Category: Sociology 7256

Introduction

Social class backgrounds has a significant impact on the level of education attained by certain individuals. It is widely believed that individuals from higher socio-economic backgrounds tend to outperform those that are not from such privileged backgrounds. This will be investigated in further detail through analysing various sources

Problem Solving as a Means toward Mathematics for All: An Exploratory Look through a Class Lens

This article by Sarah Lubienski focuses on how differences in the Social Class of students affects their learning of mathematics. Lubienski discusses two aspects, one relates to the openess whereby there is no direct mathematical solution and the other relates to context. The tests that were conducted resulted in the finding that higher SES (Soci-Economic Status) students tended to possess more confidence in solving mathematical problems whereas the lower SES students found more difficulty in finding mathematical solutions to problems. Hence this highlights that the varying approaches may have been brought about by the differences in class cultures. It was discovered that the lower SES students focused on individual problems without thoroughly understanding the mathematical concepts and were therefore unable to apply the mathematical rules. The ranking showed the lower SES students lacked self-esteem and preferred a more directive role from the text and teacher.

Developing Mathematical Thinking and Self-Regulated Learning: a Teaching Experiment in a Seventh-Grade Mathematics Classroom

The main focus of the article by S.J. Pape is made on the notion, that the maths teachers and educators have made an essential emphasis on the socio-cultural models of tutoring and studying processes in order to be powerful in their capability to explain and support the pursuit of instruction based on recent standards documents. Nevertheless, these models have been seriously criticized for the essential lack of explicitness. Thus, the authors of the article make an emphasis on the matters of detailed and thorough descriptions of the cognitive processes in the co within the self-regulated learning process and ascription concepts of the teaching theory lend support for and provide instances of explicit instruction embedded within socio-cultural models of maths instruction. Moreover, the authors make an emphasis on the matters of equal opportunities in socio-economic classes. Self-regulated learning and the matters of mathematical thinking are originally associated with the matters of background thinking and the logical reasoning of the students, as Socioeconomic classes shape different ways of thinking from those, which math classes offer. On the other hand, the authors offer that the main principle of equal opportunities is the personal approach of the tutor. Thus, the experimental model, described in the paper reveals the concept of socio-cultural modeling in the teaching process.

Highly Qualified to Do What? The Relationship between NCLB Teacher Quality Mandates and the Use of Reform Oriented Instruction In Middle School Mathematics

This article is aimed at reviewing the legislative issues of teaching mathematics, and the authors emphasize the importance of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). This act presupposes the necessity of a highly qualified teachers in every classroom. In accordance with the legislation and the stated act, Socio-Economic classes are generally subjected to another mathematics teaching approach than the students of mathematics classes. No Child Left Behind Act presupposes that highly qualified is generally defined as the full certificated. Smith and Desimone claim that states, districts, and schools are spending considerable resources addressing these provisions, nevertheless, the degree of the standard-based reform penetration into the teaching process is unknown. In the context of Socio-Economic class teaching, it should be emphasized that equal learning opportunities should be provided to anyone, nevertheless, the specification of Socio-Economic mathematics studies should be taken into consideration. The analysis of the authors in this aspect suggests that the preparation of the mathematics content-related professional development activities and the teaching process in general. These are claimed to be the matters of reform-oriented teaching, measured here as increased emphasis on conceptual learning goals for students and increased use of reform-oriented teaching strategies.

Using Transactional Reading Strategies to Support Sense-Making and Discussion in Mathematics Classrooms: An Exploratory Study

The authors here focus on the necessity of thoroughly elaborated mathematics teaching strategies and the instructions for the teachers, for they could implement these strategies. Originally, a special emphasis is made on the matters of equality and equal opportunities for teaching mathematics in classes with different students (of different social, racial and cultural backgrounds), and with the students of different classes (Math and socio-economic specification). The paper illustrates how encouraging mathematics students to talk, write, draw, and enact texts can provide them with concrete ways to construct and negotiate interpretations of what they read. The strategies, which are recommended in the paper presuppose the use of Mathematics and Science Vocabulary Wheels. These are reflective of the issues that students learn and think about in multiple ways. This is especially associated with the specification of how socio-economic classes and maths classes differ as they require various approaches towards teaching maths in general and providing equal opportunities for teaching and learning. The specific strategies include oral, written, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic approaches which are included on the wheels and in the main strategic approach, regarded in the paper. The information, derived from the application of the strategies is used as the methodological basis of the paper and may be regarded as the research innovation approach.

Secondary School Mathematics Teachers Conceptions of Proof

The paper is mainly aimed at discovering the matters of teaching mathematics in secondary schools. The conception of proof, which represents the main idea of the author suggests that teachers recognize the variety of roles that proof plays in mathematics. The matters of proof are generally regarded as the tool for teaching mathematics in schools. The author also relates the teaching process with maths teaching in socio-economic classes. The data for the research was collected from a series of interviews and articles by teachers who wrote their responses for the proof tool. The results of the research suggest that the teachers mainly recognize the differences between teaching math for math classes and classes with the socio-economic backgrounds. Nevertheless, some teachers, who practice this tool for socio-economic classes admit the wrong understanding of the proof tool among students, while teachers themselves often constitute inadequate understanding of the importance and the essence of the proof tool for teaching mathematics. The results of the research also suggest that these teachers mainly regarded the proof tool in a pedagogically restricted manner, thus, the emphasis of the article is also made on the matters of communication in the context of studying and teaching mathematics, applying the proof tool.

Different Goals, Similar Practices: Making Sense of the Mathematics and Literacy Instruction in a Standards-Based Mathematics Classroom

The paper is mainly aimed at describing the matters of the teaching process in the light of the notion of cooperative inquiry between literacy and maths education. Originally, the approaches of teaching both aspects of basic skills depend on the proficiency of a teacher and presuppose the increased attention towards the matters of the standards-basing in the arrangement of the maths class. Part of the research is dedicated to the concepts of teaching mathematics in socio-economic classes, as the approaches of these teachings differ from the original strategies of teaching maths. In the light of the fact that the original standard-based teaching strategy, practiced in the socio-economic classes and maths classes are shaping the original approach towards understanding the taught material, it should be emphasized that teachers should pay special attention to understanding among students. The fact is that only attention towards understanding jointly with the individual approach and properly observed teaching strategy is able to provide equal opportunities for teaching mathematics.

The data for the research was collected during the observation of the teaching processes in different classes, and the drawbacks of standard-based technologies and approaches were analyzed along with the positive sides of these approaches.

New Math Implementation: A Look Inside the Classroom

The authors discuss the procedure, findings, and summary of a study conducted through the use of anonymous questionnaires in an attempt to determine what actual classroom practice is in second- and fifth-grade mathematics classes. Originally, the New Math approach, associated with the implementation of new teaching strategies will help to overcome the problem of standardization in teaching approaches. Originally, this innovation would be rather helpful for Socio-Economic Classes, as the specification of their teaching should differ from the teaching approaches of the math classes. Thus, the student of all classes will be able to develop strong math skills and develop a strong, working knowledge of mathematical content. In the light of this fact, it should be emphasized that the main principle of such an approach will be based on various proof, explanation and solution tools, which are relevant for developing the understanding process within students. Nevertheless, this innovation has an essential drawbacks, as teachers will have to change their elaborated methodologies and refuse to form traditional teaching practices.

Reference

Sarah Theule Lubienski. Problem Solving as a Means toward Mathematics for All: An Exploratory Look through a Class Lens. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 31, No. 4 (2000), pp. 454-482.

Stephen J. Pape. Clare V.Bell. Iffet Elif Yetkin. Developing Mathematical Thinking and Self-Regulated Learning: a TeachingExperiment in a Seventh-Grade Mathematic Classroom. Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 53, No. 3 (2003), pp. 179-202.

Thomas M. Smith, Laura M. Desimone and Koji Ueno. Highly Qualified to Do What? The Relationship between NCLB Teacher Quality Mandates and the Use of Reform Oriented Instruction In Middle School Mathematics. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 27, No. 1 (2005), pp. 75-109.

Raffaella Borasi, Marjorie Siegel, Judith Fonzi and Constance F. Smith. Using Transactional Reading Strategies to Support Sense-Making and Discussion in Mathematics Classrooms: An Exploratory Study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 29, No. 3 (1998), pp. 275-305.

Eric J. Knuth. Secondary School Mathematics Teachers Conceptions of Proof. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 33, No. 5 (2002), pp. 379-405.

Roni Jo Draper and Daniel Siebert. Different Goals, Similar Practices: Making Sense of the Mathematics and Literacy Instruction in a Standards-Based Mathematic Classroom. American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 41, No. 4 (2004), pp. 927-962.

Jack Price, John L. Kelley and Jonathan Kelley. New Math Implementation: A Look inside the Classroom. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 8, No. 5 (1977), pp. 323-331. Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Introduction

The attitudes toward prostitution and the related activities have been changing and have experienced a major shift over the past several decades, the specified change has been essential in determining the legality of prostitution, as well as its overall perception and the status that the specified concept ha in the eyes of the general public. As a result, the phenomenon of prostitution has gained certain characteristics of work from legal and social perspectives (Seidman 255). However, currently, the subject matter is still quite far from work, both in the legal and traditional senses. Thus, the idea of sex work as a right should be discussed.

Argument 1

Although the notion of prostitution has been viewed as a semblance of work for decades, prostitution remains illegal in its nature. Namely, the fact that selling ones body and the control over it cannot be consensual needs to be addressed as the main argument in favor of rejecting the idea. In addition, the nature of the so-called sex work and its relation to the concept of work as a whole needs to be mentioned. On closer scrutiny, one will realize that the very notion of selling ones body and the autonomy over it, even for a short period of time, as well as subjecting oneself to multiple threats of violence, including the possibility of being murdered, cannot be viewed as comparable to any type of work. Instead, it clearly represents drastic violation of peoples basic human rights, such as the right to live and the right for bodily autonomy and integrity. Seidman explains that the attitude toward prostitution is twofold: society stigmatizes and criminalizes it but still tolerates it (256). The described issues make it impossible to entertain the possibility of the so-called sex work being actually related to work.

Argument 2

Moreover, when engaging in prostitution, women are particularly vulnerable to physical assault and even murder. In response to the specified threat, several states have introduced protection against prostitution for women and vulnerable groups. As Seidman explains, the vast majority of sex workers are women (257). The specified nuance does not allow recognizing prostitution as work and, therefore, negates the very concept of sex work. Consequently, the right to engage in the specified activity does not seem to make sense, hence the lack of necessity in introducing it.

Argument 3

Furthermore, by establishing the right for sex work on a legal basis, one will open an array of threats to vulnerable women, including underage ones, creating numerous opportunities for sex traffickers to involve the specified demographic in prostitution. The idea of the right for sex work implies that one can make a definitive choice of whether they want to participate in the sex industry or not, whereas those that are actually involved in sex trafficking are unlikely to have chosen it for themselves. Thus, rebranding prostitution as sex work implies a certain degree of privilege, which vulnerable groups that are particularly prone to being involved in sex trafficking do not possess.

Counterargument

One could argue that for women living in comparatively good conditions and belonging to the middle or even higher class, the risks faced in the se industry are much lower. Indeed, the presence of several important resources and, possibly, a support system makes the described type of women less vulnerable to the phenomenon in question. However, on closer analysis, one will realize that, by defining involvement in sex trafficking and prostitution as a right, one will inevitably face difficulty in threading the line between consenting to and being forced into prostitution: Opponents of decriminalization say its an exploitative industry that preys on the weak (Garsd). Indeed, the very idea of engaging in a sexual act for ostensible financial profit does not imply the presence of consent; if anything, it negates it.

Therefore, the idea of the right to sex work should be perceived as an incongruence stemming from the misconception that prostitution can be equated to work. While, from a financial perspective the specified assumption could be seen as moderately valid, the introduction of the ethical and sociocultural perspective into the definition of sex work will prove that the notion in question has nothing to do with work. While Garsd advocates for lifting the ban on sex work, she also admits that The debate about sex work always gets linked to trafficking  people who get forced into it against their will (Garsd). Given the fact that women involved in prostitution are in an imminent danger of being killed, as well as the fact that prostitution remains, in its essence, rape, it can never be deemed as work, hence the impossibility of interpreting sex work as a human right. Therefore, instead of legalizing prostitution, it is necessary to view people performing it as victims and increase the availability of employment options for them. Siedman argues that some of us also choose to pursue sexual pleasure in more casual, consensual relationships (258). However, even though it is time to stop condemning sexual expression, prostitution does not imply that the person providing the pleasure receives it or that it is fully consensual. Instead, if prostitution is legalized, its participants become parties in a contract, in which a prostitute, typically a woman, loses autonomy over her own body and puts herself in a potential danger of being physically abused.

Conclusion

At the same time, it is crucial to keep in mind that the current stigmatization of sex work leads to major repercussions for women involved in sex trafficking. Namely, the threat of being imprisoned for sex work causes massive damage to the victims of sex trafficking, thus perpetuating the cycle of their suffering. For this reason, the concept of sex work needs to be abolished, whereas the process of freeing people involved in prostitution has to be launched. By educating people about the harm that prostitution causes and pointing to the fact that people involved in it are victims, change can be brought effectively. As a result, fewer people will be threatened to be forced into prostitution, whereas those that have been affected by it will receive support instead of being shunned by their communities.

Work Cited

Seidman, Steven. The Social Construction of Sexuality. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2014.

The problem of defending human rights and freedoms has concerned people all over the world and it is the most significant purpose of legislation bodies. A special attention should be paid to defending rights of aboriginal population and their rights to their native land. That issue is on the agenda today since a tight confrontation of two interests is observed and the Native Title Act is the obvious evidence for that. Hence, a question arises: was the title and Mabo Bill, in particular, created in order to humiliate the rights of Aboriginal people? Do all the points of the Native Title correspond to the generally accepted human rights and why do white people oppose to that right? Let us consider these issues and decide what measures should be taken to eliminate the problem.

The native or Aboriginal title is an official recognition by Australians their original right to live on their own land on the ground of their customs and traditions. However, some people who are used to leave according to European standards consider that the indigenous population does not deserve to handle their native land because they have an obscure idea about the current social community organization. (Paul Patton 2000) Even legal government does not entirely support the idea of submitting the equal rights to Aboriginal due to the existence of the supporters and the opponents of that position. That misunderstanding between two parties arises for the reason of ignorance what the native title notion implies. According to this, the active defenders of the native title believe that the Governments decision concerning the granting the official status to the Aboriginal people were purposefully based on the pejorative attitude which was a direct hint on the racism. Since the problem of racism is a burning problem nowadays, it is reasonable to insist on the fact that there was a ground basis for the acknowledgement of racism. In addition, some researchers believe that decision taken by the British Government was an outright reflection of discrimination policy (Lupton D. 1999). Even more, there observed a direct intervention and severe fight for the Goldfield lands. So, it is the Government and political authorities who were implicitly and explicitly interested in the reducing the property rights of indigenous inhabitants since their concern were mostly concentrated on the incomes from mining and pastoral industries (Leach M. and Stokes G. 2000). Needless to say, that despite the official recognition of Native Title Act, the fact of placement of the aboriginal people on lower level of social hierarchy is an apparent fact (Nakata N. M. 2001) and features of racism had their roots in the power bodies.

In the book Our land is our life Noel Pearson, the author describes in detail the concept of the native title concerning the life of aboriginals in Australia from different points of you. He also studies the problem acquiring an official status of that title and whether this concept is acknowledged by the capitalist class. He believes that the problem of recognition lies in a considerable cultural gap between social communities and the current law system as well. So, due to the current common law in reference to the land problem the Aboriginal law is fully recognized despite the fact that the existence of the Aboriginal Law is proved by the social aspect only. (Pearson 1997) Further on, after Mabos case Torres Strait Islanders were granted with an improved variant of the Bill officially acknowledged by the Government but still limited in the rights. Nonetheless, there is an opposed idea concerning the rights of Aboriginal to the land. Since the entitlement of the native title concept officially took place, the indigenous inhabitants were entirely satisfied with corresponding High Courts decision taking into account the fact that the land was free from pastoral and mining industries (Tickner R. 2001). There is a strong probability that was the only reason for the non indigenous inhabitances reluctance in occupying that land. Moreover, even if aboriginal people were granted with sovereignty there were still subjected to the Crown being aware of the fact that the sovereignty was adopted only officially. In fact, it was not carried out by the capitalist inhabitants (Johnston E and Hilton G. H. 1997)

As it is known, Mabo case in 1879 is closely connected with the annexation of Aboriginal Island to the British colony that only sustains the fact that the problem of sovereignty was not solved since with colonization implies ownership and sovereignty at one and the same time. That is why, it contradicts greatly the general concept since, on the one hand, the aboriginals gained a kind of independence and, on the other hand, they were under an overall control of the British government. In other words, the interest of the indigenous people was mortified in the pejorative way (Reynolds H.). Nowadays, the Mabo problem is discussed widely in press. Media coverage influences greatly the confrontation of the Government and the Mabos supporters. To be more exact, the story that was published in the press does not correspond to the reality and, as a result, that provokes continuous disagreements between the parties concerned. Although, the current authorities are striving to prevent further misunderstanding in order to keep piece and to cut off the false information flow to the press (Meadows M. 2001).

Before the official acknowledgment of the native title concept, the inhabitants of the Torre Strait Island were not conscious of possessing the land areas they live due to the fact that lease holder were not interest in revival of traditional reconciliation of Aboriginal lands. However, there exists an opposite idea of the positive effect of the lease phenomenon. Including the fact that lease has the date of expire proves the idea that by means of this lease the Government recognized the official status of the native title and protected the property rights of indigenous people (Brennan, F. 1998).

Although, the native title was accepted officially, the Aboriginals living in remote areas of the Torre Strait Island were not properly informed about the decision that involved mass disturbances among the supporters of the native title issue. In this case, the problem of extinguishment of recognition takes place (Pearson, N. 1997 p.159). In other words, in the aftermath of development of the common Law, the range of traditional rights to land for the Torres Strait Islanders was reduced officially. The United States intervention only aggravated the difficult situation when being entitled to make some corresponding amendments to the Native title. The moral reasons for the extinguishment of the native title should be properly considered since despite the idea the aborigines people that theory was based the on information unavailability. In other words, the aboriginal people did have right to negotiate on the issue and taking leading decisions concerning their own property. Instead, the Government and politicians did not pay much attention to the ignorance of the aboriginal population. Moreover, the native title did not spread among the whole indigenous community. Hence comes, inequality was observed even within aboriginal population.

So, a thorough overhaul of all advantages and disadvantages of the Native title and Mabo brings us to important decisions. First of all, it is necessary to admit that on the whole the rise of that problem has a positive impact not only on the indigenous population of Australia but other minority groups because it attached attention of many researchers and the supporters of that issue and is likely to contribute to the amelioration of the current inconsistencies of the Law. Secondly, the rise of that problem on the agenda provokes the statement that there exist plenty drawbacks in the system of the current Common Law, the attribute common in this case does not coincide the objective reality. In addition, the problem do relates to the problem of racism and inequality of rights due to the enormous amount of the arguments mentioned above. Consequently, the problem of native title should be obligatory discussed at the international level.

Reference List

Brennan, F. 1998 The Wik Debate: Its Impact on Aborigines, Pastoralists and Miners. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, NSW:

Johnston E. and Hilton G. H. 1997 Indigenous Australians and the law. Rutledge, UK.

Leach M. Stokes G. Ian Ward 2000 The rise of One Nation McPhersons Printing Group, Australia.

Luptom Deborah 1999 Risk and sociocultural theory: new directions and perspectives. Cambridge University Press, UK

Meadows M. 2001 Voices in the wilderness: images of Aboriginal people in the Australian politics.

Nakata N. M. 2001 Indigenous people, racism and the United States. Common Ground, Australia.

Patton, P. 2000 Deleuze and the political. Rutledge, Great Britain

Pearson, N. 1997 The concept of Native Title at Common Law. In: G. Yupingu, ed. Our Land is our life St. Lucia: University Queensland Press, pp. 150-161.

Reynolds H. 1996 Aboriginal sovereignty: reflection on race, state and nation. Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest.

Tickner, R. 2001 Taking a Stand: Land Rights to Reconciliation. Allen & Unwin, Crows Nest, N.S.W.

The issue of gender identity has always been topical and was developed not only by sociologists but also by representatives of many other scientific groups. Gender identity is a persons internal sense of being male, female, some combination of male and female, or neither male nor female (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). The concept of identity was first introduced in detail by Erikson when he proposed an identity to be based on the awareness of the time length of ones existence (Cote, 2018). His theory involves taking into account the perception of ones integrity and allowing a person to determine the degree of their similarity with different people while seeing their uniqueness.

Gender identity is a broader concept than gender role identity since gender includes not only the role aspect, but also, for example, the image of a person as a whole, from hairstyle to clothes, and other distinguishing features. Moreover, the concept of gender identity is not synonymous with the idea of sexual identity, since gender does not consider biological aspects, as much as cultural and social. Sexual identity can be described in terms of the characteristics of self-perception and self-representation of a person in the context of their sexual behavior in the structure of gender identity.

To understand how strongly gender roles dictate our behavior, it is enough to analyze a day in the life of a modern person. Therefore, gender roles can be considered as an external manifestation of certain patterns of behavior, which allows other people to judge whether a person is a male or female (Mack et al., 2005). I am a female. I feel comfortable in my female body, and I like the way I look like a woman. I consider myself to be feminine enough to identify as such, as my routine from morning until night reflects my gender. I wear feminine clothes, such as dresses and skirts, apply makeup, paint my nails, and even spray myself with perfume targeted at women.

Sometimes it feels like I should look perfect, because of the stereotypes that the patriarchal society imposed upon us. I try to eat healthy food, visit hair salons, and take care of my skin. Furthermore, I use specific hygiene products, such as wet wipes for females, shaving creams, and tampons. Since gender is considered to be a social construct, it is mostly based upon social interactions. The way I interact with friends is not that unique and worth describing.

However, I communicate primarily with women, as I tend to relate to them on a personal level and have a secure connection to the problems they deal with. Sometimes, there might even be an occurrence, when male friends do not take female friends seriously and as an equal interlocutors. I am afraid of being solicited by men at night, and I carry a mace spray with me to avert such kind of situations. Sometimes being a girl is frankly unpleasant, for instance, as when discussing a business one way or another, someone inevitably can screw a sexist joke.

Like everyone else, I grew up according to the way that society told me to. My childhood and the way my parents raised me shaped me into a female being in the community and formed my mentality on gender issues. For instance, my mother would never let me play with boys, as I should play with dolls and bows. My religion taught me to obey my future husband, follow his commands, and encourage cooking, as it is a female duty to provide the family with food. The school forced the girls to follow a dress-code, since girls were deemed provocative in short skirts and tank tops, and at the same time did not allow wearing pants or joggers. Consequently, gender institutions, such as family and school, taught me the most about my gender and inflicted stereotypes.

Over the past decades our lexicons have been replenished with carefully studied concepts of transgender, post-gender, intersexuality and transhumanism, but, to be fair, this is not some new sexuality, but long-awaited terms for sexuality that was repressed and suppressed. It is enough to read the ancient Indian epics or read the tales of the Indians to find all the above concepts of gender roles. In essence, the fragility of gender and its social representation always existed, but did not receive a scientific language, and therefore was ignored by the majority. However, at the same time, social media and other public platforms show that the discussions on gender may quickly turn into bullying and a stream of hateful and intolerant remarks.

Since I identify myself as a woman, throughout my entire life I have been encouraged to learn to apply makeup, properly use hygiene products and behave a certain way that is appropriate to women. During my teenage years, I have felt insecure, and to cover up my self-consciousness, I started using makeup. At first, it was to cover up my acne, then bags under my eyes. I started feeling comfortable in my own skin and eventually got used to wearing it.

Gendered institutions have become an ordinary thing in our society. One of the institutions that apply gender roles is school. Since elementary school, we were taught to behave a certain way, wear a specific uniform, for instance, only boys could wear pants, and girls could only wear skirts. At this age, it becomes essential for children to be similar to their peers or peers with the same gender identity, and they try to adhere to existing gender stereotypes. For example, they prefer to play games with representatives of the same gender, as well as use gender-stereotypical toys and play gender-stereotypical games.

And only a few years later, at the age of 7 to 10 years, children begin to feel more relaxed about what behavioral patterns they choose, how much they correspond to gender norms. Unfortunately, the flexibility of childrens ideas about gender identity at an early age does not withstand the pressure of rules and stereotypes that are imposed by society and are broadcasted in the family, parents, and close significant adults. However, theoretically, raising a child free from gender schematization in a community where gender is a binary category is possible.

Another social institution that can be labeled as gendered is family. A traditional family has mother and father figures, which play different gender roles in their lives. The father goes to work, and the mother stays at home and takes care of the children, being responsible for their health and self-development. In Middle-Eastern countries, for instance, marriages were not concluded with the mutual consent of the participants, but by the will of the parents.

The traditional vision of a family can be discriminatory and intolerable, as it criticizes any kinds of deviations. If a woman gets divorced or is in no hurry to marry, there may be a conflict within her family. However, nowadays, the standards are changing rapidly. In the era of self-expression, it has become unnecessary for society to control gender roles. Consequently, the age of marriage has noticeably increased, and the number of children in the family has decreased, the forms of marriage and parenthood have been modified.

References

Cote, J. (2018). The Enduring Usefulness of Eriksons Concept of the Identity Crisis in the 21st Century: An Analysis of Student Mental Health Concerns. Identity, 18, 1-13. Web.

Mack et al. (2005). Module Two: Participant Observation, from Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collectors Field Guide. Family Health International. 13-27.

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Gender identity. In Merriam-Webster.dictionary. Web.

Introduction

The media is the main contributor to currently existing sex-role stereotyping, which primarily promotes male and female social norms. This has contributed greatly to currently existing behavioral patterns, whereby both men and women have ceased to embrace their unique personality traits. Changing in roles defined by the society in terms of gender differences seems to be moving fast in the media than all other environments. Majority of media channels such as newspapers, televisions, radios, and other publications create the gender picture in two ways, men as housekeepers while women venture into academics and work or men as breadwinners while women handle home chores. However, in most cases it tends to lean on one side, whereby it articulates women as weaker than men. On the other hand, it is becoming very common presently to hear discussions across different communication channels on current changing roles of both women and women (Olarte 260-263).

Media houses depict women as seductive creatures who are always ready to give anything to receive favors from men. In addition, these media shows portray men as key players in the game whereby they can get anything from women because they control things. This has contributed to construction of ideologies by some community members taking women as easy to manipulate and control human beings.

Sex-Role Stereotyping in Television Programs

Contrary to developments in role allocations globally, some television stations still air some programs that emphasize traditional beliefs and gender segregated roles. In addition, most love related television programs portray women as being promiscuous depending on the nature of roles they play in such programs. Take for example in soap operas; such programs portray women as sex objects and social climbers, which largely has affected the perception of both adults and children on women, hence hampering personality development in women (Nathalie Para. 7-14)

Stereotyping of women on television has long lasting impacts to adult development, whereby most media houses have a clear differentiation in terms of occupational and socially defined roles. Occupationally there is a clear under-representation of women in some careers. For example, most of drama programs have less women actors, which in most cases create an impression of women as weaker compared to men. This results from the fact that most of drama actions require a lot of energy during the acting process, which to majority of people women lack, hence the association of such movies to men. On the other hand, from research findings majority of moviemakers apply stereotyping as an easy way of easily illustrating actors characteristics. For example, in many movies blonde women are a symbol of dumbness. Although moviemakers have tried to avoid such cases, still there exist many misconceptions about women resulting from the media (Media awareness network, Para. 1-3).

On the other hand, in most television programs, in most cases women play minor roles primarily home chores. This depicts women as the incompetent group in the society, which in most cases occurs when women are main actors in programs that are not family related. This also largely contributes to negative influences of individuals beliefs about women. Children are the most affected by these stereotypes, whereby they develop attitudes and perceptions on mothers using the sex stereotypes they hear or see in the media (Gunter 23-46).

Sex-Role Stereotyping in Literature Materials

Writers of many love magazines, articles and books design their findings on romantic issues from a masculine perspective. In many instances, such interpretations have made many viewers to have biased perceptions based on gender differentiation. Most viewers; be they women or men, like to identify themselves with men due to beliefs that men are always winners and great achievers. To make the whole scenario worse individuals have transformed this condition by integrating it in there believes, hence biased perceptions based on gender differences (Chandler Para.1-3).

Most of reading literature also portrays women performing home chores whereby girls are main helpers with house chores. On the other hand, the same literature in most cases portray men as breadwinners whose main role is to rest and wait to be served after a long day of struggle, with chores that are heavy and need a lot of attention. This although traditional is common in most literature materials that both children and adults read, hence leading to construction of sex-role stereotypes, which not only affects personality development, but also character and perception formation. Information from literature materials also give men superiority, which women should not only respect but also adore regardless of prevailing conditions. Many reading materials associate academic excellence to men, mostly in professions the society considers hard for women such as medicine, accounting, and driving. In addition, these materials show women in simple jobs such as teaching and social work, which largely has contributed to the widening disparity between men and women because of constructions of sex-role related stereotypes (Ackley 436-438).

One main thing to note is that not only do these literature materials define gender roles in content, but also the same differentiation is clear in terms of the language expressions. In addition, illustrations in most books show women as the suffering group in most families. This is because most literature books show women as recipients of mens toil, hence have no role to play when it comes to family decision-making. Depending on roles played by women, books give different pictures of women. For example, books speak less of stepfathers but lay more emphasis on stepmothers. Most books portray stepmothers as bad members of the society; hence, any one reading such a material will pick such impressions and convert them into reality by developing negative attitudes towards stepmothers. Take of a case where a book or literature material portrays a mother as a witch, many children reading such a material will not differentiate a work of art and reality, hence in their perception it is real. This largely affects their relationship development with anyone they perceive to be a stepmother, hence affecting their personality development (Al-Ghafari Para. 1-7).

In terms of economic development majority of literature portray women as members of society whose main role is to receive what men struggle to achieve in their daily endeavors. These literature materials portray women as society members who should live under men rule; hence, their simple duty is to find a man get married, and sire children for continuation of the family lineage (Ackley 438-440). The books show little significance on womens contribution to the societies well being, not even in peace initiatives, which most women are main contributors.

As concerns employment status, literature materials depict women as parties in the society who should follow rules provided by men bosses. Women are not supposed to take leadership positions in society, because to the society, women should be there to listen and not to speak, hence should at all times take orders. This is not only common in literature materials, but also in movies and comic actions. Women in most books play the roles of secretaries or home keepers. These positions have minimal opportunities of advancement career wise, hence contributing negatively to personality and career development in female children. Many books show women suffering in their duties, which in most cases make many to quit jobs for easy home chores, which in reality is never the case in reality.

Sex-Role Stereotyping in Media Advertisements

Many advertisements through different media channels use women to pass messages on issues considered by communities as feminine. For example, most soap, cosmetics, and home appliances advertisements use women, hence closely associating them to home chores, rather than office chores. On the other hand, advertisements related with investments and economic sustainability primarily use men, showing them as prosperous members of the society. This directly affects perceptions that societies believe in concerning developments and investments, whereby men receive all appraisal when it comes to economic sustainability (Al-Ghafari Para. 7- 10).

In addition, the nature of women participating in majority of advertisements also has contributed to increasing construction of sex-linked stereotypes. Majority of women participating in music and other advertisements sometimes are almost naked with little to cover their nudity. On the other hand, many media advertisements have created clear boundaries between male and female physiques. Many media houses criticize females with fat bodies, because they consider slim figures more attractive (McConnell Para 3-4). This although appealing to many, it has contributed to increasing sex role stereotyping, whereby such advertisements give women less respect as compared to men. This is because it portrays women negatively to the society as a whole, whereby the most affected are young children.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the media has contributed to currently sex stereotypes, whereby it gives men superiority over women. This is because the media has structured itself in a way that it differentiates roles played by women and men on society values, which are either traditional or modern. In addition, due to many media influences on individuals, more so on children it is important for individuals to learn to separate fantasies from the reality of things. It is important for all individuals to know stereotypical perfection is a concept, which in most cases never exists, hence important to understand effects of such influences on personality and character development.

Works Cited

Ackley, Katherine. Perspectives on contemporary issues: readings across disciplines. 5th ed. Kentucky: Wadsworth Publishing, 2008. Print.

Al_Ghafari, Iman. Gender roles in literature and the media. Fw.magazine, 2007. Web.

Chandler, Daniel. Television and gender roles. 2009. Web.

Gunter, Barrie. Television and sex role stereotyping. London: Libbey, John & Company, 1986. Print.

McConnell, Marla. Media and gender stereotyping. Serendip, 2008. Web.

Media awareness network. Stereotyping in movies. 2009. Web.

Natalie, Roy. Sex in the media: obstacle to equal relationships. Government of Quebec. 2008. Web.

Orlarte W. Silvia. Changing gender stereotyped behavior: role of therapists. personal exposure. Journal of the American academy of psychoanalysis and dynamic psychiatry 13 (1985): 259-267. Print.

In this paper, I am going to form a survey as a part of the implementation of a well-being program for the homeless shelters staff. The homeless shelter was chosen as an object of the survey because it appears to be a bright example of a non-profit social services organization. Moreover, my personal preferences also played a part.

It is hard to deny that the understanding of the staffs needs lies in the knowledge of an organizations specificity. More than working conditions, the employees in a homeless shelter value the shared vision, uniting them. That is the reason why most of the survey questions aim to discover the employees emotional state and personal feelings. However, from time to time, the publicity gets shocked by cases of inadequate staff behavior and accusatory articles about homeless shelters. For instance, Miller describes which kind of unprofessional teams behavior she observed in one of the homeless shelters (Miller, 2013). Consequently, the second aim of this survey is to figure out if an individual is satisfactory for a job position he/she takes.

It is said that it is possible to create a high-grade survey only following the strict rules. For instance, Crane (2011) claims that there is a need to highlight the following contexts in any participatory action research survey: economic, social, cultural, and policy contexts, funding, local, organizational settings, etc. (p. 7). Chevalier and Buckles (2013) suggest setting up a process mapping, design, etc. (pp. 9-18). However, the creative psychological approach based on knowledge of a survey object appears to be much more productive.

Here is a pattern survey for a homeless shelters staff.

1. How long do you work here and which position you take?
   It is a leading question that aims to shape an appropriate members attitude to the survey, to help an employee to tune in and prepare for more intimate questions.
2. What was the main reason for you to choose this job?
3. Which kind of education did you get?
   The questions  2 and 3 are transitional from the lead questions to more private ones.
4. Could you say that you are satisfied with your job? What do you like and dislike the most about it?
   It is a common question that aims to discover the general employees feelings about the job.
5. Are you satisfied with your working conditions?
   It is hard to deny that satisfaction with working conditions is deeply connected with a favorable working environment.
6. How would you describe your relationship with colleagues? Could you say that you have some conflicts in your work team?
   Except for general aspects of such a survey question, there is a feature typical for the homeless shelters only. A lot of people that work in a homeless shelter were or continue to be homeless. It is important to figure out if there are any conflicts between homeless employees and workers with permanent abodes.
7. How could you describe your relationship with the charges?
8. Which kind of relationship do you have with administration?
   The way staff members act with their charges and supervisors makes a significant impact on the efficiency of their work in general.
9. Could you say that you feel tired and stressed at work? If yes, how often did you have this feeling in the last three months?
   Psychological comfort of workers is essential for creating a favorable job climate.
10. Would you like to improve something at your job?
    Feedback from the staff is crucial for the creation of the practical action research.

In this survey, little questions imply an employees direct involvement, because it is necessary to get the basic information at first. Undoubtedly, there is an acute need for a more detailed survey to express the employees ideas of reaching the favorable working environment.

Concerning ways to deliver a survey, the most efficient one seems to be a face-to-face structured interview (Sincero, 2012). To acquire veracious results, an interviewer needs to analyze the staff members reaction.

References

Chevalier, J. M., & Buckles, D. J. (2013). Handbook for Participatory Action Research, Planning, and Evaluation. Web.

Crane, P. (2011). Participatory Action Research Workbook. Web.

Miller, R. (2013). I Went Undercover at a Homeless Shelter: You Wouldnt Believe the Shocking Abuses I Found There. 

Sincero, S. M. (2012). How to Conduct a Survey. 

Introduction

Civil rights are the rights that citizens of sovereign nations are entailed to by law, since they have a legal and philosophical basis. They are rights guaranteed in the constitution, e.g. freedom of speech, right to information, freedom of religion, and equal protection under the law. The choice one make is mainly affected by the surrounding in which one lives and his/her attitude towards the subject. Social movements are groups of people who lobby for specific goals or changes to be made. Civil right and social movements started as long as history dates and have been the main change to traditions since they bring a trend of events that keep changing society and its thought towards held traditions.

Civil rights and traditions

The intense aftermath of the war in the 60s extended to the 70s, with trends that included disillusioning of government, advances in civil rights, increased influence of the womens movement and concerns on the environment being witnessed. Most ideas of the 60s were mainly accepted in the 70s despite the war and social realignment (Calisle and Golson, 2007 p. 94). The assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968 saw the proceeding years more vocal. For example, the feminism and gender equality became a major issue in the 70s. Cesar Chavez also campaigned for the right of migrant workers in California, while capital punishment was ruled to be constitutional; the Supreme Court also legalized abortion and affirmative action policies were implemented (John, 2005, p. 67).

Generally the civil rights and social movements came to transform traditions, since most laws passed were those which staunch believers in tradition believed were impossible. The trend can be seen as the rights are passed one after the other; once one law is passed, they notice that other rights are being infringed on so the cycle continues.

Emergence of Social movements

Social movements in the early 70s included environmentalist, who were triggered by the transmitted satellite images of earth as an integrated life supporting system, which made the 22^nd April 1970 the first Earth day. Following this day various laws were passed which included the Environmental Protection Agency (1970), the Clean Water Act (1972) and the Endangered Species Act (1973) (Social movements of the 1970s, 2009, para. 1). These laws were in series or gave trend to change the traditional use of exploitation of natural resources and adopt new methods. The use of nuclear power over fossil energy became more evident which sparked a protest from environmentalists due to degradation. Tradition defiance could not withstand this change making it inevitable.

Feminism was entrenched in the law by the nineteenth amendment of the US Constitution which legalized female suffrage. This gave the gay community insight despite the stonewall riots of 1969 as gay and lesbians became vocal. The removal of homosexuality as a disorder by the American Psychiatric Association was a step to its legalization, with the first gay marriage being witnessed in 1972 (1970s  Social movements, 2009, para. 5). The first marching protest was held in 14^th October 1979 in Washington, D.C. by the gay community to protest for their rights gave a clear indication of the radical change in heterosexual marriages as strongly believed by tradition. The change of any right of one sex then ignites the other to demand for his/her rights.

Education being a sensitive aspect of the society which was largely seen as the drive to civilization was also on the civil rights list. Achieving a racial integration school system was the agenda of social movements. The US congress passed the Higher Education Act which did not allow any discrimination in gender to receive federal funds. In addition, the Womens Education Equity Act of 1974 gave support to Higher Education Act (American History of the 1970s, 2009, para. 6). Equality in education was also enhanced to include even the handicapped. This period saw conflict over wide issues such as the adoption of women and people with disability in schools. Retention of tribal customs of the blacks was also influenced when they were allowed to take care of their own education. Questions arise whether the quality of education actually dropped.

The disabled movement protested for social acceptance of the Disabled people and a group by the name American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities had been formed in 1974 (Social movement of the 1970s, 2009, Para. 2). The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was passed in 1972, whose aim was to curb discriminations based on sex; and since then, gay rights groups have been on the alert. The trend in education was viewed as the introduction of the girl child education and the education of the physically challenged which was not valued traditionally.

Changes in lifestyle and technology

Lifestyle and fashion were deemed to change in this era of civilization, dress codes raging from bellbottoms to hot pants to platform shoes to t-shirts knit and denims suits for men became common. Movies like the 1977 Annie Hall changed fashion trends of the 70s.to derby hats and tweed jackets neckties worn with baggy pants or skirts, (Gillis, 1999, para. 7). When one changes his/her lifestyle, definitely traditions erode, western culture as described by many are attached to trendy fashions which no doubt shows the spirit of eroding tradition defiance.

Technology as a sign of change saw the introduction of the floppy disc in 1970, and in 1971 a microprocessor by Intel. Other introductions of the 70s included Video Cassette recorders, Jumbo jets, neutron bombs, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), DNA technology (1973), email (1971) laser printer (1971) among others (American Natural History 1970s, 2009, para. 8). This change in technology makes thing easier to handle and creates more opportunities, hence traditions get erased and no spirit of maintaining it exists.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the 1970s is recalled as the civil rights and social movement days where all the trends of change in the traditions of the people on every part of the nation whether a reformist or conservative was witnessed. In all aspects of our life socially, economically, medically and culturally we have trends that bring change to what we do, think, practice or believe (tradition). The major days and acts include 22^nd April 1970 as the First Earth Day, 28^th May 1970 as the First Gay Pride march, 29^th May 1972 the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALTI) was signed and 1975 the international year of the woman (America Cultural History 1970s, 2009, para. 8). The inference is; the 1970s activities show a spirit of traditional defiance with its radical changes in behavior including gay marriage, legalizing abortion and gender equality hence traditional defiance. With increased day to day rights and movements, the spirit of maintaining culture is compromised hence we experience the diversity in all cultures to join and form one westernized culture as the world is becoming a global village.

Work Cited

Carlisle, Rodney P. & Golson, Geoffrey. America in revolt during the 1960s and 1970s. Oxford, ABC-CLIO.

Gillis, Charles. American Cultural History 1970-1979. Lonestar College Kingwood. 1999. Web.

John, Super C. Seventies in the United States. West Virginia, Salem press. 2005.

Social movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Social movement of the 1960s and 1970s. 2009. Web.

1970s  Social movements. 1970s: Encyclopedia II  1970s  Social movements. 2009. Web.

Introduction

Many women have been participating in entrepreneurship of late; their businesses have been expanding quite rapidly in most countries in the world. It is believed that in the United States alone the number of women who own businesses is estimated to be 8 million compared to 4 million of them who owned businesses in the nine tees. The number presents 35 percent of all businesses in America as compared to 5 percent a century ago. In the 90s women were only participating in businesses such as beauty aids, Jewelry, clothing, and other service providing businesses but of late Women are even participating in non traditional businesses such as construction and manufacturing.

The participation of women in small businesses, service, retail, and construction sectors has enabled many countries to improve their economic status because they are expanding industries, creating competition, creating job opportunities and ensuring provision of high quality goods and services. For example in the United States it is estimated that women entrepreneurs employ an estimated number of 20 million workers and they contribute sales revenues of about 2.3 trillion dollars. The research below will look at how women were able to surface to be able to get jobs in industries as their male counterparts and how this knowledge they gained from industries assisted them to venture into entrepreneurship, it will also look at some of the factors that have affected the growth of women businesses.

Women and paid work

In the past few years women have proved to the world that they are a force to reckon with and they have really worked hard on any opportunity they have been presented with. Women considered to be low class women have put a great deal of effort in domestic work and factory jobs. Middle class women have also put a great deal of effort in jobs such as nursing, teaching, and social work; they have also participated greatly in typewriting and telephone jobs (Thomas: 81). In the past many women were employed as secretaries and switchboard operators and also they were employed in factories because they were seen to have the capability of handling repetitive jobs. Historically it is clearly known that women never did work out of their personal or career choosing but due to constrained opportunities. Before the nineteenth century not very many women had formal education because education for women was only provided to very wealthy and upper class women. The knowledge they only had was the crafting skills that they were taught by their parents and they passed it from generation to generation.

To them formal education was considered to be irrelevant and was even seen as a danger for Blacks who had been held as slaves. The limitation in the number of women who had formal education led to a limited number of women who had formal jobs since the informal education they received was not adequate enough to land them skilled jobs; this made them work as helpmates for their husbands. Though the upper class women had formal education they did not actively participate in entrepreneurship. And even though their were opportunities that existed for the upper class, and low class women to work in industries, cultural values limited them, because they stated that a married woman especially the one who had kids was not supposed to be employed but stay at home and cater for his Husband and Children needs (Thomas: 85). This made many women shun away from seeking jobs.

However nowadays women receive education as their Male counterparts. This has made many women, especially in the Western countries, to steadily rise and seek jobs in the labor market and in the economy as well. The United States for example in the year 1940 had a total workforce of about 25 percent of women. During the Second World War many women were encouraged by the government and the media to join the workforce. However after the war was over many industries such as the automobile industry tried to get rid of the women they had employed, but the women still persisted in finding jobs that they thought were fit for them. In the 70s and 80s women began to enter new job fields such as professors, attorneys, and physicians (Thomas: 90).

By mid nine tees women consisted of 46 percent of the total civilian labor force. The reasons for the steady rise of women are numerous; among the reasons is the fact that many women like the idea of being independent. The second reason is that they have received quality education that has expanded their qualifications for employment. The third reason is that women nowadays have fewer children which mean that the performance in their jobs is now stable. The high rate of divorce is another reason because it has made women find jobs so that they can fend for themselves. The change of legislation in many countries has also given women greater employment opportunities; however it is evident that women concentrate in low paying and low status jobs. Gender is seen as one of the inequality factors that affects women greatly in the labor market. Race is also another factor, in addition other factors such as unequal pay, and sexual harassment has also affected women in the labor force. The high level of education among women has seen them even expand their interest in business (Gail: 18).

Factors that affect women participation in business

There are many factors that affect women in their mission to venture into business operations some of these factors include; Education, experience, and Entrepreneurial preparedness (Lindsay: 20).

Education

In studies carried out by many humanitarian organizations it is found out that women are not that different enough from their male counterparts in matters regarding general characteristics such as; order of birth, marital status, or entrepreneurial motivations (Lindsay: 20). However when it comes to education there are a lot of differences that can be noted between the two. Reviewed literature exposes the fact that women have the same educational levels to men , however their fields of study are quite different form those of men. In the past women education was mainly focused in liberal arts and humanities while men had a keen interest in engineering, Computer science, and business related courses.

This is considered a big factor that influences the kind of business that women choose to run. However in the recent past, women have started changing and they are entering in business ventures that were dominated by males. Education plays a big role in the type of business that women try to venture in, for example in a survey carried out on highly educated women in Sweden found out that women who had an education experience of more than twelve years choose not to venture in to non- traditional trade. There has been a considerable change in womens education over the past few years. These changes began to be witnessed in the early 70s, when women began to change on the type of courses they were undertaking in their undergraduate levels. It is clearly noted that women began to get involved in courses that were career oriented and even furthered their degrees. They even majored in courses that were similar to those of their male counterparts (Warren: 16).

The seven tees also saw the rise of women enrolment in degree programs such as medicine, business, and dentistry. Thus it is clear to say that not only did women enrolment in colleges and universities increase in numbers but also the nature of their enrolment changed. The change in enrolment nature of women has played a very significant role, in the increase of number of women entrepreneurs because they have obtained the skills to venture into businesses that were previously dominated by men (Belkin: 120).

Experience

Experience gained from working in certain industries plays a very significant role in what kind of business an individual can operate. Apart from formal education women have to have the necessary experience to be able to run businesses more efficiently. Women may obtain experience from their previous employment. The three most important knowledge they should obtain includes; prior knowledge of the markets, knowledge of serving the markets, and knowledge about some of the customer problems. The number of years that a woman may have spent in a certain managerial position plays a significant role on how she will run her business. Certain surveys carried out prove that fulltime experience and startup experience is part of the knowledge that a woman would need to run up a successful business (Roger: 133).

Women who have inadequate business and managerial skills may find it very difficult when they try to engage themselves in a new business venture. Since there are a few experienced women as compared to men the chances of a woman running a successful business are reduced. The second factor is that there are a limited number of women who occupy managerial positions in industries. This fact makes it difficult for women to obtain the necessary experience required to run a business. Occupational segmentation and segregation also has an effect on experience in relation to women businesses. It is evident that women still hold low paying and unskilled work in most labor markets; this has an effect on women when they plan on starting a business since they are limited in sectors that they would venture into business (Warner: 120).

Entrepreneurial preparedness

Entrepreneurial preparedness is the personal skills, attitudes and resources that are not obtained from formal education and work experience (Warner: 121). One component of entrepreneurial preparedness is financial capital, Life experience is considered to be the other component. In most cases entrepreneurial preparedness comes from the cultural and family background of a businessman. An individual who grows up in a family that participates in entrepreneurship is likely to have great experience on running businesses as compared to one who was not raised in a family that practiced entrepreneurship. This factor mostly affects women; in a research carried out in France it was found out that most women entrepreneurs were influenced by their family environment. Financial capital as a component of entrepreneurial preparedness is very critical for women who would like to venture into businesses; Education, experience, and Entrepreneurial preparedness (Warner: 123).

The financial component forms one of the most significant components of entrepreneurial preparedness. The personal earning power and capability to get capital for starting a business is a very critical issue for business women. Moreover a certain level of capital can help reduce the risks involved in starting a business. Before a woman decides to venture into a new business it is very important that she evaluates all the risks that are likely to affect her business, she should also try to evaluate the nature of the business opportunity. The total amount of the money to start the business may be a combination of both the actual cost and the opportunity cost. A woman who does not rely on salary as her source of capital may find it less risky to begin a business because she has some other source of income apart from her salary. Income diversity is then considered to be another very important factor.

Many women of the world not residing in their own countries are affected by the immigrant factor when it comes to starting a business. In the year 2006 the nature venture capital association reported on the difficulties faced by women immigrants who want to start a business, especially in the technology field. They carried out a study on small business formation and noted the importance of women immigrant entrepreneurs among the important new demographic trends in small business ownership ().

Conclusion

Women have always found it very difficult to participate in Male dominated fields such as business ventures because certain cultural values limited them. In the past many cultures defined womens role as staying at home and serving their husband and children. However with time this value seems to be fading as many women have obtained jobs in various industries and even gone further to venture into businesses. Though women have been able to prosper in business there are various factors that limit their capability, some of these capabilities include; Education, Entrepreneurial preparedness, and the immigrant factor.

Education factor affects women in the sense that the courses women take in colleges and other learning institutions limit the chances they have in venturing in to a successful business, this is because the knowledge they obtain from the learning institutions is not adequate enough. Experience affects women in the sense that many women have not had the chance to fill in managerial positions, therefore lack the skill to run successful business ventures. Entrepreneurial preparedness factor covers issues like the knowledge a woman may have in running a business and the financial capital she may have to run the business, it is important to note that in order for her to run a successful venture she has to have an adequate amount of the two. The immigrant issue does not seriously affect business women, in most cases it only affects women who have migrated to another country.

Works cited

Thomas, J, Millionaire women next door, Sun Microsystems press 1998, pp 81- 90.

Gail, E, the most important rules business women needs to know Wiley press 2001, pp 18.

Lindsay, D, four steps to priceless business relationships, Wesley publications 1999, page 20.

Warren, R, the purpose driven life, Addison 2003, page 16.

Belkin, L, confessions of an unbalanced mum, Willey press 2003, page 120.

Roger, E, Dos and taboos around the world for women in business, Wesley publications 1997, page 133.

Warner, J, Women in business Adisson 2001, pp 120-124.

Social care is a profession. In this profession people work with the other people who have some needs, who are practicing marginalisation. These services are mainly offered to children, people who are physical disable, and older people. People who dont have home, alcohol or drug addicted persons also use these services. These services are also provided to recent immigrants to Ireland.

According to IASCE (Irish Association of Social Care Educators) Social care services are defined as- it is a job of providing quality care and other support services to the individuals and groups according to their needs.

According to some professors Social care services provide care, protection, support, safety and advocacy for the dependent people. These are provided with the help of planning and evaluation. Programmes are prepared for individuals and for groups. These programmes are made on the basis of needs. In Europe social care services are usually known as social pedagogy and social care practitioners are known as social pedagogues.

Many people, in England are using Social care services. Approximately more than 1.8 million people are using social care services in England at present. Mainly people with a sensory impairment, a physical disability, a learning disability, a terminal illness, a mental illness, problems connected to ageing, alcohol dependency and drug dependency use social care services. Among these people some use social care for a short time and other for long time according to there need.

Social care services are very helpful for a person. These services help him live his life. Old people are not able to do ordinary works at home. In this case these services are the best option. A hospitalized person can take help of these social services. An adult with physical disability can take help of these services. When a person wants right care, then he should take help of these services. Quality of life of a person is definitely changed by these services.

Social care services play an important role in the social policy of the UK. The number of people receiving social care is still increasing. Social care services in the UK continuously improving because demand is increasing day by day. During the year 2005-06, 1.75 million people received social services in England. The number of the people, receiving home care, also increased rapidly during some last years.

The structure of social services in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is not similar, it differs in certain manner. The laws of Scotland and Northern Ireland are different from the laws of in England and Wales. Poor law is the main social policy of the UK and social services play an important role in it.

Health departments, welfare departments, and childrens departments were responsible for social care services after 1948 in the UK. These were unified in 1960. In Scotland it was given the name Social Work Departments and in England and Wales Social Services Departments. An important role has been played by these departments in the social policies.

References

An introduction to Social Policy, The personal social services: social work and social care, 2009, Web.

Social policy in the UK, 2009, Web.

Irish Social Care Gateway, 2005, What is social care?, Web.

Commission for Social Care Inspection, 2008, What is social care?, Web.

DODS, 2007, Social care, Web.

Focus and Rationale

This paper focuses on the interrelation of the two factors, race and class, that affect the choices process of most young adults searching for higher education opportunities in various institutions in the UK. The rationale behind the quell to answer this question comes due to the evolution of higher education, making it available to people who in the past were not eligible due to scores attained, financial requirements, and racial divide among the society. Today, there are several willing funding bodies to cater for your financial shortfall, institutions offering remedies to prior poor performance in high schools, and the breaking of racial barriers causing free interaction of all races.

Despite these changes in society and education, it is evident that there are treads that have naturally formed in admission to universities as the difference of choice pre-determined by societal classes and ethnicity. The students minds are set upon the two predicaments hence greatly dictated their choices wittingly or unwittingly.

Evidently, the history of the access to higher education has followed three aspects in the last century, namely; the era of great expansion due to increased funds availability in job placement and greater attachment of education, the reduction of sexual bias leading to more females enrolling in higher education, and finally the lack of practical racial equalities in various different components of the society. Despite the threat race is only skin deep, its impact is greater than assumed; most people are self-conscious of their race which affects all they undertake.

Since the Second World War, there has been significant growth in higher education and reduction of gender disparity from less than 3% to the current almost 200% increase. In those early times, higher education was a domain for the crème de la crème, and this was coupled with the little importance attached to higher education in the job search. The percentage of people with higher education in the job market was less than 2% of the workforce.

The basic stimuli to the surged interest for higher education were initiated by; full or partial funding by some willing institutions, the need to climb up the corporate ladder, and an increase in education funding by the government. The drawbacks of the growth were such as hiking of individual educational costs in the 1970s and 1980s that defined classes; those who could afford and those who could not attend certain schools, and the silent racial reflex due to some quarters feeling superior to others.

Case Studies

The research is based on six educational institutions, namely; Creighton Community School, Maitland Union-MU, Riverway College, Fennister FE College-FFEC, Cosmopolitan Boys-CB, and Hemsley Girls-HG. The choice of the research sample was based on several different factors that certainly make each unique from the other. The factors are; the composition or the age range that attends the schools, the level of education offered by the institutions, the gender composition; either mixed or single-sex, the composition of the attendees as minority-majority, nationals majority, race, classes, or mixed composition, and the ownership of the institutions as public or private.

To try to clear the findings from contradiction, the paper stirs away from other factors that influence the choice of higher education as peers, friends, family, religion, institution, and school. On top of race and class in society, the above factors may duly affect a students preference for certain schools.

Methods

The research methods used were of three types; questionnaire on a total of 502 students from the mentioned schools who were year 12, year 13 and further education-FE students, focus groups, interviews to 53 students from some of the above institutions forming a subsample, interviews on intermediaries as teachers in the institutions and interviewed a number of parents.

In examining of market participation of the above-gathered data, it failed representative of the whole sample for most students in Fennister FE College-FFEC and Creighton CS were working class and the majority of the Maitland Union were the first generations in their families to attempt higher education.

Claims and Evidence

Despite not having any direct evidence, it has been inferred in the paper it is clear that students from the minority and lower socio-economic classes have increased their enrollment in higher education institutions in a bid to better their predicament. The students feel that with more education, they will have better opportunities in job search and promotions hence move to high socio-economic classes. Their school expenses are either paid through loans, grants, and paid employment. Out of the 53 students, only 23 were White, and only 12 of the 23 laid claimed to be White English. The case was different in the multi-ethnic and working composition CSS; 5 students were Bengali, 4 Africans, and 1 Chinese. So if you compare the overall demography of the country, the few numbers of minority students enrolled in higher education institutions are relatively a large percentage of their number residing in the UK. What this means is that if the population of the majority is 20,000 in an area around the higher educational institution, the ratio is 23: 20,000, whereas if you take one of the minority groupings as Chinese to be 50, the ratio is 1:50 that is 2% while the majority is less than 0.1%.

The increase in female enrollment in the universities has been affected by the change in the educational structure where more suitable courses have been developed. Also, the change in societal perspective on sexual alignment in jobs has added. Parents and the government now view all children as equal; thus, equal opportunities are offered.

It is true that in addition to grades, race, and socio-economic classes, other factors play a significant role in determining the school one applies to as peers, friends, families, individuality, the former school, and intermediaries. But most of these factors are overshadowed by the race and class interaction where it is not about your school of choice but the choice of your school.

The paper also claims that the greatest factor in the selection of schools to apply to apart from your grades is mostly determined by the race factor. The race factor in the UK generally dictates very many other factors like your financial background; most students of minority origin come from households that struggle financially, for they are either manual or unskilled laborers. Also, they fall under class groups of III manual, IV, and V. Due to the racial complexity in higher education, you find that White and especially White English will have a lot of advantages on their side as preference in funding; hence their socio-economic class merely affect their academic progress.

The socio-economic class of the student also comes with financial and travel constraints. Most minority students were found in preference of universities that are local to them. The localization comes due to minimizing the costs, gaining proximity to employment, and other benefits. The established middle-class students are least worried about the distance traveled to access higher education for finance is not a problem, and the need to work is the least of their priorities. When it came to paid employment, out of all 502 students administered the questionnaire, only a third of students from well-placed middle-class families were in paid employment compared to two-thirds of students from unskilled families. Two-thirds of all students in public or state schools worked, while only a third worked in private schools. In the mature students composition, the working number was higher, reaching up to 40%.

We can also see the claim on the class affecting the level of performance of the students in pre higher education and higher education schools. The well-endowed middle classes have the advantage of lesser working needs; some even do not work at all, which directed affects the hour set aside for personal studies. Low-class groups evidently work more and for more hours hence do fewer subjects and less personal study. The established middle-class students are likely to achieve distinctions and clear higher education faster than their less fortunate counterparts. This can be seen to be the reason why most of the elite higher institutions are composed of affluent students; still, there are low-income students who are either sponsored or work at the school to cater for tuition. The long hours of more than 10 hours were mostly occupied by students from lower classes compared to only one student working over 15 hours from a private school. To summarized the student that worked for more than 10 hours, the established middle class had 10%, ordinary middle class 17%, routine non-manual origin students were 21%, 30% manual group III, and 31% students from unskilled backgrounds worked. This inversely reflects the number of hours that the student dedicated to homework; the upper class more than the lower groups. Among all students, only 15% had private tuition; came mostly from private schools.

Due to the previous segregation in the higher education system, the entry by minority and lower socio-economic classes was dismal; hence most forms the pioneers in their families to join universities. The paper termbases its class categorization on the Registrar Generals social class grouping; the middle class as students from families in groups I and II, the working class as group III manual, IV, and V. Out of the 53 students interviewed, 33 were the first-generation applicant to the universities, the remaining 20 students had their relatives as aunts and uncles having attended some university, and a further 2 were either African refugees or from very poor families. 15 students out of the 53- 28% were from middle classes, specifically socio-economic groups I and II, with prior attainment of degrees in their families. Of the mature students, 18 came from class groups III manual, V, and VI, with only four coming from middle-class backgrounds.

Conclusion

We can correctly make some conclusions based on the research paper through the figures or inferences from the information provided. The first conclusion is that the two factors, race, and class, are almost inseparable, with our case study being the UK. The reason for this is that the minority, in one way or the other, form the lower socio-economic classes, namely; the manual III, IV, and IV. In the UK, the minority be categorized as Africans; from Africa or the Caribbeans, Asians, Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and Arabs, and a number of other immigrants as Whites from the Eastern Block and other parts of the world. Most first-generation people of foreign ethnicity will be faced with numerous handicaps as language; people not speaking the queens accent get good jobs, settlement and employment facilities, lack financial facilities as mortgage and bank loans, racial experiences by extreme whites, and many others. This will make them not only select a school based on their ethnicity but also on financial ability.

Their failure to achieve exemplary distinctions in education at school for the young adults could be attributed to their classes and race. There are no quota intakes or special considerations for hardship students; thus, there is unfair competition that makes the minority and the financially non-established students to be edged out by the rightly placed students. There are different accreditations of educational institutions based on their performance; hence minority races and the lower classes are doomed to poorly accredited schools; this will be reflected even in the job placement; hence the haves will always have no limitations in placing their children where they want.

For many people of foreign ethnicity or races are located in most cosmopolitan cities as London, you will find their children being the majority applicants in the local higher institutions. So most of these local institutions are selected on the fact that they have the majority of minorities due to; the search for racial security, costs of education, and proximity to the residential areas.

Due to a large number of students from a minority background and lower socio-economic classes having to more and for long hours, we can conclude that there is plenty of cheap labor around the higher education schools being both skilled and unskilled.

Validity of the Claims and Evidence

The validity of the claims and evidence in this paper can be contested due to some elements that were intentionally or unintentionally overlooked. The first element is the selection of the samples. The samples that were chosen cannot in any way represent the whole sample. There are variances in age, level of education, and location. To get the correct information, the research should have harmonized the samples by selecting only higher education schools as colleges, look for different colleges in different areas spread out all over the UK, the age range should have been set to be like 8 to 21. And to support the allegations made on the interviews, questionnaire, the focus group, and intermediaries, there should have been a distinct separation of students and intermediaries interviews. The intermediaries information should have been used to support the students claims rather than be part of the research.

There is a lack of specificity in those who were researched; the figures should include a number of the different sexes included as in the 53 student interviews on employment; 20 were employed, of which 10 were females. This would give a clearer picture of the gender situation as affected by race and class factors. The paper should also specify or define the geographical placement of the sample schools in relation to each other. This has to lead us to conclude that the research was done around one location; we are not sure which is which!

The research paper also gives a lot of loopholes to make wrong assumptions like it was done in a London city, and not larger the UK for you hardly find minority groups only in cities. It also makes you think that all the minority groups are dictated by race and class in selecting the universities to apply to; in the UK, there are very affluent people of minority origin as Chinese, Indians, and even Blacks. This should have been factored in to make the claims and evidence to be more accurate. Another likely conclusion is that all black are Africans or Africans from the Caribbean; we surely have other blacks from the UK itself, America, and Australia. Also, we have white people from other locations as Africa.

Other errors in the paper are that the paper concludes that the students establish middle class its possible that as the students from lesser economic classes toil for money, their rich counterparts idle or spend their time doing other activities like sports, indulgence in drugs, and many others vices hence spend even lesser time studying. Another assumption made in the research is that students work only for money to assist them in footing the academic bills, which are not entirely true; some student even from affluent, have a working culture entrenched in them hence will work as those that racially and financially limited.

The researcher should have applied the use of charts and other visual aids to synthesize and present the results of the research findings. When data is tabled or in graphs, it is easier to understand than when in sentence form for figures are involved.

There is also a conspicuous lack of constants or control elements which the results are meant to be compared and kept within in the methodology. Also, the research has refused to utilize all the possible tools of research; the tools are only limited to interviews and documented resources, leaving out the crucial cognitive power of observation. Observation is very powerful, for it is hard to influence the variables in any way.

Conclusion of the Research Assessment

The research paper presents a vague picture of the actual situation on the ground, as illustrated in the above limitations that deem the results suspicious. It seems that the work was done in a rushed manner where vital variables were neglected. Also, crucial information has been left out, making it possible for the users of the research to make wrong conclusions.

What I would recommend in this research is proper preparation, better ways of selecting the sample items based on factors like relevancy, number, locations and the intended objective or answer to the research question, more sample schools, use of more methods to interpret the data collected and proper presentation of the final information. It is still incomplete, for experts are needed to make it implementable. Despite that, the information can be used in various studies and projects the results of the implementation may slightly vary from what is truly expected. The most crucial factors in attaining the best results would be to allocate more resources to the activity like time, money, and human labor so as many as possible samples are dealt with.