines reveal the author’s attitudes and position. To obtain the sense of manhood was one of the important goals in Milkman’s quest for self-identity. However, this sense could not be shaped by traditional Western norms, based mainly on the needs of white American men. Morrison reconsiders the accustomed concept of manhood and links it with the problem of double discrimination of black women in the American community. Black women suffered from racial and gender discrimination although the social activists frequently remained blind to this problem. From her feministic viewpoint, Morrison sheds light upon the difficulties faced by black women (such as Pilate and other characters) in their lives and the coping strategies they use for adapting to the hostile environment.
The acceptance of own ancestry and self-knowledge are the main values promoted by Morrison in the novel Song of Solomon. Milkman as the main character of the novel successfully completes his quest for manhood and his place in American community, but leaps into the air, leaving the readers in ignorance about his future destiny.
Works Cited
Morrison, Toni. Song of Solomon. New York: Vintage International, 2004. Print.
Tony Morrison’s novel ”Song of Solomon” was published in 1977 and follows the life of its main protagonist, Milkman Dead, an African-American man whose life has been full of instances of racism and violence, as was the life of his ancestors. The novel explores how the ancestral past, along with the present suffering shape his character. This paper focuses on Ruth Foster Dead’s persona, Milkman’s mother, a woman oppressed by society and spouse alike, whose actions greatly affect him.
An Affectionate Daughter
Ruth Foster Dead grew up an upper-class woman, a doctor’s daughter. She is light skinned, smart, quiet and resilient. Ruth did not abandon her affection for her father even as an adolescent, their goodnight kiss ritual, motivated by her seeing her mother as a rival due to the latter’s lack of maternal care, was a source of shame to her father (Morrison, p.30).
Such an abnormal closeness on her part, which she later needs from Milkman as well, impacted his relationship with women later on. Her husband, suspected of involvement in her father’s death, would bitterly begrudge her visiting her father’s grave. His jealousy, arising from the scene at the doctor’s dead body, would turn her life into misery and result in an attempt on his unborn son“s life.
A Breastfeeding Mother
Ruth is seen as provoking her husband’s anger, manipulating him for a certain sense of power. The symbolic watermark on the table in the opening chapter serves as a personal reminder that she is alive inside and this is life, not a dream (Morrison, p.19). The watermark acts as an anchor against her husband’s psychological abuse.
The only experience that helps her live through each day is breastfeeding her son, who is no longer an infant, seen as an unwillingness to sever yet another connection, as he is growing up, “bored by the flat taste of mother’s milk” (Morrison, p.21). However, the ritual is more sensual than is proper, and she is knowingly secretive about it. Ruth is terrified at losing this aspect of her motherhood, as evidenced by her reaction when the janitor sees her through an open window, the moment Milkman acquires his nickname. On the other hand, Ruth is neglectful of her daughters, one of which, Pilate, has inherited her kindness and has a tragic fate.
A Mother Through the Eyes of Her Son
Milkman has seen his mother as overprotective for most of his adolescence. Later on, he begins to see her true humanity, frailty and fierceness in the face of death ( Morrison, p. 73), and physically protects her from his father’s assault ( Morrison, p. 76). The story of her sacrifice at protecting him even before his birth opens his eyes to her true character.
Conclusion
Ruth Foster Dead is depicted as a possessive mother, though heroic in the protection of her son. Her actions, therefore, are crucial to the story’s and the main protagonist’s development. However she acted, she loved him in her own way.
Toni Morrison’s various books have frequently made use of magic, African-American spiritual beliefs and religious values to construct and convey a strong narrative element. “The Song of Solomon” works on an absolute assumption that all magic experienced by the book’s characters is real.
Therefore, African spiritual elements are recurrently used as metaphors for each and every episode that takes place in their lives. So, we have women who can be born without a navel like Virgin Mary, grown men who can fly around the town like the experienced aviator Charles Lindhberg, murdered babies returning from the dead fully grown into adults and conjurers practicing various forms of African pagan spiritualism including Voodoo (Beaulieu, 2003, p.89).
To the untrained reader, the first layer of the narrative would appear downright illogical due to its extensive interweaving with the world of magic and ghosts. However, as one starts looking past these mysterious elements, it becomes a fascinating exercise to observe the several subtle, hidden layers in the plot which traverse an entire gamut of emotions ranging from mirth to sorrow. An example,
“The men and the dogs were talking to each other. In distinctive voices they were saying distinctive, complicated things.” (Morrison, 1987, p. 277)
The sense of anthropomorphism in the above sentence is basically an abstract literary device which attempts to convey the principle of vital existence as a basic element of human well-being. Several sentences like this have been sprinkled throughout the plot to convey the entire range of inner emotions that the characters are going through at any moment.
In that sense, Morrison’s dependence on surreal elements of magic to convey various plot elements can be equated to the twisted allegory of a world where words create magic, literally, since conjurers are an integral part of the narrative flow (Beaulieu, 2003, p.89).
The key protagonist Macon “Milkman” Dead, an African-American male character, is depicted as a confused person who wants to uncover the historical truth and bitter realities behind his family name “Dead”. The name was accidentally soaked up by his grandfather, a newly freed Negro slave from the Civil War era whose Master was “dead” and hence, the man was re-born into this new identity that made him increasingly distantly from his African roots. Macon Milkman Dead’s feelings on this historical incident are summarized as:
“Macon Dead never knew how it came about — how his only son acquired the nickname that stuck in spite of his own refusal to use it or acknowledge it. It was a matter that concerned him a good deal, for the giving of names in his family was always surrounded by what he believed to be monumental foolishness.” (Morrison, 1987, p.15)
Three generations after the slave name became a part of their family destiny, Macon Milkman Dead’s journey of self-exploration takes him in the direction of the mythical town of Shalimar where he believed there was hidden gold, a fortune he wanted to use for personal benefits (Morrison, 1987, p.112).
Instead, Milkman learns up the stark history of his family’s inglorious past. One of his ancestors, Solomon by name, had managed to break free from the manacles of slavery, to escape to Africa leaving twenty-one children behind.
Milkman was able to conjure up the vision of this poignant past with the help of Pilate, his aunt and a soothsayer who is depicted throughout the narrative as a woman with amazing clairvoyant abilities and a motherly nurturing instinct. Pilate is also shown responsible for the very conception of Milkman. Being a soothsayer, she saw the arrival of this child even before his birth.
Having learned that there was not much love was lost between the parents, she fed the father a magical concoction which forced him to take the necessary steps towards procreation. Through Pilate’s character, Morrison basically portrays a closer look into the world of magic realism which consists of elements of Voodoo, black magic and the healing art of African midwifery. All rituals portrayed in the book are replete with the mysticism and ghostly allure attached to African spirituals.
The objective behind using the allegory through Pilate by Morrison is to represent the woman as the manifestation of Mother Earth herself, a character so pious and invigorating that she is above sin herself. The allegories of Virgin Mary are also represented through Milkman’s two sisters, whose names were picked by their parents by sticking pins in the Holy Bible itself (Morrison, 1987, p.22).
In contrast to these deeply content and pious characters, Milkman’s own life is shown as one of bitter conflicts, acrimonies and a search for true identity. Towards this end, fairy tale elements such as “Hansel and Gretel” and “Rumpeltiltskin” have been used by Morrison to convey the sense of hope and exhilaration experienced by Milkman to challenge the frustrations of his life. He also runs into hostility several times into the story with his own father who habitually used to hurt his mother.
In order to depict Milkman’s constant struggles with his own self-esteem issues, Morrison uses another allegorical ploy, of “dreams” (Morrison, 1987, p.23). Through these dreams, he is able to magically visualize his life through various scenes which start unfolding in real life as well. Pilate visualizes the father guiding her through the forest. There are also depictions of princesses riding a chariot into a world of eternal and ethereal bliss (Morrison, 1987, p.111).
Another key allegorical element in the book if of human flight. In the first chapter itself, the character of Robert Smith is shown with attached wings, in an attempt of figurative flight. According to Morrison, there can be several interpretations of this flight attempt. One, it could indicate the acquired skills-set of a pioneering African-American aviator.
Two, in the world of magical realism into which Morrison attempts to draw the reader to, the flight indicates a form of escapism which was the mainstay of many African-American lives who bore the brunt of racial prejudice due to unjust Jim Crow laws.
Three, the flight also could have been interpreted as a suicide attempt for a failed insurance agent, perhaps depicting the struggles of the Great Depression era, during 1931 where the plot is loosely based on. Following in the foot-steps of Robert Smith, Milkman is shown to attempt his own loose flight towards the end of the narrative.
In this case, he is shown as someone who wants to escape from the bitter realities of life. In the same vein, it may be understood that Milkman wants to soar like an eagle by being transformed into a world of magic realism where there are infinite possibilities in life. A message of hope is left towards the end.
“If you surrender to the air, you can ride it.” (Morrison, 1987, p.337)
“Solomon done fly, Solomon done gone, Solomon cut across the sky, Solomon gone home.” (Morrison, 1987, p. 303)
References
Beaulieu, E.A. (2003). The Tony Morrison Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Morrison, T. (1987). Song of Solomon (Oprah’s Book Club). New York, NY: Penguin Books USA.