Category: Sociology 7256

Rate of occurrence

There are several paradigms that relates to addiction and treatment. The first paradigm argues that the problematic and chemical involvement of a person is actually a response to, or a symptom of either a family dysfunction, or a psychiatric problem. The other paradigms are more involved with the use of the dependency on chemicals as being the real problem. A lot of studies have indicated that the rate of dependency on substance abuse among those members of the population that are mentally ill to be between 32 and 85 percent. (Schwartz & Goldfinger, 1981).

The mentally ill patients, besides being dually diagnosed, have reportedly been shown to engage in increased hospitalization rates, criminality, homelessness, as well as the exhibition of suicidal behavior (Safer, 1987). The abuse of substances is often associated with legal implications. Substance abuse often results in generalized anxiety, as well as panic symptoms. In addition, the course of chemical dependency is often affected by anxiety disorders.

According to Brook et al (1996), those patients with psychiatric illnesses have more than a double chance of becoming smokers, in comparison with the general public. Furthermore, Brook et al (1996), have also reported that schizophrenia patients have a smoking prevalence rate that is 3 to 4 times greater than that of the general population. Psychiatrists have reported high depression rates among those individuals who are addicted to such drugs as cocaine, heroine, and alcohol.

According to research, about 50 percent of the mentally ill population also happens to be drug abusers, with the most commonly abused drugs being alcohol, cocaine, and marijuana. Additionally, such prescription drugs as sleeping medicine and tranquilizers are also likely to be abused. Males of the age brackets between 18 and 44 years, and who are also mentally ill, have been shown to be the greatest abusers if drugs (Abbott 2000).

Protective factors related to chemical dependence

Protective factors, in the context of substance dependency, have been taken to mean those variables that bear an association with a reduction in the use of drugs.

Bio/ psycho/ social issues of the mentally ill population

According to the biopsychosocial addiction model, addictive disorders are often characterized by a biologically-induced element, as well as an inherited one. In addition, the same model also posits that both the social-cultural and the psychological-behavioral factors also comes into play, in as far as the cause, course, and the consequences of being substance dependent are concerned (Brook et al 1996).

By abusing substances, the mentally ill population is also complicating the possible care given to them. To start with, it is very difficult to engage such substance abusers into treatment. In addition, there is a difficulty in their being accommodated either at home, or at a health facility. Not only are they likely to lose their support system, they also suffer hospitalization and relapses on frequent basis. Mentally ill patients who use chemical substance are more likely to be violent, especially for those who end up in prisons and jails.

It has been postulated that a majority of the mentally ill patients abuse drugs as a way of countering the side effects of their medication, or as a means of treating their symptoms. Depression and anxiety normally recedes, albeit for a short while, upon the use of such chemicals. With regard to social factors, the mentally ill patients have been shown to be victims of downward drift. The implication here is that by virtue of their mental conditions, such patients have a higher chance of being marginalized to drug-prone neighborhoods (Brook et al 1996). Their difficulty in the development of social relationships also means that such patients will often find companionship and acceptance among fellow drug users.

Socio economic justice

It is important that those mentally ill patients who abuse drugs are accorded the proper medical attention that they so rightly deserve. They should not be discriminated against on grounds of their medical conditions. As such, all the social benefits such as health care should be shared impartially with them (Abbott 2000).

Protecting the mentally ill from chemical dependence

These could involve arrangements for detoxification, the attendance of skill-building classes, involvement of family, group therapy, involvement in activities meant to prevent relapse, as well as a referral to a 12-step program (Safer 1987). Since chemical dependence in itself is a disease, it is important to ensure that a recovery program besides being successful and safe, is also based on abstinence from all chemicals that are capable of altering the mood.

Implications of the knowledge for social work practice

When the health practitioners that are working in those facilities that deals with the mentally ill patients that are also abusing substances are fully aware of the bio/ psycho/ social issues that often accompanies this disease, together with the need to observe the socioeconomic justice when handling such patients, then it is possible to aid such patients in their attempts to get themselves rod of chemical dependent, while at the same time also maintaining their dignity. It also means that the social workers are aware of the fact that this is a case of dual diagnosis (mental illness, and substance abuse), and so the most comprehensive and relevant treatment program will be put to use.

Works cited

1. Abbott, Ann. Alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs: challenging myths, assessing theories, individualizing interventions. North Carolina: NASW Press, 2000
2. Brook, J. S. Brook, D. W., Whiteman, M. & Gordon, A. S. Pathways to addiction: opportunities in drug abuse research Journal of chemical dependency treatment 1(1996):123-161.
3. Drake Robert, Wallach, Michael 1989. Substance abuse among the chronically mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 40 (1989):1041-1046.
4. Safer, Daniel. (1987). Substance abuse by young adult chronic patients. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 38 (1987): 511 514.
5. Schwartz, Samuel. & Goldfinger, Simon (1981). The New Chronic Patient: Clinical Characteristics of an Emerging Subgroup. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 32(1981): 470- 474.

Introduction

Currently, the American Deaf Community is recognized as an indigenous linguistic and cultural minority group. Previously, deaf people were viewed as disabled or handicapped. Todays society realizes that this cultural group has to be included in various cultures that cover the hearing educational, health, and other social services through the training provided by the health providers. Although social policies aim to adapt deaf people to todays reality to the maximum possible extent, it is essential to understand the difficulties of cross-cultural interaction and mediation between hearing and deaf people in terms of family or provider-family relationships.

The ADA

In 1990, ADA, the Americans with Disabilities Act, became law. It is a civil rights legislation prohibiting discrimination against disabled people in all public living areas, including schools, educational institutions, transportation, and other private and public services opened to the general public (What is). The law aims to ensure that disabled people have the same opportunities and rights as other individuals. The ADA protects civil rights to individuals with disabilities analogically to those provided to people based on sex, age, color, religion, and national origin (What is). The ADA guarantees equal opportunities for people with disabilities in employment, public accommodations, telecommunications, transportation, and local and state government services.

The ADA and the American Deaf Community

The ADA entitles all the deaf or hard hearing individuals to the same services provided by law to anyone else. It prohibits their segregation or exclusion from the whole spectrum of services and different treatment than to the other people (Communicating with). Law enforcement institutions should ensure that their staff treats people who suffer from hearing disabilities efficiently. This applies equally to both civilian and sworn personnel.

Empowerment Concept

The main issue of the empowerment concept is its practical complexity. Empowerment models assume the implication of the bottom-up strategies for a broad contextual framework and change. Primarily, it is focused on giving authority and power to an individual. In those terms, it addresses power and resources redistribution. Hence, the primary issue is whether the increased empowerment for one community automatically decreases the others.

In terms of this framework, deaf individuals are recognized to have ultimately the same abilities of self-presentation, participation in health care work, and decision making in different fields. The deafness classification from the medical point of view does not match health promotion strategies aims. In turn, the deaf community members identify their disability as a cultural but not audiological problem. Prejudice attitudes, negative stereotypes, and pathological stigma towards deaf individuals unfavorably affect legal, educational, and medical policies. In fact, deaf people experience more disability from their interrelations with the hearing world representatives than from their hearing pathology. In order to overcome this social problem, it is appropriate to identify five key strategies:

• improve legislation on barriers in communication;
• provide the needed information;
• provide the society with the relevant information;
• enforce the coping policies of people with disabilities;
• improve physician-patient communication and the appropriate care settings.

The Audism

Disordered thinking and, as a consequence, a negative stigma towards deaf people is called audism. It is similar to sexism or racism, as it similarly labels, limits, and judges people based on their ability to speak and hear (Audism: Oppression). In fact, audism is the reflection of the medical view of this disability that should be fixed. In terms of historical beliefs, deaf individuals were considered to be the savages with no language, as the word was equated to humanity. Taking into account the fact that many deaf individuals were born and raised in hearing families that were not taught to sign, audism might be ingrained. It is noteworthy that both deaf and hearing people may be audists. Moreover, this kind of attitude might also exist among deaf people. There are numerous possible examples of audism: for instance, one can jump in to help a deaf individual communicate. Some people ask deaf persons to read their lips or write when the last indicates they do not prefer it. An audism might also be expressed through making the phone calls for a deaf individual since they are not able to (Audism: Oppression). Moreover, deaf people may experience a refusal to call an interpreter in case he or she is needed.

Additionally, even assuming ones superiority due to better English skills or speech is a vivid example of audism. A deaf individual should never be asked to tone down his or her facial mimics as they make someone uncomfortable (Audism: Oppression). Similarly, it is unacceptable to refuse to explain a deaf person the reason for the laughter of the surrounding people. For deaf children, if most of the instructional time is devoted to speech therapy and lipreading instead of educational subjects, it is also the audism feature.

There are several conflicts arising within the American Deaf Community in both cultural and medical prospects. A pathological approach to deafness considers it in psychological and medical terms and is inherently harmful. Hence, deaf people are constructed as broken hearing persons facing an undesirable condition. They view themselves as needing to be fixed and specially trained in order to fit in the world of those who hear. From the medical point of view, deafness is based on measurement of audiological function, with hearing loss greater than 70 dB characterized as being severe-to-profound (Jorgensen at al.). On the other hand, there is a psychological definition of this disability emphasizing the functional consequences. In other words, psychologists claim that deafness is likely to significantly affect individuals social interactions and development.

By contrast, there is also a cultural view that is value-neutral. It is based on the recognition that deaf people have their own so-called deaf culture and sign language. This view accepts the fact that persons with a hearing disability might not be willing to be fixed. Moreover, deaf individuals may be happy with their identity and themselves in general. It is noteworthy that while discussing their deafness, such people use specific terminology related to their past, language, and community in general. Simultaneously, they tend to avoid focusing on potential cures and medicalizing the situation.

Conclusion

It is crucial to engage interventionists in community outreach and education analogically in providing direct services. Society should place more emphasis on working with the entire family. It would also be appropriate to develop and continuously improve a solid communication base. Parents of deaf children should be provided with social support to adjust and gain confidence in parenting. Hence, a family with deaf members should have the availability of any needed support resources. Service providers need to balance intervention strategies and improve the coordination of auditory and manual skills. At the same time, they should be sensitive to the ways of service delivery and be flexible in dealing with different individuals and their families.

Works Cited

Audism: Oppression in the Lives of Deaf Individuals. VAWnet, n.d., 2020. Web.

Communicating with People Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing: ADA Guide for Law Enforcement Officers. ADA, 2020, Web.

Jorgensen, Lindsen E., et al. Conventional Amplification for Children and Adults with Severe-to-Profound Hearing Loss. Semin Hear., vol. 39, no. 4, 2018, pp. 364376.

What Is the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)? ADA, 2020. Web.

Introduction

The modern world changes fast, and people evidence multiple processes that have a significant impact on their lives. The rise of science, development of technologies and industries, along with the globalization and digitalization, are the basic features of contemporary societies. However, being involved in multiple significant processes and enjoying all benefits for the consumer society, people prefer to disregard nature and environmental issues that become more topical every day. The disappearance of forests under the pressure of the industry and giant cities, radical climate change, and unwise hunting preconditioned the extinction of multiple species. It means that the next generations can be deprived of a chance to enjoy the diversity of nature and the world that surrounds them. For this reason, there is a topical question today whether animals rights can be disregarded, and they can be killed for food, fur, and leather, that are used in different industries.

Utilitarian Ethics

The given problem can be viewed by using different paradigms to understand it better and consider all existing perspectives on the idea of killing animals by humans. One of the first conceptual frameworks is utilitarianism stating that actions maximizing happiness and well-being of individuals should be accepted by society and viewed as necessary ones (MacKinnon & Fiala, 2017). In other words, the pleasure of people, the opportunity to satisfy their current needs, and the degree of their satisfaction become the central determinants of a particular action and its ethics. Applying this perspective to the discussed issue, it is possible to conclude that from the perspective of utilitarian ethics, killing animals and disregard of their rights can be an acceptable measure as long as it contributes to the improvement of peoples sates and fulfillment of their requirements.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is another framework that can be applied to discuss the selected problem and acquire its improved understanding. The given paradigm considers the moral character of actions as the primary determinant of their nature (Shafer-Landau, 2017). It means that virtue of a phenomenon acquires the top priority and dominates over the results or intentions. The acceptability of a particular action is linked to its moral character and its ability to promote good and positive effects. In means, that utilizing the ideas of virtue ethics to discuss the problem of killing animals and disregard of their rights, it is possible to conclude that such actions cannot be viewed as moral or acceptable. Even if a person haunts an animal to get some food, his/her intent does not matter as, first of all, he/she wants to harm this living being, which becomes critically important for the given framework. In this regard, virtue ethics can be employed to justify the complete prohibition of haunting and any other forms of exploitation.

Ethical Egoism

Discussing the topic, it is also possible to appeal to traditional theories. For instance, the idea of ethical egoism states that any moral agent can act in his/her self-interest (Bailey & Burch, 2016). In other words, any action that can result in the generation of some benefits or help a doer to improve his/her current position can be viewed as ethical and accepted (MacKinnon & Fiala, 2017). The ideas of ethical egoism can justify killing animals for food, fur, leather, and disregard of their rights as these activities help to satisfy peoples needs and help them to enjoy the higher quality of their lives. In general, ethical egoism can be taken as one of the oldest perspectives on the cooperation between human beings and nature that emerged at the dawn of civilization as people had to use all opportunities to survive. For this reason, their self-interest was the major aspect determining the acceptability of actions and consequences.

Ethical Relativism

Ethical relativism is another framework that can be used to cogitate about animal rights and killing them. The theory assumes that the idea of morality flexible, and it depends on the norms accepted in a particular culture at a certain period (Bailey & Burch, 2016). For this reason, the nature of the action and its ethicality come from the current virtues and beliefs practiced by a particular community (Bailey & Burch, 2016). The contemporary world accepts the value of any life and tries to protect it. Moreover, there is a focus on humanistic ideas that also emphasize the need to protect all creatures. In such a way, employing the concept of ethical relativism, disregard of animal rights, and their killing is unacceptable because of the virtues accepted by the majority of civilized countries.

Eastern Philosophy

The problem of animal rights can also be viewed by applying the ideas of Eastern philosophy and ethics. The term is used to refer to a set of teachings that emerged in East and South Asia, including China, India, and Japan. The given frameworks are usually combined into one category because of the existence of some similarities between them. Thus, Eastern ethics accepts the unique value of any life and its importance for the world. The moral character of any action is determined by its impact on a living being (Shafer-Landau, 2017). That is why the ruthless and unwise killing of animals can be considered unacceptable as people do not kill them to survive; however, today, in the majority of cases, animals are killed because of the lack of interest and involvement.

Environmental Theories

Finally, the growing importance of environmental concerns preconditioned the rise of multiple environmental theories. For instance, the idea of deep ecology accepts the unique value of any life and living creature, its independence, and importance for the world regardless of the practical utility or the ability to satisfy some existing needs (MacKinnon & Fiala, 2017). From this perspective, killing animals and disregard of their basic needs is unacceptable as they should be protected because of their unique significance for the planet and observation of balance. Moreover, there is a need for the creation of beneficial conditions to help different species to survive and restore their population. In such a way, environmental theories determine the ethical nature of action regarding the harm done to the environment. From this perspective, the discussed issue becomes one of the central problems of the world today.

Conclusion

Altogether, the application of different theories to the discussed question shows its contradictory character and, at the same time, the complexity of formulating a single approach that can be used when analyzing it. The ideas of utilitarian or egoist ethics accept the idea of killing animals as long it helps to improve peoples lives and fulfill their self-interest. In contrast, other theories, such as relativism, or virtue ethics, devote more attention to the moral aspect of any action and prohibit the ideas of causing harm to any living being. It means the issue remains sophisticated, and it is hardly possible to formulate the universal paradigm. However, as far as the modern world moves towards the ideas of humanism, it is possible to conclude about the impossibility of ruthless exploitation of nature and animals in the future.

References

Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3^rd ed.). Routledge.

MacKinnon, B., & Fiala, A. (2017). Ethics: Theory and contemporary issues (9^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Shafer-Landau, R. (2017). The fundamentals of ethics (4^th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Introduction

Over the centuries people fought for their rights and protested against those who did not treat them right. The Black Nationalists Movement was a protest of African Americans against white peoples to let the black ones integrate into their society. Now that some time has passed the situation changed and we live in the 21^st century with some structural changes in our mode of production.

One of the reasons of changing our mode of production in our times is that productive forces of once organized Black Nationalists Movement have reached a certain level of completeness, understanding and support, in other words, people met half-way the leaders of the movement and their requirements. The absence of oppression of black people and the fact that their rights and freedoms are not denied and limited anymore characterizes the changes in our mode of production and proves once again that the Black Nationalists Movement reached its main aim and today black people are not treated as slaves and have an absolute freedom to stand up for their rights in case they will be neglected. They are given an opportunity to form their communities and to study their origin in order not to forget our past strengths, indeed, the rich legacy of our glorious African ancestry. (cited in Africana Womanism & Race & Gender in the Presidential Candidacy of Barack Obama, 133). There is no denying the fact of the possibility of black Americans achieving equality within Americas racialized social body (Manning Marable, Leith Mullings, xviii). This characterizes the changes which occurred in our perception of black people in the 21^st century.

Main body

Despite the fact that counterinterpretation suggests that, not only has discrimination not been eliminated, there has been no intention of altering patterns of black oppression in any significant manner (Gayle T. Tate, Lewis A. Randolph, p. 109) today the Black Community does not need any reform movements, especially the kind of its former reform movements, each aimed at correcting some perceived major injustice (Robert L. Allen, Pamela P. Allen, p. 6) nor needs it radical or global movements as its Revitalization Movement in the 20th century was a success and helped black people integrate the society in the way they intended to do. What the Black Community needs now is a kind of a peaceful movement which will arouse white peoples trust in them and will prove that their fight for rights and freedoms was not for nothing and the white people did it right by accepting them in their society. The philosophy of such movement would be to fix the rights of black people in order not to let the story repeat. The objective of the movement will be to convince white people that no violence will ever be implemented by black people against them because of the racial factor. The areas in which such movement will be organized should have leaders who will work on the strategic plan the main goal of which will be to evoke positive emotions and associations with black people in white population. And finally, to sustain the movement certain social organizations and community centers must be formed and the leaders of them must take care of the increasing the number of members of such organizations uniting them with the common goal.

Conclusion

In conclusion it will be fair to state that black people successfully integrated in the society and there only aim now should be to consolidate their position and not to let racial attitudes penetrate their minds again.

Works Cited

1. Manning Marable, Leith Mullings. (2003). Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal. Rowman & Littlefield.
2. Gayle T. Tate, Lewis A. Randolph. (2002). Dimensions of Black Conservatism in the United States: Made in America. Palgrave.
3. Robert L. Allen, Pamela P. Allen. (1974). Reluctant Reformers: Racism and Social Reform Movements in the United States. Howard University Press.
4. Clenora Hudson-Weems. (2008). Africana Womanism & Race & Gender in the Presidential Candidacy of Barack Obama. AuthorHouse.

Introduction

Although, the issues of love are rather important for the existence of the mankind, they stay unsolved demanding further consideration by people. Despite numerous ideas about the sense of human lives that suggest doing the good, fulfilling some missions, etc. as the major aim of human beings in this world, people have always agreed that love is the central point in the human life. All people who do not love see no sense in life. Those who see this sense in their lives acknowledge that it is love that fills their lives with sense and meaning. Thus, all people who love have sense in their lives (Carson, 2005). Taking this statement as the universal truth, this paper will focus on the consideration of the concept of love in the context of two famous books  Decreation: Poetry, Essays, Opera by Anne Carson and The Song of Songs translated by Ariel and Chana Bloch. The very consideration will be supported by examples from these books and is aimed at being objective and comprehensive.

Anne Carson about Love

To begin with, it is necessary to state that the book by Anne Carson, a famous American writer, is a rather valuable source of original thoughts and conceptions about the major phenomena of human lives among which love takes a central place. The author herself is very concerned with the topic of love, its essence or meaning, and the so-called theology of love (Carson, 162) is reflected in her book rather considerably:

What is it that love dares the self to do? all is to be dared& Love dares the self to leave the self behind. (Carson, 162).

In these lines, the very essence of the book by Carson is reflected. All the ideas of Decreation depict the process of eliminating the self from existence, for it says that people are aimed at becoming pure emotions and feelings. Love is a pure feeling. Consequently, all people aim at becoming love as it is. The lines presented above demonstrate the authors readiness to commit what she talks about in her poetry. The precise description of the process of the development of the feeling of love is also presented by Anne Carson, who considers it to be the long way from subliminal desire to the heavens of an ecstasy that makes people forget about themselves: an ecstasy in which the soul is carried outside her own Being and leaves herself behind (Carson, 162).

Moreover, speaking of love and its becoming sublime, one can not help mentioning the issues of self-denial and sacrifice in favor of his or her beloved person. Human beings are able of these actions, although some of them do not even suspect it until they fall in love. Thus, the true love, the feeling of delight and readiness for self-sacrificee, is the one that can be felt even when its object is not close to the one who loves, and there is a hard necessity to wait for him or her. According to Carson, these abilities of the human mind is the reflection of subliminal desire for decreation and for being everything for those whom they love and consider as sublime: she creates in her mind a dream of distance where food can be enjoyed perhaps from across the room merely by looking at it,& where the lover can stay, at the same time, near to and far from the object of her love. (Carson, 175).

All these ideas are rather interesting and helpful for those who focus on the issues of love and want to understand what love really is and how it turns sublime for people. Is it a terrible torture that people are bound to experience? Or is it the heavenly delight that the God brings us in the hardships of life ? Anne Carson, in one of her blended poems, seems to answer this question as accurately as possible:

You have captured: pinned upon my heart: the wall of my heart is your love with one glance: as one with one bead: as an exile of the kings of royalty (Carson, 79).

Song of Songs

Furthermore, love as one of the greatest feelings ever expressed in the poetry. The so-called Song of Solomon, or the Song of Songs explains what is love and when it turns sublime. Translated by Ariel Chana Blochs, this poem is the most relevant of all the sources of data about the view of love of ancient people as it reveals the most intimate aspects of the poem telling about love and its turning sublime. Although in the encoded form, the very essence of love as seen by ancient people is revealed in this poem, which dates back to the times of the Old Testament (Bloch, 1998). Love as the sense of human life, its becoming sublime when people feel it and can not resist this feeling, social stereotyping and condemnation of some of the forms of its expression and peoples readiness to sacrifice everything for love which has turned sublime for them are the central points of this marvelous poem:

For love is as fierce as death,
Its jealousy as bitter as the grave. (Bloch, 5).

The topics of significance of love and its turning sublime are also touched upon in the Song of Songs. Yet, the ancient people also understood love as the way to demonstrate feelings that one human being has for another one. Innateness of love has always been obvious to humans and they never concentrated on any other emotion or feeling characteristic of human beings to such an extent as love (Bloch, 1998). Romance and passion feature the Song of Songs with the most beauty ever making the translator into the presenter of the divine will:

I have come into my gardens,
I have gathered my myrrh and my spices&(Bloch, 5).

Thus, love is seen as the most beautiful feeling to be born by nature and blessed by God for all the creatures on this little planet. Love turns sublime when both persons who love understand that their lives are nothing without their beloved ones. The Song of Song as the kindest part of the Old Testament was often omitted by translators of it due to its explicit manifestations of love that are used to characterize the romantic relations between the people who love each other, but the translation by Blochs eliminated these drawbacks and exists as the most complete version of the Song of Songs, the poem about love which is neither awful nor disgusting, ever published (Bloch, 1998).

Conclusion

So, to conclude it is necessary to say at first that it was aimed at identifying the essence of love and the ways in which it can turn sublime. The paper reached this aim by considering the concept of love in the whole variety of its manifestations and by using the bright examples of ideas about love from the two valuable books Decreation and The Song of Songs. This paper managed to find out that love is the main meaning of life for many people, and from the ancient times it has been the most beautiful emotion that human beings are able to experience. It turns sublime by the paramount meaning people attribute to it and by the good people obtain from it.

Works Cited

Bloch, Ariel & Bloch, Chana. The Song of Songs: A New Translation. University of California Press, 1998.

Carson, Anne. Decreation: Poetry, Essays, Opera. Knopf, 2005.

Introduction

Blacks have for long been victims of various forms of discrimination in many aspects of their lives. They have been denied access to vital areas of life and been treated as sub-human species for many years. The mood has changed to a great extent from the days of legal slavery and the racial segregation of the early to mid 20^th century.

One of the areas in which blacks have suffered most harm at the hands of bigotry is in the areas of law enforcement. Blacks have for long been seen as potential criminals informed by a total lack of knowledge on the part of the bigots as well as the unequal treatment of blacks before the law in contrast to especially white people.

This essay will seek to show ways in which such discrimination against blacks has come to the fore. It will also explore the likely consequences of the same and probable causes for the discrimination which has been curbed to a large extent with time and change in attitudes but which still exists especially in law enforcement.

The biggest problem that advocates for human rights have to grapple with in their fight against racial discrimination is the continued Racial Profiling that is rampant in the field of law enforcement. It is a phenomenon that is largely founded on historical stereotypes that were coined and spread by bigots.

Racial Profiling

Racial profiling refers to the phenomenon of the use of a persons racial or ethnic characteristics to make a judgment about them in the course of evaluating their likeliness as suspects of crime or for other reasons. It is based solely on a racial bias or an acquired attitude that leads one to believe that persons from certain races are more likely to do certain things or to act a certain way.

There are many who have viewed this as the reason for the inequalities in percentages of people from the different races in prison, which are filled with black people, despite their being an ethnic minority.

Some have argued that in the process of the maintenance of law and order in society, the police and other law enforcement agencies are permitted to use any characteristic they can to identify and stop criminal suspects and potential criminals. They argue that failure to use race as a characteristic would be, simply put, not sensible.

Race relations in the country have by no means been easy or smooth. There have been numerous occasions where the races have traded accusations over the alleged discrimination by other races. None however have been as loud and as frequent as those of black people, and rightly so.

Black people, or African Americans as they are referred to in this politically correct, have been at the ends of many forms of discrimination and mistreatment dating back to the days of slavery all through the middle ages to the present time. They have suffered at the hands of other races in many ways.

One of the main elements of society in which discrimination and mistreatment of blacks has been evident is in the field of law enforcement. Blacks have unfairly been targeted by its agencies and been the subject of suspicion perpetrated by racist agents who have spread the hate and suspicion to the general public. The manner in which blacks have been treated by law enforcement will be the subject of this essay. (Smith et al)

Racial profiling is one type of the trends that are generally referred to as Racially Biased Policing. It involves other practices like the discriminatory treatment of racial and ethnic minorities that is not just based on race and differential and biased police practices in neighborhoods occupied mainly by minorities in contrast to those inhabited by whites (Weitzer and Tuch 2006)

It would appear that this bigotry towards blacks started with the advent of slavery. It was at this time that the various races really interacted with a large degree of closeness. The slaves, a majority of who were black, were treated and seen as subhuman persons. They were mistreated for centuries in the name of labor and industry.

The intolerance was spread through the social structures by such means as through the membership of Racial Supremacist and Extremist movements such as the infamous KKK and The Aryan Nation and inevitably reached and permeated into law enforcement agencies with some of the law enforcers being having been members of such groups or having similar racial bias.

One area in which law enforcements obvious bias against blacks is evident is in Drug Enforcement. It is this field that strives to rd the streets of narcotics and other drugs which have been routinely abused in the country for decades. This arm of law enforcement has been overly discriminatory on blacks.

The so called War on Drugs has been for years waged primarily against blacks. This has led to the large numbers of blacks in prison over drug related issues. This is despite the fact that most drug users in the country are white and also that those blacks arrested and convicted have rarely been above middle level in the drug hierarchy (Targeting Blacks).

The response to questions on the policy of targeting predominantly black neighborhoods have been answered with statements to the effect that the drug war is aimed at ridding poor neighborhoods of addiction as well as other ills such as violence associated with drug dealing (Targeting Blacks).

There has also been racial discrimination on the good side of the law. This is most evident in the courts system during jury selection whereby blacks and members of minority races are more likely to be struck off jury duty than whites. This is due to the widespread belief that they are not as committed to the legal system due t years of mistreatment by the same or that they are more likely to be sympathetic to members of their races accused of certain crimes (Weitzer and Tuch, 2006).

The decision in the case of Batson vs. Kentucky 476 U.S. 79 (1986) that challenged the peremptory challenge of jurors on basis of race was a big step in the right direction. In the case, it was also held that where a person is tried and members of their race are struck off the list by peremptory challenge, they are not likely to get a fair trial.

Conclusion

Blacks have also been subjected to motor vehicle searches on a far more frequent scale than whites for example. This is due to the view held by law enforcement that blacks carry and conceal weapons as well as drugs in their cars. This is in clear of The Fourth Amendment to The Constitution that protects persons from the unreasonable search and seizure without probable cause for doing so. (Smith et al)

It is about time that the law enforcement agencies changed their attitude towards blacks and ended the back and forth between the two groups. It would appear that the continued targeting of blacks has caused a vicious cycle of violence and revenge with blacks reacting in anger to the mistreatment of their people by the police.

References

Out of Order? Policing Black People 

President Clintons race panel cites disparity in treatment of Blacks and Whites by Nations law enforcement system. (Law & Justice)

Ronald Weitzer & Steven Tuch. 2006. Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform

Smith et al.; Equity and Discretionary Justice; The Influence of Race on Police Arrest Decisions.

Targeting Blacks; Drug Law Enforcement and Race.

Alaska is the largest state in the United States of America and has a total population of slightly above 730,000, 65% of the population are Native Americans better known as the Alaska Natives in Alaska and live in Bethel. Bethel city, one of the many cities in Alaska, occupies just above 48 square miles, out of which 5.5 square miles is water as it is bordered by two rivers, which head to the sea. It has the second largest home of wild animals and has very harsh weather, which is characterized by very hot summers and extremely long, cold weather, and very heavy snow.

Bethel residents value their heritage, which is evident in holding yearly cultural shows, practicing gaming and fishing as their leisure activities. However, they do not have access to clean tap/ running water, they lack sewage systems, which most villagers know how to make; therefore, most of their waste and garbage is deposited in the rivers and bushes. This, in turn, leads to high rates of air, soil, and water pollution. The only way to access Bethel city is by air or water, which makes it very difficult for most people to access health facilities, government services, and other key facilities and services (Rosier, 2003).

There are several hazards facing Bethel city which include: flooding; severe weather and diseases caused by poor sanitation and earthquakes. They face very high mortality rates due to the high rates of diseases and wildlife attacks. Lack of medical insurance, ineffective modes of transportation, and poor infrastructure are some of the challenges faced in accessing medical facilities. The city has more high school graduates than degree holders; hence, most of them do not qualify for professional employment, which explains why there are less than 570 firms in Bethel and a per capita income of slightly above $ 29,000 in 4 years. Even though there are over 2,300 housing units, owned by 52% of the population in Bethel, the housing units are in deplorable conditions as most lack important utilities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).

Mortality rates are high because of the lack of and/or inaccessible medical facilities; staunch traditional beliefs and a low number of medical attendants and facilities within the area. This means that an individual can die while waiting to be attended to. Infant and maternal mortality are high. Most infants die due to sudden infant death syndrome, whereas pregnant mothers are not educated on clinic issues while pregnant; thus, pose risks not only to the unborn babies but also to themselves. This problem is detected very late or is not detected until they die. Diseases such as HIV/ AIDs, Haemophilus Influenza type A and water-borne diseases are also on the rise in Bethel. Some of the funding channels are; private insurance and the through the U. S. Indian Health services. The city authority needs to act fast to improve the health sector and general living in Bethel.

References

Rosier, P. C. (2003). Native American issues. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). United States 2010 Census: State Population profile Maps. Web.

The essay will analyze the article by J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur Immersion Journalism and the article by Edward Humes What is an American. The common theme of these essays is deference and otherness. Both authors describe different topics and issues but construct their works on the opposition between the topic under discussion and its relations to the outside world. The elements under analysis are ritual and traditions which shape the subjects, the principle of opposition, and the idea of Americaness. Thesis The authors analyze different issues, an American nature and immersion journalism, but use similar strategies and techniques to shape the subject and unveil the main problems.

The main similarity between the essays is that they underline the importance of traditions and rituals in the life of a journalist and a common American. in American life, rituals and traditions play a crucial role: they determine the uniqueness of the nation and its self-determination. Humes writes: From involuntary idleness, servile dependence, penury, and useless labor, he has passed to toils of a very different nature, rewarded by ample subsistence.

The author underlines a difference between European culture and traditions and unique American values which shape the nation. Similar to Humes, Crevecoeur states that traditions and rituals shape Immersion journalism. Traditions of this type of journalism go back to muckraking. When a reporter crusades on an issue and decides to expose what he sees as evil, he sheds the objective stance. Implicit in the decision to write an exposé is the belief that something needs to be done about the problem or person being exposed. This, of course, represents a point of view. To muckrake in order to effect change brings to a head the larger questions of purpose and effect.

That the press relies on commerce for support (as Tarbell bemoaned) but acts also as a critic of commerce is an integral part of the story of immersion journalism. The rituals and traditions of journalism can be expressed in the objectivity which has evolved over the decades and, even today, it has different meanings from publication to publication. However, whether it is couched in words like fairness, accuracy, or impartiality, or in phrases like separating fact from comment, there is some uniform agreement on the principles of objectivity. Let me go from the theoretical underpinnings of the concept to some of its specific attributes.

Both essays are based on the idea of Americaness and the uniqueness of the American nation. Humes explains that the American nation was shaped by historical traditions and colonization experiences. The American lifestyle is reflected in all spheres of life including housing and food, clothes, and communication.

Similar to Humes, Crevecoeur sees immersion journalism as a unique phenomenon of the American nation. the uniqueness of this style is that: the stories we seek are private ones, for every place or character or institution, even public ones, have a private life, behind the façade, where the real business of families and governments and schools happens (Crevecoeur). Immersion journalism becomes a part of the American culture and an important tool to support and protect social victims. This notion is closely related to Americaness as a unique phenomenon of the USA.

Opposition and differentiation of other issues and topics help the authors to unveil the main features and principles of immersion journalism and an American lifestyle. Humes underlines that an American man differs from a European because of his unique worldviews and personal relations.

The American ought, therefore, to love this country much better than that wherein either he or his forefathers were born (Humes). The main difference is that Europeans take their ancestry and history for granted while Americans value and appraise the hard work of their fathers who came to America many centuries ago. In contrast to Humes, Crevecoeur sees immersion journalism as a distinct style of traditional journalism shaped by social needs and demands.

In contrast to traditional journalism, Immersion journalists have no particular right to go where they go (Crevecoeur). It is widely recognized that the mass media provide citizens with ample information that they then use to construct some sense of the world around them. It is not as widely recognized that consumers of media messages are active in this constructive process, making meanings that are sensible to them in their particular life circumstances. The theoretical rationale for the notion of objectivity is that readers and listeners can best make up their minds about public policy issues when they are given verifiable facts. These facts are delivered by independent, neutral observersreporterswho provide for the reader competing versions of the truth; in short, a marketplace where ideas do battle.

In sum, the essays by J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur Immersion Journalism and the essay by Edward Humes What is an American discuss different issues related to an American culture and immersion journalism, but use similar techniques to unveil the subjects and analyze the problems under analysis. The technique of opposition and differentiation helps both authors to shape the themes and topics under discussion.

Works Cited

Crevecoeur, H.J. Immersion Journalism. 2002. Web.

Humes, E. What is an American. 1995. Web.

Feminine sexuality is associated with confusing and often contradicting messages. As explained by Tolman, girls often face double standards when it comes to expressing their sexuality (137). On the one hand, girls who are reserved in terms of clothing and behavior are labeled virgins or prudes (Tolman 138). On the other hand, girls who actively assert their sexuality and show a willingness to engage in sexual interactions are called sluts and other degrading terms (Tolman 137).

While this might seem like a contradiction, there is a deeper meaning behind these double standards; a message that young womens sexuality is not about their sexual desire and pleasure, but about eliciting desire and offering pleasure to men. As explained by Tolman, girls continue to be sexually socialized into being sexy rather than being sexual (138). Girls who do not conform to the sexy image, whether because they refuse to try to look sexy and attract men or because they become sexual, are punished.

Whereas the idea of female sexuality is rooted in submission to men, male sexuality is perceived in terms of power over women. As stated by Pascoe, the requirement is for boys to show evidence of their heterosexuality continuously by getting girls (148). Interactions with women where a man exercises his dominance  for instance, by invading womens privacy, touching them, or engaging in sex talk  serve as the ultimate sign of male sexuality. In this way, boys learn that their sexuality depends on the degree to which they can control women and the attractiveness of the women that they get. This idea relates female and male sexuality to one another, placing both in the context of heterosexual normativity.

As evident from the discussion above, the importance of heterosexual relations underpins the construction of both male and female sexualities. Examples of female and male sexuality translated through the media show men in a dominant position and women in a submissive one. For this reason, any deviation from normative heterosexuality is considered a hit on male and female sexuality as a whole.

For instance, womens queer sexuality often becomes a subject of sexual fantasy for men, but only if the women are hot (Pascoe 146). Since feminine sexuality depends on male sexual desire and pleasure, lesbian women are either viewed as an object of desire or shunned as an undesirable object. In a similar manner, men who behave differently by not translating messages of power are labeled as homosexual, ridding them of male sexuality altogether.

The power dynamics that are part of the notion of sexuality for men also mean that boys who do not show attributes of male sexuality or exhibit traits or behaviors associated with femininity are shunned and ostracized by other men as weak and inferior. This restricts the degree of self-expression permitted in men, as their clothing, use of makeup, and many other characteristics can become a cause for humiliation (Pascoe 144).

In the feminine boy study discussed by Burke, most boys only exhibited cross-dressing behaviors in the presence of mothers and hid from fathers (Burke 207). This suggests that the severity with which the traditional images of sexuality are applied to men is worse than feminine sexuality norms. Still, people of all genders suffer from the stereotyped images of sexuality, prompting efforts to address the strict binary gender system and its connection with sexuality.

Study Summaries

Child and Family Predictors of Academic Functioning in Homeless Children by Wayne Holden and Evangeline Danseco

This study looked into the differential predictors of homeless childrens educational achievement status. Involving 127 homeless children who were beneficiaries of the comprehensive health care program for homeless children (Holden, 1996, p. 3), the study looked into the effects of factors such as age, gender, and maternal educational level and then moved on to analyze the influence of intellectual, behavioral, and emotional factors.

It also looked into the effects of major life stressors and residential instability. The mothers underwent structured interviews and were made to complete the Child Behavior Checklist and the Parenting Stress Index. The children, on the other hand, were assessed using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Childrens Depression Inventory, and the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (Holden, 1996, p. 4, 5). Results of the study showed that age, gender, and maternal education were important predictors of the academic achievement of homeless children, but the most significant is cognitive functioning. Emotional distress and behavioral problems were found to be important factors (Holden, 1996, p. 5).

Homelessness and its Effects on Children by Ellen Hart-Shegos

Homelessness affects every aspect of a person. Carried through unhealthy pregnancies, homeless children are often born with low birth rates and at greater risk of death. As infants, they are exposed to factors that can endanger their lives. As toddlers, they exhibit developmental delays, and as pre-schoolers, they are more likely to develop emotional problems (Hart-Shegos, 1999, p. 2, 4). By the time they start going to school, homeless children may already have suffered and are suffering physical, emotional, and psychological damage (Hart-Shegos, 1999, p. 2, 5).

In general, they are more likely to have more health problems than children who are housed. They are also more likely to be malnourished. And, having experienced stressful and traumatic events that their young minds cannot understand, they are prone to emotional distress and mental health problems (Hart-Shegos, p. 2, 67). They have poor cognitive development, and hence, their academic performance is hampered. Despite this bleak picture, there is still hope that homeless children can overcome the negative effects of their homelessness through early and consistent intervention strategies, which may include giving homeless families priority access to services such as supportive housing, drug, and alcohol treatment, parenting support, and assisting them in getting health and nutrition information, monitoring children development, and so on (Hart-Shegos, p. 2, 811).

Cognitive and Academic Functioning of Homeless Children Compared With Housed Children by David Rubin et al

Involving 278 children and their mothers, 102 of whom lived in shelters while the rest were housed, this study looked into the effect of homelessness on the cognitive and academic functioning of children aged 6 to 11 years (Rubin, 1996, p. 289). Carried out between August 1990 and August 1992, this study compared the two groups using standardized cognitive and academic performance instruments, controlling for such factors as race, sex, family status, and social class (Rubin, 1996, p. 290).

It was found that there was no significant difference in the verbal and nonverbal intelligence of the two groups (where verbal intelligence was estimated using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test and the nonverbal intelligence was estimated using the Ravens Progressive Matrices). However, the homeless childrens academic achievement, as measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, was significantly poorer in reading, spelling, and arithmetic (Rubin, 1996, p. 292). The study concluded that although no significant difference in cognitive functioning between the two groups was found, the homeless performed more poorly than housed children in activities testing academic performance (Rubin, 1996, p. 293).

Homeless Children: Are They Different from Other Low-Income Children? by Carol Ziesemer

This study compared the academic performance, adaptive functioning, and problem behaviors of homeless children to those of children with low socio-economic status (SES). Using the Achenbach and Edelbrock Teacher Report Form and the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Children, the study involved 287 elementary school-age children  145 of whom were homeless at one point in their lives, while the rest were mobile children who came from poor families (Ziesemer, 1994, p. 659). The study found that within the groups, the children showed a range of academic and psychological functioning, wherein about 30 percent of them were within the normal range; and that there were no significant differences between homeless and low SES-mobile children. The study did note, however, that when the childrens scores were taken together, their scores significantly differed from norms. According to the authors, the findings of the study suggest that homelessness is stressful for children; however, long-term poverty seems to be the more important marker of risk in children (pp. 668).

Comparison and contrast

The four studies are closely related to each other, they being all concerned about the plight of homeless children. Although they used different methodologies, answered different questions, and used different measures, there are some startling similarities in their findings.

Of the four, Ziesemers and Rubins are most closely related with each other, as both made use of direct comparisons: Rubin (1999) compared homeless children with children from low-income children, while Holden compared homeless children with housed children. There is parallelism as well as contrast in the studies findings: both found that the two groups compared did not have significant differences in some respects, but there are salient differences in some other respects. In Rubins, it was found that although both groups have more or less the same cognitive abilities, the homeless children performed much poorly in academic achievement tests. In Ziesemer et al, (1994) it was found that the two groups of children performed almost the same way in some of the tests, but the effect of long-term poverty was more significant than the effect of homelessness.

The other two studies, on the other hand, are less closely related to each other than the other two studies. Holden (1996) focused on the effects of environmental and internal factors on the academic achievement of homeless children, whereas, Hash-Shegos (1999) focused on the general effects of homelessness on childrens nutrition, physical, mental and emotional health, and academic performance.

Of the four, it is only Hart-Shegos (1999) that gave a ray of hope toward the end of her study, where she mentioned that the homeless childrens plight may be reversed through early and consistent intervention. She then proceeded to give some of the interventions she had in mind.

Finally, all studies give significant insights into the things homeless children go through. These insights are definitely important for agencies involved in planning, structuring, and implementing interventions and help to the homeless children.

Bibliography

Hart-Shegos, E. (1999). Homelessness and its Effects on Children. Web.

Holden, E. W. and Danseco, E. R. (1996). Child and Family Predictors of Academic Functioning in Homeless Children. Web.

Rubin, D., et al. (1996). Cognitive and Academic Functioning of Homeless Children Compared With Housed Children. Pediatrics, Vol. 97, No. 3, pp. 289294.

Ziesemer, C. and Marcoux, L. (1994). Homeless children: Are they different from other low-income children? Social Work, No. 39, pp. 658669.