Category: Sociology 7256

A young man is so strong, so mad, so certain, and so lost. He has everything and he is able to use nothing.  Thomas Wolfe, Of Time and the River (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 Chapter 1). 

Nature has physically defined the male and female of any given species. Men have long been considered to be the dominant members of the human species. This trait is physically displayed in their natural physique. As they grow, men tend to become more masculine and have broader shoulders. For women, their bodies soften producing a series of feminine curves. English word like virulent reflect how society views men. The word vir is Latin for man. This shows that men are expected by society to be the powerful ones. Men are expected by society to be the stronger ones in almost all aspects of life (Raising Cain 2000). Men are considered to be born leaders hence their dominance in the various levels of authority. Men are supposed to be emotionally strong. This is why men seldom show their emotions. A man who publicly displays his feelings is considered a wimp.

Discussion

There is a raging debate on the gender roles. Are the roles we play as males or females a result of nature or nurture? Some will argue that an individuals behavior is largely dependent on how he or she was raised. The World Health Organization defines gender as the socially constructed standards which are considered appropriate by the society one lives in. this definition leaves no room for any biological influence on how men and women behave. In the book, Raising Cain, the authors discuss the nature vs. nurture debate. In their view, men and women have more similarities than differences (Raising Cain 2000). They attribute some behaviors associated with boys to a biological basis, but they feel that culture plays a more significant role in determining how each gender behaves.

In their book, Kindlon and Thompson (2000) assert that boys are emotionally hurting. The first chapter of their book is termed turning boys away from their inner life (p.1-21). This chapter discusses how society brings up boys to ignore or suppress their emotions. The authors describe the body language of the boys who come into their office. These boys either sink deep into the couch or sit stiffly at the edge of the seat. Kindlon and Thompson (2000) equate this behavior to the self-conscious nature with which boys approach their emotions. They give the fight or flight response men have to their emotions (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.3). Boys have been brought up to be emotionally tough. They are taught to be macho and hide their emotions. This could be termed as emotional miseducation (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.3). The boys even distance themselves from their mothers in a ploy to assert their maleness (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.117). There is a struggle between a boys need for connection and his desire for autonomy. This struggle is expressed in different ways as the boy grows up.

The question that this raises is whether a male response to their emotions is biological or cultural. Brain research conducted shows that the brain functions in different ways based on our gender. Boys are born more empathetic, emotive and expressive than girls at birth (Conlin 2003). This aspect is however driven out of them by the time they get to the second grade. The flight or fight response to emotions is largely cultural. Society has taught boys to either avoid their emotions or confront them with anger and sometimes violence. The emotional void created by an inappropriate response to emotions may be the cause of the rising cases of drug and alcohol abuse in men along with high cases of suicide in teenage boys (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.6). Culture has played a role in making more men than women more prone to violence. Majority of the action packed movies, which a majority of men tend to enjoy, have a man in the lead role. For this reason, men have been exposed to the assumed roles that they should play (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.249). In the action movies, the lead role is a strong male, masculine, gets all the girls and saves the day. He is brave and rarely feels pain. Men in this society have been influenced to behave likewise. They spend hours in the gym trying to be more muscular. The more athletic males get the girls. Males also tend to think they have to save the day. This may be the reason why men tend to feel a sense of duty to provide for their family.

The book raising Cain also raises the struggle of young boy in education (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.21-50). Conlin (2003) reveals the increasing gap in male and female education. All efforts geared towards the promotion of education are geared towards girls. She gives an example of a school where the senior class president, vice president, head of the student government, captain of the math team, chief of the yearbook and editor of the newspaper were all girls. It is reported that in American colleges, there will be 142 women getting a BA for every 100 men by 2010 (Conlin 2003). William S. Pollock, a psychiatry professor at Harvard, feels that boys themselves are falling behind their own functioning (Conlin 2003).

Boys are said to be developmentally behind the girls by two years. Biologically, girls tend to mature faster than boys (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.31). This is clearly seen in puberty where most girls physically develop earlier than the boys. Some argue that it is unfair to subject boys and girls to the same learning speed. Boys for example are said to biologically require at least four recesses per day (Conlin 2003). This is because they, unlike the girls, cannot sit and concentrate for long periods of time. This assertion is however doubtful if one takes a look at history. Boys in the past excelled at academics. In olden times, women were thought to be too fragile to grasp the intricacies of science, maths and politics. Now that they have been given a chance to prove themselves in education, theories to excuse the boys dismal performance compared to women is given. One tends to wonder where this biological argument is just an excuse used to explain why women are doing better than men in a field once considered to be a mans domain.

A boys inability to sit still and listen in class is interpreted to mean that he may have a learning disorder. Research has shown that the number of boys diagnosed with the attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder is up to four times that of girls (Kindlon & Thompson 2000). The fact that boys are more impulsive by nature and tend to get restless quickly makes them look like they have the disorder (Kindlon & Thompson 2000 p.43). The truth is society has not taken the time to conform learning environment to suit an individual childs need. It is much easier to brand a child special just because he does not understand things as well as the rest of the class. Kindlon and Thompson (2003) give a case of where a boy was branded as having a learning disorder just because his spelling was poor (p.27). He was discouraged from participating in his poetry class because of this. The writers propose learning to help boys solve the problem rather than ignore it. They should be given the chance to express what they feel can help them learn better.

Fatherhood is considered a big step for men. Research has shown that hormones could play a part in determining who will be a good father. Research has shown that both males and females undergo hormonal changes during and after pregnancy (Douglas 2006). For men, the changes are said to make them more devoted in caring for their child. Two Canadian studies have been conducted to study these changes. One study showed a 33% drop in testosterone after birth in men made them become better dads. Results also showed that levels of estrogen in fathers rose 30 days before birth. The levels stayed at this high level 12 weeks after the actual birth. The levels of the hormones prolactin and cortisol also rose after birth. The close contact between the pregnant mother and the father is said to initiate these hormonal changes in men (Douglas 2006). These hormonal changes were seen in men who had embraced fatherhood.

The fact that men become good fathers cannot be totally attributed to hormonal changes. Douglas (2006) gives an example of one man, Hudnut. When this man was young, his father was never around. Hudnut made a point of not acting like his father. When his son was born, he changed his work schedule to allow him to spend more time with his son. In this case, Hudnuts childhood experience turned him into a better father than his own. He understood the relationship he had missed out on as a child. He took measures to ensure that his son does not suffer the same. Statistics show that one in 4 dads takes their child to preschool when mom is working (Douglas 2006). This goes to show that society is influencing the roles fathers play today. A shift from the past where mens only role was to provide and protect his family is being experienced. A culture where more men are making the choice to become part time or a full time dad is being adapted (Douglas 2006).

Another debate where nature vs. nurture arises is the aggressive nature of men when it comes to seeking out companionship from a member of the opposite sex. Society believes that testosterone, a hormone found mainly in males, makes them more aggressive. Scientists have found very little evidence supporting this theory (Kindlon & Thompson 2003 p. 225). This aggressive nature is also linked to the culture of cruelty seen in boys (Kindlon & Thompson 2003). Men tend to be more physically aggressive and more prone to violent acts. As earlier mentioned, there is no evidence showing that testosterone makes men more aggressive. This aggressive nature is learnt. They grow up taking part in aggressive sports like rugby. Boys are expected to be competitive especially in sports. Most popular mainstream sports teams are mens teams. Movies have men as the lead roles in everything. Society expects them to be aggressive.

Conclusion

In conclusion gender is largely as a result of cultural values that are instilled in one. The research that shows the hormonal changes in better dads does no guarantee that he will stay that way. The research was only done within a limited time i.e. before birth and the 12 weeks after the big event. What happens after this time? Will the father become a bad parent due to opposite hormonal changes? The fact is biology has little to do with how people behave. In the end, everyone has to make a personal choice on how he or she shall behave. Kindlon and Thompson (2000) advocate for parent to allow their sons to develop their emotions. This will allow them be better equipped to cope with the social and emotional challenges they face in the future.

Works Cited

Kindlon, J. Daniel & Michael Thompson. Raising Cain: Protecting the Emotional life of Boys. New York: Ballantine Books. 2000.

Douglas Abrams Carlton. The Making of a Modern Dad. 2006, Psychology Today Magazine. 2008. Web.

Conlin Michelle. The New Gender Gap: From Kindergarten to Grad School Boys Are Becoming the Second Sex. 2003. Business week. 2008. Web.

The needle exchange programs main objective is to reduce the number of bloodborne disease cases by preventing the reuse of needles. According to evidence by Fernandes et al. (2017) and Elkins (2017), needle exchange programs are effective for reducing the number of bloodborne diseases. Mainly, Fernandes et al. (2017) found that these programs help reduce the number of HIV cases and moderate efficiency for reducing HCV contraction. Considering the healthcare crises that the United States is experiencing, it is helpful for the state and federal governments to establish more facilities where needle exchange programs will occur. However, other measures targeting helping addicts overcome their condition and return to normal life should be financed as well (Elkins, 2017). This is because needle exchange programs are not designed to target drug addiction, they are addressing just one aspect of the issue.

One argument against needle exchange programs is that they encourage the use of the drug. For example, a person may avoid using drugs out of fear that they will contract a disease after using a needle that someone else has used before. However, addiction is a complex condition with both psychological and biological antecedents, meaning that addicts do not use rational thinking, they are guided by their addiction. As mentioned, other programs that help people who have an addiction to drugs should be implemented to address this issue. However, at a current stage, needle exchange helps stop the spread of HIV or another bloodborne conditions (Needle and syringe programs, n.d.). Alternatives to needle exchange include full harm reduction programs. Fernandes et al. (2017) state that this is a combination of neighborhood watch programs and methadone-based treatment. Overall, there are better alternatives to needle exchange programs that target the issue of addiction and not merely the reuse of syringes.

References

Elkins, K. (2018). Benefits and risks of needle exchange programs. Drug Rehab. Web.

Fernandes, R. M., Cary, M., Duarte, G., Jesus, G., Alarcão, J., Torre, C., Costa, S., Costa, J., & Carneiro, A. V. (2017). Effectiveness of needle and syringe programmes in people who inject drugs  An overview of systematic reviews. BMC public health, 17(1), 309. Web.

Needle and syringe programmes (NSPs) for HIV prevention. (n.d.). 2020, Web.

Society consists of representatives of various communities and unspoken rules and norms that define the paradigm of everyday life. Sammy is the main character in the short story A&P by John Updike. The young man witnessed a taboo on female attractiveness in the 20th century with sexism and inequality characteristics. It is a story about morality and conformism, namely freedom of expression and individuality in public places.

American society in the mid-twentieth century was characterized by much stricter standards of self-expression than modern culture. It is no secret that people were more emotionally constrained and reserved, which was noticeable in gender and social relations. A&P describes a situation at a grocery store where girls in beachwear were kicked out for inappropriate looks (Wheeler 5). Sammy, the cashier, perceived the guests as ignorant and unintelligent, although one of them piqued the guys interest. This storys central point is the categorical judgments and bias between men and women and society as a whole. Female sexuality and violation of moral rules existed only in males eyes, which is notable when others reacted to the three guests. Therefore, Lengels request to leave the store is not only sexist but also conformist, as it was justified by public order and ethics. Thus, the authors argument is the doubtfulness of external sexuality as a violation of the rules since it is assessed only by other peoples subjective opinions.

Updike described a typical situation in the United States in the mid-20th century, where adherence to generally accepted obligations was imperative and unchanging. Sammy rated the three women as silly but attractive because of their beachwear. It met with immediate reaction from Lengel, who kicked the customers out for inappropriate appearance. Even the cashiers subsequent dismissal did not change the moral of this story, namely conformism and sexism in everyday life.

Work Cited

Wheeler, David. John Updikes Short Story A&P  An Analysis. GRIN Publishing, 2011.

Introduction

The civic concept is considered to be examined by many scholars in order to identify the major positions of the modern civilization development. Michael Schudson, the author of the famous article The Varieties of Civic Experience, managed to disclose the way he understood the place of this concept in the American society. He stated that civic engagement forms could not be measured and lined up considering only one scale of worse or better civic, though there are some contradictions as to this point.

Main body

The American history shows different views on the civic engagement in different areas. Schudson stated that the example of the ideal citizen or a desirable one differed depending on the area and period of time. Thus, the differential citizen model was introduced. According to this new concept the ideal citizen should live regarding all the rules of the society; he is to vote for the community leaders identifying the role of their judgment. Taking into account the historical influence on the understanding of the civic concept it is important to stress that the initial position of the ideal differential man was successfully replaced by the representative of the democratic and enthusiastic society. The broad theory of Schudson covers various positions of the citizen ideal representation. According to his conclusions it is impossible to refer one particular model of the citizen to the whole class of the social development. For example, in 1820s the political parties happened to be centralized in the life of citizens. Nominating conventions involved people into various political processes, especially on elections events. Nevertheless with every passing year the accepted model of the party-centered atmosphere was replaced by the independent commercial press. To be completely aware of the latest news and informed of everything appeared to be the principle feature of the ideal citizen of the 1920s.

The theory expressed by Schudson became the background for the discussions as to the understanding of the civic concept. Thus, Bart Simpson rejects the offered type of an ideal citizen; he sticks to the point that the image of generally accepted ideal citizen should be based on the principles of the liberation movements, that it considering all the standard norms, common law and rights of the society. This picture would allow to see one common fixed picture of the citizen model at any time of historical development. The standardization of the concept underlines the independent position as to the political principles and cultural instability of the particular social group. (Schudson, 2006).

To see and assess the Schudsons study of the civic aspect it is necessary to compare it with the position of the citizen representation provided by Robert Putnam. This scholar is considered to be one of the brightest representatives of the civic study exploring the state of the civic engagement at present time and drawing the picture of the ideal one that would dominate in future. Putnam is merely concentrated on the issues of associational life vigor where people used to behave regarding their own views in accordance with the democratic position of the society. Robert Putnam together with Theda Skocpol stated that the foundation of the civic life in the USA was merely based on the membership in cross-class and national organizations. The political parties of the USA have always been cross-region alliance and cross class; the only aspect has varied with time: whether the society and political sphere demanded time consuming participation.

Putnams theory of civic concept is considered to support the opinion that the disparaging of the civic participation forms can be observed in case they are:

• Occasional, transitional event-centered but not enduring in maintaining and mobilizing public participation;
• Oriented to individual and personal interests or transformation but not following the purposes of the society;
• Convenient and cheap for the participants without the threat of the sacrifice, risk or time and energy investment;
• More individual but not collective in various civic strategies.

Robert Putnam argued the thesis provided by Schudson; he stated that the civic concept could be supported by formal fixed norms and principles which identify the particular model of the citizens in different periods of the historical development of the USA. The principle aspect which considered being the background of the theory was identified as the one fulfilling the role of the democratic needs of the society. The democratic purpose of the civic concept covered the realization and disclosing of the true model of the US citizens in accordance with the generally accepted norms and rules of the particular social group. He stated that the mechanisms by means of which social connectedness and civic engagement produce positive influence such as low crime and economic growth were very complex and rather complicated. They require qualification and confirmation and that is why it is almost impossible to consider them to be stable and fixed in the society. Over the last few generations direct engagement of Americans in government and politics has considerably decreased though the individual participation in the political life has been improved. Religious affiliation is considered to be the most general and common associational membership in the America society. Considering the present day situation Putnam stated that nowadays the number of Americans bowling in different organized leagues has steadily increased. Nevertheless despite all the arguments provided by Putnam there are certain serious countertrends to his theoretical principles and conclusions:

• The traditional civic organization forms provided can be easily substituted by the new organizations;
• The political importance is considered to be the main principles of these organizations though the politics tends to change with time and new generations;
• The next counterargument lies in the rapid growth of non profit organizations; it means that almost all the secondary organizations are non profit;
• The assessment of civic and capital engagement is closely connected with the expansion of various sorts of support groups. (Putnam, 1993).

The concept of the civil society is considered to be the central one in modern civilization. It played a decisive role in the recent debate as to the preconditions for democratization and democracy. This concept now focuses attention on the vibrating of the civic life. In the democracies the number of citizens is constantly growing and liberal atmosphere appeared to be stimulating in the political and ideological areas. Considering the American society it should be stated that democratic disarray which can be observed in the society is closely connected with the continuing and broad civic engagement erosion having begun a century ago. Robert Putnam argued that this point should be at issue in modern society of the USA in order to reverse existing adverse trends in common social connectedness for the purpose of restoring civic trust and civic engagement. The changes happening in the American society should take into account community engagement benefits and costs. It is important to investigate the impingement of the public policy on the social capital formation. Regarding the problem the scholars took into account civic life of the middle class and the life in the small towns.

Thus, the analysis of the civic concept managed to show different views of the scholars on the issue. It is important to stress that the statement provided by Michael Schudson as to the civic engagement forms which cannot be lined up and measured considering the single scale caused a lot of debates among the scholars. As it was shown in the paper the opinions concerning the civic concept could be presented in various forms and views. (Lend, 2005).

Conclusion

Schudson presented a broad theory on the position of the civic engagement throughout the whole history of the USA. The evaluation of the Schusons facts compared with those of Putnam managed to see the influence of the primary and secondary social organizations on the formation of the citizen model. Theda Skocpol and Robert Putnam appeared to express the contradictory points to the central analyzed theory proving the idea that the only important background for the ideal formation of the civic concept is considered to be the democratization of the state and the whole society. Thus the development of the USA will always impact the position of the civil engagement in the society.

References

Schudson, Michael. The Varieties of Civic Experience. University of California. 2006.

Putnam, Robert. Bowling Alone: Americas Declining Social Capital. 1993.

Lend, John. Citizenship in Democracy. California Scholarship Publication. 2005.

Recently, there have been a growing number of buzz words that use the metro prefix. For example, Metro sexuality, which is the term for heterosexual men having a strong concern for their appearance, is a term that is now quite common, widespread and ordinary. Similar to this, a rather new concept that is emerging is called Metro spirituality. Metro spirituality can be described through many perspectives but most simply put, while metro sexuality is a blend of the sexual choices that are being made as a part of the urban lifestyle, metro spirituality is considered as a blend of spiritual options emerging. It is simply the act of being spiritual in an urban or metro environment which is creative, complex and pluralistic.

Metro spirituality is basically based on the theory that there is more to spirituality than just going to the church and having internal belief which is known as being self-absorbed religion. It claims that there is more to religion than institutionalization. The basic belief of metro spirituality is that rather than practicing religion internally, one must pursue a practical life based on the beliefs, based on living life by following the acts of Christ. Basic acts are what define spirituality and a lifestyle that promotes good deeds is what is more important, moreover, metro spirituals believe that it is very important to enjoy, party and have good time.

The basic beliefs of metro spirituality such as working actively for others and practically implementing the lifestyle of the pious is very impressive and inspiring but the dilemma lies in the fact that with the passage of time metro spirituality is becoming less concerned with religiousness and more with being liberal and open. It is argued that Metro spirituality has emerged as a result of people wanting to believe that they are spiritual in whatever ways that they can make it happen.

It is the approach of being spiritual but not religious. Which is considered as not being religious at all as spirituality and religion come side by side and disregarding one is equal to disbelieving religion in itself. Metro spirituality deduces that in the matter of religion, they can be as liberal as they wish to be and be categorized as being broad minded and modern.

The lifestyle of the metro spirituals tends to revolve around doing well for the environment and for others. It is hence an important aspect of being metro spiritual that products be bought or consumed that pose some benefits to the environment. For example, when it comes to shopping, metro spirituals claim that what one buys reflects his/her beliefs and lifestyles. This note directs to a major criticism and rather the main essence of the popularity of metro spirituality.

Shopping in general has become more of a spiritual act for people and what they buy is considered to be what they believe. Nowadays Metro spirituals seem to be a term for individuals who base their purchasing choices upon what is spiritual, socially responsible and ecological. This stratum prefers to buy products from companies that contribute to the environment in some way and this factor allows companies to take advantage of them through promoting their brands as being socially responsible and supportive.

Metro sexuality is now largely considered to be nothing but a marketing gimmick by companies that want to promote their brands by approaching the spiritual side of the people. Metro spirituality is said to be a fusion of spirituality and commercialism due to the way that companies advertise their products such as organic chocolate, yoga clothing etc. companies have recognized these sector as being a niche market and they target them with supporting what they do and attract them to gain profit for themselves.

Metro spirituality gained a lot of attention when it was first introduced but it has gradually died out. A reason for it to fade away is that they sort of people that adopted this culture were too inconsistent in the first place. People do believe that making choices based upon the inner values and spirituality is very vital but the exploitation, consumerism and manipulation by businesses make it hard to follow something for a long period of time without being taken advantage of.

Metro spirituality is deemed to be highly similar to metro sexuality. The emergence and popularity of metro sexuality is considered to be a conscious and rather successful effort made by the companies by working together and changing the mind sets and cultural perceptions of people in order to gain access to a new target market and thus, increase profitability. Similar is the case with metro spirituality. It is believed that metro spirituality is yet another attempt to tap into new markets by capturing the lifestyles and value systems of these believers and combining it with products and trends that seem supportive and thus, yet again gaining profit

Nonetheless, on the contrary it could be perceived that the beliefs of the metro spirituals in yielding responsibility to the environment and taking positive social actions has to some extent put imposed some impact on the culture as well as the business practices by teaching them about spending money consciously and maintaining a holistic thinking.

In conclusion, it is important to understand that metro spiritual may be something new but it is certainly not wise to follow something without having a true belief in it. This is new concept and it broadens the way people practice their religion. It does not bound spirituality to the extent of going to churches and being well versed about the facts of religion but it rather promotes the importance of practically doing good deed that benefit oneself as well as others.

Metro spirituality is seen as a marketing gimmick and by many, it is not believed to be something real and thus has gained a lot of skeptic views and criticism but whether these actions and motives are seen as positive or negative however depends upon the point of view and belief systems of every individual.

Sociologists and criminologists believe that there are marked variations in crime rates across US neighborhoods. In their study Robert Sampson, Stephen Raudenbush, and Felton Earl examine the impacts of collective efficacy on violent or deviant behavior in the community. Their hypothesis is that social cohesion and peoples willingness to intervene can reduce misdemeanor (Sampson et al 1997, p 918). Their argument is that informal public influence on individuals or groups may eradicate violence at its core. Most importantly, formal methods of crime prevention such as policing, arrests, or fines are insufficient unless they are supported by the efforts of the public.

According to the authors, such a concept as social cohesion includes the following components: 1) willingness to help one neighbor and 2) mutual trust. (1997, p 920). In turn, the scholars explain informal social control as the desire to stop fights, minor misdemeanors, spray-painting, skipping schools, and so forth. During this research, an attempt has been made to measure these indicators. The data was collected by means of a statistical survey, in particular, the Likert scale was used to evaluate peoples perceptions and attitudes towards their neighborhoods (1997, p 921). Furthermore, the authors discuss the factors which may affect the level of cohesion within the community. From their perspective, these factors are the level of residential stability, racial and economic exclusion, or even segregation. The point is that people, who live for a long time with one another, are more interested in social order and stability in the district. In contrast, if they hardly know each other, they are unlikely to join their efforts in the struggle against deviational conduct.

The results of this study indicate that collective efficacy is significantly influenced by concentrated disadvantage and immigrant concentration (1997, p 921). This statement means that crime rates tend to be higher in those areas, inhabited by people with low-income levels or those individuals who have just immigrated to the United States and have not obtained American citizenship. The researchers also report that residential tenure or homeownership promotes better social control (1997, p 919). Certainly, the authors acknowledge that their findings are inconclusive and further investigation should be carried out. The thing is that collective efficacy can be determined by other factors, for instance, the educational level of the population.

Overall, it is quite difficult to assess the contribution of this research. On the one hand, some of their findings are not entirely original, namely, the impact of income level on criminality. It has long been established that poverty is the root cause of crime. Furthermore, the effects of racism and its relations to violence are also known to sociologists. Nevertheless, the authors make a very interesting observation about social mobility, residential efficacy, and their importance for social cohesion and informal control. Neighbors may strive for common welfare only if they know and trust one another. But the development of social ties is a very time-consuming process, which may take decades.

The underlying causes of deviational behavior have long been a subject of heated debate in academic circles. Not all of them have been identified. This research work discusses the structure of the neighborhood and its relation to crime prevention. This information should be taken into account by the governmental authorities who need to promote better social cohesion in local communities.

Reference List

Sampson R. Raudenbush S. W. & Earls F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, vol. 277, pp 918-924. Web.

Webinar Reflections

The webinar organized by the U.S. Ethnic Writers course teachers and students was supporting the Scholar Strike. It included a series of teachings meant as a form of social protest and inspired by Baldwin and Pecks I am not Your Negro book and film. The speakers reflected upon the works relevance in the context of contemporary racism. They considered racial capitalism, criminalization, education, policing, media, and the artists role.

What I Learnt

I was fortunate not to have experienced the negative implications of policing. I did not realize that the force attracts racists who want to exert dominance over others because the police have power over the legitimate use of violence. The lecturers suggested that our society could only combat policing by convincing the law enforcement to accept the historical and structural problems and acknowledge the misconduct they are concealing.

Another thing that I have not experienced first-hand is criminalization. After the lecture, I began looking at racial criminalization as a continuation of slavery. Indeed, incarcerated and detained people produce cheap labor for capitalists. It is especially aggravating that criminalization promises to reduce the crime rates by imprisoning racial minorities and thus promotes racial stereotypes and even self-criminalization. It is devastating that our culture and social structure limit minorities opportunities and, at times, shape their identities in a derogatory way.

Finally, I was lucky to receive a proper education at school, but I did not realize how many people were deprived of that. The teachers in impoverished communities are underpaid and thus unmotivated to invest in their work and students. Moreover, those who cannot afford extracurricular resources are at a disadvantage when taking Standardized Testing. Schools also subtly teach racial stereotypes, which can only be evident for the minorities or those explicitly looking into it.

My Next Steps

I would like to use my knowledge to recognize various ways in which American society reinforces racism. I am going to educate myself about alternatives to capitalism since it is the fundamental reason racism exists. In Baldwin and Pecks (2017) words, we carry our history with us (p. 96). Moreover, I will ensure to support minorities voices in culture to gain multiple perspectives into the lives of different groups of people and to allow them to tell their stories and create accurate representation. Should I report on events involving racial minorities, I will present the audience with facts devoid of stereotypes.

Reference

Baldwin, J., & Peck, R. (2017). I am not your Negro. Vintage.

Why do some have everything while others have nothing? Why do some become successful while others drown in a river of failure? Why do some live to the fullest, while others just exist and even try to survive? There are two opposite points of view on these issues. On the one hand, some might say that a person is responsible for their own lives and what happens to them. On the other hand, there is an opinion that there is a unique destiny of a person, which they cannot define themselves. Whereas in the United States, there is a widespread belief that a person can be creators of their lives, there are greater powers at work that influence their position in the world since apart from the individual agency there are social structures.

As some definite supra-individual formations, social structures are of great importance in forming an individuals life possibilities. These structures can be the mode of production, economic relations, social class, the structure of society, and many others. Unfortunately, although they do not remain the same, they are much more difficult to change or shape than one persons actions. Thus, despite personal beliefs, desires, and actions, a person cannot fully determine their place in the world. Hogge proves this point by saying that The inequality between the rich and the poor in America is growing, and this hoarding of wealth by the wealthy makes it very difficult to change class (para. 1). That is why it is essential to keep in mind macro social and economic conditions when considering individual opportunities. It is in this context that what sociologists call vertical social mobility happens when they talk about the possibility and reality of improving the position of a person in the system of society. At the same time, both intergenerational mobility (for example, first-generation students in higher education institutions) and within the generation itself (those opportunities that individuals have during their lives) are essential. At the same time, many social factors make social mobility possible or difficult. Among them are education, initial position (social and economic position of the family), the influence of the environment, socialization, opportunities for access to limited resources, social capital, and much more. All these factors can both stimulate and inhibit an increase in the set of human opportunities for changing their position in society and building their life strategy. That is why it is impossible to say that only the individual efforts of a person affect his success or failure.

It is evident that personal social and economic background still ultimately matters when forming a pool of individual opportunities. As Hogge states, The economic divide between the rich and the poor is so vast that it is nearly impossible to cross. Of people born into the bottom 20%, 70% remain under the middle class. The poor are trapped in their class due to the rich hoarding their wealth [&] This traps the poor in poverty while the rich get richer at their expense, thus killing the American dream (para.4). It proves the point that even the current model of capitalism reinforces social and economic differences. Additionally, if one considers the problem on the global level, the situation is similar: the globalization of production and finances leads to rich countries development and regression of the poor exploited ones.

However, it has been argued that in the US, the situation is different for the reason that this country provides a vast pool of opportunities and freedom to people so that they can achieve their dreams. The only thing they have to show is their utter belief and persistence. Achieving dreams is possible, yet demands a lot of effort. In her book Hidden Figures Margot Lee Shetterly shows outstanding histories of four African American women whose great input in NASAs achievements was left invisible. However, the lives of those women were distinguished for what they have achieved was striking in that particular socio-historical context. For example, educated in two specialties  mathematics and physics, Mary Jackson worked as a teacher, and at that time it was considered a worthy career for many women with higher education because most of the women stayed at home with their children or did low-paying jobs. In 1951 she was admitted to NASA. The duties included extracting relevant data from experiments and flight tests (Shetterly). It might be considered an example of the actual possibility to achieve ones dreams despite any obstacles. However, this story is just an exception to the rule. Unfortunately, while there are some outstanding unusual cases of brilliant careers, the general context plays a major role in the bigger picture. The team argues that The American Dream [&] has come to reflect an individuals personal choice. Having the freedom to choose your path and be whatever you want to be is the true American Dream (para. 2). Even though it is essential to believe in ones possibilities, such a way of thinking presents a slippery slope when taken on a global level since it sugarcoats the real societal issues by turning someones failures into their problems. Hogge supports this claim by arguing that What has not been considered is the tragically low percentage of people that do not manage to grow out of their class, and the countless amount of hours those stuck in poverty have to work just to survive (para. 4). Hogges point proves that despite all the achievements of democratic societies in providing opportunities for individuals to change their lives, they are still not enough to claim that a person is fully in charge of their life course.

Given the numerous convincing data and proof on the disadvantages of a big part of the US population, especially the absence of opportunities for them to make a real change in their situation, it is impossible to argue that each individual can define their destiny just by their own will and effort. It is essential to understand that greater social and economic influences structure peoples places in the world. The realization of these issues is necessary to bring real transformations to provide people with real opportunities to change their lives instead of blind optimism for individual agency.

Works Cited

Hogge, S. (2019). The American Dream Is No Longer Achievable. Web.

Shetterly, Margot Lee. Hidden Figures Young Readers Edition: The Untold True Story of Four African-American Women Who Helped Launch Our Nation into Space. Harper, An Imprint of HarperCollins Publishers, 2016.

Team, B. (2020). The Story of Buttercloth Could Be Yours Too. Web.

Introduction

Ever since I was little, I have always wanted to be a superhero  one who protects the weak and restores peace whenever it is shattered. They represent the ideal person everyone wants to be when they grow up. In a childs mind the overpowering presence of someone they idolize is motivation enough to do good. Little girls look up to Wonder Woman, or in todays generation, the Powerpuff girls or the more mellow Disney heroes like Mulan. Creators of these fictionalized characters are careful to imbue in their creations superlative characteristics  a gorgeous physical appearance, a golden heart, and a wisdom so great, it seems impossible to be had by someone so young. They need to have such qualities so they are easily enlivened in a childs fantasy.

However, in more contemporary times, some wiser writers have thought up of more relatable superheroes. They remain to possess superpowers, but they are more humanized. They may not be as perfect as superheroes before them, because now, they sport some flaw like poverty, shyness or lack of confidence.

Discussion

My own motivations to be a superhero are my children, nieces and nephews and the other young people I work with in a non-profit organization  the future generation of heroes who would inherit this world.

As I look around to survey the safety of the environment we live in, Happy Valley outwardly seems peaceful, but like in every town, evil lurks at the most unexpected places. Happy Valleys crime rate has risen in the past years due to a number of factors.

It is pathetic to realize that as people evolve, so do crimes. At present, crimes which were unheard of before are now becoming commonplace. The changing morals, coupled with the advances in technology have made some crimes so sophisticated and more difficult to detect. Crimes of fraud, sex crimes against women and children, money laundering as well as those involving high tech equipment, etc. are becoming more intimidating for crime prevention experts.

Van Dijk & De Waard (1991) define crime prevention as the total of all private initiatives and state policies, other than the enforcement of criminal law, aimed at the reduction of damage caused by acts defined as criminal by the state (p. 483). This definition paints a picture of cooperation between agencies in the pursuit of lower crime rates.

Every crime requires three ingredients: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians (Graycar & Grabosky, 2002, p. 7). Having identified those, bring more focus to the objectives of crime prevention. Obviously, what needs to be done is to reduce, if not extinguish motivation for prospective offenders and making crime more difficult to commit. That is the challenge for us, crime fighters. We need to anticipate negative forces that aim to inflict harm on our fellowmen whether covertly or discreetly. We must become a step ahead of criminal minds to thwart their evil plans in forming new crimes we are not yet aware of. Together with the governments regulatory controls, we need to cooperate with each other to efficiently and effectively prevent and deter criminality (Graycar & Grabosky, 2002).

As a woman, what affects me the most in the myriad of crimes committed is crimes against women. Sadly, most of the crimes committed go unreported because of the victims choice to keep mum herself. I know it is overwhelming to be entrusted a spot in the crime prevention task force due the growing number and kinds of crimes. However, I aim to specialize in the area of crimes against women.

Being a woman in todays society can be complicated due to the different standards and values held by society that evolved through the years. Some men continue to see women as the weaker sex and treat women without respect. Society puts double standards that certain roles and expectations confuse women of their equality with men. Women are expected to be great homemakers, since that is where society has stationed them to be, while at the same time, they are expected to perform excellently in the workforce, however, they are not given the same privilege and treatment as men. They have to work doubly hard just to prove that they are worthy of being equal to their male counterparts.

Complex issues about the status and welfare of women have arisen and for some, have proven to be highly controversial. Among these issues are violence against women and their victimization in various harassing situations.

Crimes such as Rape leave deep-seated wounds that scar women for a very long time. Such a devastating experience may be the root of a womans Post Traumatic Stress Disorder which may cripple her thinking, management of emotions and daily functioning.

A prevalent issue in society is domestic violence. It is ironic that for some women, the assumed safety of the home is non-existent, as the home is the setting where she is at her most vulnerable point, and where she is most in danger of being abused. Young People and Domestic Violence Report of the Commonwealth Government define domestic violence as:

the unacceptable use of physical (including sexual) force to control or coerce. In terms of criminological analysis and crime prevention strategies, this definition focuses on tangible behaviour that is recognizable in the criminal law and familiar to law enforcement agencies. However, this core definition needs to be placed within the context of a broader definition: violence (physical, sexual, psychological, financial) where a domestic relationship exists between the victim and the perpetrator (NCP, 2001, p. 3)

As mentioned, domestic violence is a crime that usually goes unreported. Many reasons behind this include: the victim considering the violence a private and personal matter and would be no use for others outside the circle to know. The victim being afraid of retaliation from the offender. This is especially true if the perpetrator is a family member, and the victim usually chooses to just suffer consequences of the abuse instead of compromising the personal relationship with the perpetrator. The victim may also believe that the police would do nothing about. She may question the magnanimity of her case, as it may not be so important to merit a report. Some violence will not leave an injury, and for some victims this does not constitute seriousness that require reporting to the proper authorities. If sexual assault was involved, the victim may be too embarrassed to report such an intimate act if perpetrated by someone she is in a relationship with (Coumarelos & Allen, 1999).

There are identified factors that are likely to predict a victims vulnerability such as educational attainment, labour force status, main source of income and prior adult violence. Also, reporting an incidence of violence committed against them and use of support services for victims were less likely for women with certain characteristics or life experiences.

In order to prevent such violence, crime prevention specialists need to understand its underlying causes and assure acceptance of the victims to support them personally. Preventive strategies may be designed together with the victims themselves. Clancey and Moore (2008) suggest that domestic violence prevention strategies should reflect the following: consideration of socioeconomic marginalization in providing support for violence and educative programs that include positive parenting; engagement of peers in reinforcing beliefs about violence; programs should be researched based and multifaceted to reflect various roles of class, gender, community, culture, family/ individual circumstances affecting the prevention strategy. It should also reflect the influence on behavior of limitations and attitudes. Also, prevention strategies need to be customized to a special target or client group (ex. adolescents, housewives, etc.) applying to age and gender groups as well as cultural groups.

Building on these designs, Homel (1999) points out two key approaches in domestic violence prevention namely Criminal justice and community based approaches.

Criminal justice responses include: police initiatives such as mandatory arrest and alarms and pre-programmed mobile phones; court-based violence prevention orders; and the Dulith model, which combines legal coercion with support for victims and education and rehabilitation for offenders.

Community-based approaches include: assertiveness training and empowerment techniques for victims; holistic, healing processes in indigenous communities; shelters and follow-up support for victims; childrens access programs that provide facilities for the safe hand over of children; and education programs for violent men. (Homel, 1999: 346)

It is evident from the above that a multi-agency approach is best upheld to help support women from violence. The stakeholders of such an approach include women, their children, if any, and the agencies concerned. The criminal justice approach is more publicized, involving the police and the legal department. The community-based approaches draw women to resources found in their community to empower them as women. Assertiveness and self-defence trainings may be held at local centres, and these may be publicized for more and more women to join.

Educational training for women constitutes a great role in crime prevention programs. It was pointed out that victims have apprehensions to even report her abuse. That is why it would be useful to standardize the types of violence and its categorization as private, minor or major enough to be reported. Victims needs should likewise be identified and determined if these can be met through the current criminal justice system and existing victim services.

Of course, the victims immediate needs take priority. If crimes against women are not prevented, then intervention efforts must be effected to remedy the damage, if possible. Should she sustain injuries, then medical attention is provided. If psychological intervention is necessary, then the agency in charge should provide. Services to recover from an assault must be disseminated among the women in the community not only to prevent future problems but more importantly to be offered for the victims personal refuge and healing.

A study by Ehlers, et al (1998) studied how women painfully relive their rape episodes with overwhelming negative emotions. They usually realize that during the experience, their disempowerment by their assailant caused them to vacillate between mental planning and mental defeat. One coping strategy during the rape experience is mentally planning in ones mind about what she might be able to do to minimize physical or psychological harm just to make the experience tolerable or to influence the behavior of the assailant (Ehlers, et al, 1998, p. 461) On the other hand, mental defeat refers to the victims perception that she gave up in her own mind and was completely defeated (Ehlers, et al. 1998, p. 461). The study provides evidence of mental defeat of some rape victims such as: her description of feeling completely at the will of the assailant, her description that she lost the sense of being a person with her own will, statements that she did not feel like a human being any longer, her wish/acceptance that she was dying, or a sexual response during the rape which she perceived as defeat. (p.461) Imagine such agonizing thoughts haunting the victim every single day -thoughts that render the victim unable to fulfill her usual tasks and leave her helpless in pursuing a normal lifestyle. These are blatant symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress syndrome (PTSD). One implication of the study is that the relationship between mental planning and treatment outcomes of women undergoing PTSD reflects the role of perceived uncontrollability which is a crucial variable in determining the aversiveness of a negative event (e.g., Foa et al., 1989; Foa, Zinbarg, & Rothbaum, 1992; Mineka, 1985 as mentioned in the study of Ehlers et al, 1998). Mental planning can be understood as attempts to exert control over the situation (see also Burgess & Holmstrom, 1976), even if the control was minimal or symbolic, such as a victim not wanting to show the rapist that she was crying. Lack of mental planning may therefore reflect the patients perception that the situation is totally uncontrollable. However, mental defeat may go beyond uncontrollability. (Ehlers et al, 1998, p. 467) Disempowerment is the direct consequence of such a life-changing negative experience.

The other standard crime prevention strategies applicable to other crimes that are of more or less in degree should also apply to crimes against women. Streets should be adequately well-lighted, a community watch should be enforced among members of the community, liquor and drugs should be sold discriminately, and dissemination of information about respecting women and the consequences of crimes against them must be campaigned in schools and community events.

Conclusion

To this day, the memory of my childhood superheroes, Bionic Woman, Charlies Angels, and the whole of the Justice League, reside in a special corner in my mind and heart. They served as my references in discerning what is good or bad, became themes of my childhood play with childhood friends and their powers are justly distributed among the group, without one being better or worse than the other. As a woman aspiring to keep watch over the safety and security of women at Happy Valley, I envision myself as a super heroine in my own right. I should do my part in protecting my kind by being vigilant in anticipating whatever danger that lurks which aims to inflict pain.

References

Burgess, A. W., & Holmstrom, L. L. (1976). Coping behavior of the rape victim. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 413-418.

Coumarelos, C & Allen, J 1999, Predicting womens responses to violence: The 1996 Womens Safety Survey, in Crime and Justice Bulletin. Contemporary Issues in Crime and Justice, No. 47, NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, Sydney, pp. 1-22.

Ehlers, A.,. Clark, D. M., Dunmore, Jaycox, L., Meadows, E. and Foa, E.B. (1998) Predicting Response to Exposure Treatment in PTSD: The Role of Mental Defeat and Alienation., Journal of Traumatic Stress, Vol. 11, No. 3.

Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155-176.

Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 218-238.

Garner, C. & Moore, E. (2008) Crime Prevention and Young People, JST331 Module 3. Crime prevention case studies, Learning Materials Centre.

Graycar, A & Grabosky, P. (2002) Trends in Australian crime and criminal justice, in The Cambridge handbook of Australian criminology, eds A Graycar & P Grabosky, Cambridge University Press, Port Melbourne, pp. 7-26.

Homel, R (1999), Domestic violence, in Preventing violence: A review of the literature on violence and violence prevention, A report prepared for the Crime Prevention Division of the NSW Attorney Generals Department, Sydney, pp. 346381.

Mineka, S. (1985). Animal models of anxiety-based disorders. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 199-244).

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Pease, K.,( 2002), Crime reduction, in The Oxford handbook of criminology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 947-979.

Van Dijk, J & De Waard, J. (1991), A two-dimensional typology of crime prevention projects, Criminal Justice Abstracts, 483.

Introduction

It is not a secret that the global tendency of urbanization is taking place in the society of today. It is a worldwide tendency, which might be called the problem of todays society and of the authorities of today. The global character of it requires the global answer, as like every tendency it has some unhealthy consequences, which are brought into the present society. The matter brought up today and being discussed by many scholars is what might be done today to change the situation with the urbanization, how the consequences already caused might be changed, what are the future perspective for the development of the humanity and the control over the tendency of urbanization. But it is a fact that today urbanization inevitably causes consequences in every nation, which are most often than not, ruining. But as every nation in general, America in particular should understand how they can cope with these consequences and how they can control the uncontrolled for now urbanization of their citizens. The changes in the society, which are the consequences to the global urbanization, might hasten the reaction of the authorities.

The impact of the global urbanization on the American cities

First of all, the tendency impacts American cities, believe it or not. The high flow of people, who come to the cities is causing in the overcrowded streets, the arising feeling of alienation and depression. According to the statistics, the people, who live in the cities are much more unhappy, depressed and lonely than people, living in the rural areas. This might happen as the flow of people, seen every day makes one get so tired of being around people, that coming home he or she just relaxes and does not communicate with anyone. Yet, has no close friends to really talk to. Especially this is common for the so-called megalopolises. The whole life appears to be as fuss: to get up, go to work, come home, sleep. And it happens all over again and again, day in day out, week after week. This circulation is not a healthy environment for the peoples mental and physical state. Consequently, among all, the people living in the cities are more likely to have moods and both mental and physical illnesses. Moreover, the factors of the newly emerging realities of work in America are not satisfying. The tendency to move to cities causes the expand of industrial area and fading of agriculture. The total number of white-collar workers is much greater than the number of blue-collars. The white-collars tend to work in big corporations, being managed by the computers that sometimes make them think is computer my boss? What is more, the corporations are being acknowledged as a factor, which influences badly on the local markets, making the number of employers decrease and some local manufacturers close.

The impact of urbanization on the social class system

Then, the class system in America can not avoid this problem somehow. The raise of the population within cities makes the raise of the lower-paid jobs and the reduction of the high-paid ones. People, being made to work to earn their living have to work for less money. Consequently, the tendency brings to poverty. And poverty brings to the other evils, such as drugs addiction, crimes, alienation. These are some facts, being characteristic of the cities earlier. But today they are becoming as common principles, which go along with the word city. The class system gradually tends to become poorer and poorer and finally, it causes to the back reaction, where the people belonging to the upper-middle class have to move to the suburbs with the industry and the city centers are occupied wit drug-dealers, people, having the low income and their children, who are leaving schools to find a job. As it is stated in the book as neighborhood distress, the characteristics of which are high rates of poverty, joblessness, female-headed families, school dropouts (2008).

The new tendency for the resurgence of the middle class

Nevertheless, there are factors, which might lead to a better future, for example the resurgence of the middle class. This tendency is already being observed in the cities like Detroit (2008) but the most important is to further control the tendencies not to be launched in the global problem.

Conclusion

Consequently, the small tendency, which is taking place all over the world now, can be considered as a big or even global problem for both the society of today and the authorities. The consequences, which have been caused by this tendency are inevitable and sometimes irreversible. Still, something should be done to prevent the further development of the problem and to change the situation somehow. The ruining emerging problems might make the authorities to make the decisions. Firstly, the changes within the cities, which make people speak of the big cities as of the places, where crime, poverty, drug addiction and depression are predominating as the uncontrolled flow of people caused too much of a population in the cities. Moreover, the tendency of creating the low-paid vacant positions seems to be expanding. Then, the social class changes within the society, with the principal trend to gradually loose the houses and making more evils after it demand solutions. The changed might turn to good however, with the raising interest of the high-middle class to go back to the cities, which requires the close attention and control on the part of authorities to control the further urbanization of the population.

References

William Kornblum & Joseph Julian. (2008). Social Problems (13^th edition). Prentice Hall