Category: Sociology 7256

As is the case for many economically developed members of the European Union, border security is a pressing problem in France. That is not to say that the country is at risk of being invaded; instead, it is facing a moral dilemma. The state struggles to deal with the pressure of mass migration and stopping it could violate basic human rights (Müller, 2020).

While immigration does not have to be a negative phenomenon, it tends to concern the native population, and there are good reasons for it. Firstly, the way immigrants are perceived is directly proportionate to the amount of trust people have in the police and other national institutions (Danaj, Lazányi, & Bilan, 2018). Secondly, the immigrants in France tend to be of low economic status and in need of state support, which understandably upsets the locals.

However, neither of these reasons for public unrest in France could surpass the issue of terrorist attacks. In fact, it was these attacks that triggered the discussions of border securitization (Lamour, 2019). The relatively recent acts of terrorism in France have made this problem even more acute. Debates over a harsher immigration and integration policies are rampant. The unfortunate consequence is that many innocent immigrants and even their children born in France are not fully accepted by the population. There is no doubt that terrorism is a more severe threat to national security than any economic disadvantages caused by immigrants.

Unfortunately, there is no definitive solution to these issues at the moment. While additional security measures can be taken, as long as people are allowed to enter the country, there will always be risks. The flow of immigrants is also unlikely to stop in the foreseeable future, as the benefits of living in the EU seem rather appealing. For now, no regulation can be introduced to stop mass migration without human rights abuse.

References

Danaj, A., Lazányi, K., & Bilan, Y. (2018). Perceptions and implications of immigration in France-economic, social, political and cultural perspectives. Economics & Sociology, 11(3), 226-247.

Lamour, C. (2019). Mass media and border securitization in Europe: Investigating the metropolitan Mediapolis in an era of right-wing populism. Journal of Urban Affairs, 41(4), 535-550.

Müller, O. (2020). Solidarity crime at the border: A lesson from France. In M. Ambrosini, M. Cinalli, & D. Jacobson (Eds.), Migration, borders and citizenship: Between policy and public spheres (pp. 89-107). Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.

Making a crucial decision in life frequently puts people under much pressure concerning the possibility of committing a mistake. When speaking of the 21st century, one of the major issues lies in a number of potential opportunities, confusing people in terms of taking control over their lives. However, the level of pressure even doubles when the crucial decision depends on the mindset of a teenager. One of the most vivid examples of such a choice is a university major, which kids are expected to make while going to high school. As a result, it is little wonder that many college students seriously consider the possibility of changing major in the middle of ones studies. In order to properly assess the scope of significance when it comes to such life choices, it is of great importance to estimate the causes and potential effects of such a decision.

To begin with, it is necessary to dwell upon the causes that could potentially influence ones perception of higher education. One and the most widespread cause of mindset change concerns the failure of ones expectations. It is natural for most people to create some images in their heads they want to follow. However, unfortunately, in most cases, these images tend to disagree with the reality one faces.

When speaking of teenagers, their scopes of idealization are even bigger due to unreasonable high youthful spirits. According to the people who lived through such an experience, another important precedent is the absence of the opportunity to consider all the options (Barton). Being a teenager, ones surroundings could be quite limited and hence, lacking diversity in terms of options. However, the college years make people face completely new aspects of life, urging them to try something they might actually enjoy without constant parental counseling. The final and, by all means, undermined cause to change ones major is the plain desire to change it without any severe precedents to the decision. The absolute benefit of making such a decision is a relatively young age, not pressured by much responsibility.

However, each decision made in life is later followed by a series of consequences. One of the most reasonable effects of the major change is the cost of such a decision (Anderson). With arguably high education costs in the state, it is important to consider whether changing major in the middle of ones studies is worth the financial loss followed by this shift. The potential positive outcome, however, presupposes enhancing ones academic performance when doing something one genuinely enjoys. The pure interest in a university degree often leads to a better GPA and a students motivation to find internships in the field.

Finally, one of the most crucial effects in the context of ones life is better mental health and overall attitude towards life. Todays pace of life already makes many people miserable, especially when it comes to the constant comparison of ones life about how others depict themselves in social media. Hence, it is of great importance to put enough effort in order to feel secure and satisfied in the 21st centurys society. Bearing this in mind, it could be concluded that despite all the potential outcomes of ones decision, the most significant part is always the way one feels about the change.

Works Cited

Anderson, Marie. Consequences of Changing Majors. Classroom, 2017.

Barton, Meggie. 10 Completely Acceptable Reasons to Change Your Major. Chegg, n.d. Web.

Gentrification is a government policy of renovating city areas seeking the purpose of attracting large private investments into new buildings that would improve the picture of the cities. It is only apparent that to need renovation, the areas must have been neglected and disinvested before. With this in mind, there arose a consideration that the modern process of renewal must have its roots in the previous policies that led to the decay of the area. The present paper researches the connections between redlining policies and racial exclusion with gentrification.

To provide a more in-depth understanding of the connections between redlining policies and gentrification it is crucial to realize the essence of both practices. As Dean and Anderson state, redlining is a policy originated in the 1930s as a reaction to the Great Depression. The core idea of the project is revitalizing the real estate market by providing low-interest government loans for potential homebuyers. For this purpose, Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) rated neighborhoods according to their risk levels for investments and put them on the map (The Legacy of Redlining 0:260:40). The authorities considered the neighborhoods mainly upon the race factor and rated hazardous the areas where more than 5% of the population were African Americans (Dean and Anderson) Redlining made it hard for residents to get loans for homeownership or maintenance making the neighborhoods disinvested and neglected. In brief, the policy created segregated disinvested urban areas that were populated mostly by African Americans and immigrants.

The examination of the core idea of gentrification contributes to understanding that this process is as racist as redlining was. The essence of gentrification is to make redlined areas more attractive for large businesses and wealthy citizens mainly through rezoning. While this may seem to be a healthy and wise idea, the actual results of the policy contribute to racism and inequity. The fundamental problem with gentrification is the attempt to displace African American and immigrants communities by making the area unaffordable for the local families. As Dean and Anderson state, the rent went up 300% overnight after Brooklyn development plan came to action. All the newly built condominiums are rated as elite housing, so the lower middle class that had prevailed in the area moved out (Dean and Anderson). In short, gentrification and redlining coincide in supporting racism, inequity, and further segregation.

Further analysis provides direct proof that gentrification is the consequence of redlining as both policies concern the same areas. Urban Displacement Project delivers overlaps of major US cities redlining and gentrification maps, where viewers can see explicit evidence of both practices being applied to the same areas. For instance, 87% of San Franciscos and 83% of East Bays redlined neighborhoods currently undergo gentrification (The Legacy of Redlining 04:4305:10). Overall, after revising the evidence mentioned above, it becomes evident that policies concern the same areas, promoting further displacement of people based on their ethnicity and income level.

While results of gentrification may seem splendid from the first glance, a broader consideration can make a thinker worry. On the one hand, the policy noticeably improved pictures of major US cities by creating conspicuous elite housing in previously hazardous areas. On the other hand, renovation led to further segregation and displacement of long-term residents of the neighborhoods. In conclusion, gentrification has uncanny similarities with redlining in its core, as both policies of racial exclusion and inequity.

Works Cited

Dean, Allison Lirish, and Kelly Anderson. My Brooklyn. New Day Films, 2012.

The Legacy of Redlining.  YouTube, uploaded by Urban Displacement Project. Web.

Identity is a complex topic and consists of many interrelated items. The theory behind this notion has not yet developed to the stage when it can provide answers to all questions. Some believe that people are born with identity, while others consider culture as the primary influencer. These beliefs attribute identity with static nature that is acquired either upon birth or upon becoming part of a certain culture. Such views, however, do not correspond to how human beings grow and change throughout their lives. Identity is a reflection of the current state of mind, and it changes as part of a response to environmental and inner events.

Firstly, identity is a combination of self-perception and how others see a person. It can be studied at various levels, including macro, where entire groups and populations are considered, and micro, where attention is given to an individual person. The formation may take place in various circumstances, including social context, when a person starts considering themselves as part of a specific group. Therefore, identity first develops within a family, when an individual starts feeling that they have certain responsibilities assigned by the roles in the family. The family member identity develops until the individual becomes an adult and starts to live an independent life. The scientific community often studies how identity forms rather than how it changes. Therefore, there are many theories regarding identity development and little focus on the change process. One of the most popular theories of identity formation is the model of James Marcia (Morelli). He believed that individuals pass through four stages until becoming mature and with formed identities (Morelli). These stages are diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement (Morelli). In the diffusion stage, people do not have goals or options and are not yet ready to make any decisions because of the perceived lack of control (Morelli). In foreclosure, an individual decides to commit to some goal but allows many of the decisions to be made by others (Morelli). The moratorium is when a person has an identity crisis and does not know what choices to make (Morelli). In achievement, their identity is fully formed, which allows them to make decisions freely and commit themselves to goals and purposes they value. The family member identity passes through all these stages  from diffusion when they are children to achievement when they become adults.

Secondly, unless a persons development stagnates completely, their identity constantly evolves because of new experiences, knowledge, and individual growth. Identity is a persons image captured at this very moment, and because this picture is not the same as it was a year before, it is plausible to believe that identity changes throughout life. There are no specific reasons why there are alterations in identity  it is natural for human beings to strive for progress and improvement in all areas of activity. Suggesting that identity never changes once formed is to imply that no progress is ever possible once incorrect decisions are made. There is scientific evidence, however, that identity can be influenced intentionally (Miscenko et al. 605). Through structured interventions and training, individuals were able to change how they perceive themselves in terms of leadership (Miscenko et al. 605). Identity may change in response to external factors and experiences, which may often be created on purpose. For instance, prior to becoming an independent person, I was often treated unfairly by some of my relatives. If identity never changes, then I should be a submissive person for the rest of my life because of my childhood experiences. However, I managed to change during my college years, and today, I am a completely different person.

Lastly, Marcias model implies that after achievement, identity enters stagnation and experiences no progress. This notion of identity development is only concerned with how identity comes to existence. Its further progress, including the change that results from experience and systematic intervention, has not been studied thoroughly. In reality, the opposite is true, and an alternative model should be proposed. Marcias theory can be slightly altered in order to accommodate the ever-changing nature of identity. The last two steps can be put into an iteration  after achievement, at some point in life, a person may feel that something needs to change, which serves as motivation for progress. Through engaging in new activities and exposing themselves to new experiences, people can reach the achievement status once more. For instance, a skilled software developer, after working for more than ten years in the industry, may realize that spending days and nights in the office is a waste of time. They may want to start traveling and discovering new places. In this example, an identity crisis happened long after it was formed. The developer began to feel that they were not sure about the values they are committed to. Identity is achieved once more after realizing that traveling and writing are much more rewarding. Career change is a frequent event in contemporary society, which suggests that identity never stops evolving.

There are many definitions of identity, but in summary, it is how people view themselves combined with third-party perspectives. The majority of contemporary theories about identity and its development focus more on formation rather than continuous evolution. The lack of research in identity change has led to a belief that identity, once formed, can never be altered or influenced. However, real-world examples exist, which suggest that identity is in a continuous state of change. Marcias identity development model can be modified to make it suitable for constant identity change theory. Crisis and achievement occur in an iterative fashion, following one another. Identity is altered as a response to external events and experiences.

Works Cited

Miscenko, Darja, Hannes Guenter, and David V. Day. Am I a leader? Examining Leader Identity Development Over Time. The Leadership Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 5, 2017, pp. 605-620.

Morelli, Angela Oswalt. James Marcia and Self-Identity. Rhode Island Student Assistance Services, 2020. Web.

The societal perception of race is built and manifested directly in the environment that a particular ethnic group occupies. The vision of race as a social construct in the sense of a groups understanding of themselves and others is influenced by social context, which includes public spaces. Political, social, and geographical imbalance often is expressed in how certain territories divided, named, and visually presented. In this way, the importance of inclusion and representation of ethnic minorities by creating and modifying already existing places in order to reflect their identities is indispensable for contemporary globalized urban areas.

Analysis of the correlation between urban planning and the distribution of ethnicities in a city allows researchers to judge the level of integration that the city implements. A practical method to diversify and thus racialize an urban space is to encourage multiculturalism instead of assimilation for minorities and immigrants, for instance, in visual representations of local culture and the choice of names of the places (Basu and Fiedler, p. 4). Nevertheless, the struggle for visual representation in public spaces goes alongside the general battle for cultural dominance over a territory.

Racialization helps various communities and ethnic minorities to establish the significance of their identity and fight stigmatization. Community murals in Boston created by the youth of color mainly serve this purpose (Sieber et al, p. 267). Generally, one of the covert objectives of street art and collective forms of art is creating a stable community and exhibiting ones identity, making it finally visible. Another example of a city where racialization of the public sphere is encouraged is Scarborough, Canada. The city became home for a large number of immigrants, who in 2006 constituted more than half of its population (Basu and Fiedler, p. 2). Thus, building community centers, localizing already existing community places such as shops, and visually representing ones culture on the citys surfaces are common strategies for racialization that are implemented on a different scale.

Visual representation is one of the critical factors for managing public perception of a specific individual or a group of individuals. Nevertheless, it is not a one-way-process as the public sphere is both shapes and is shaped by societal and political contexts. Squares, avenues, parks, and building walls have the capacity to carry messages and be cultural signifiers, especially in questions concerning race. Such processes as marginalization and assimilation that embody personal experiences of race frequently are reflected in urban planning, race make-up of a neighborhood, and visual representation of public spaces. For instance, the experience of racial inclusion or exclusion may be primarily encountered in public areas. Kelly Ingram Park, in Birmingham that used to be a place of segregation and stigma, excluding the presence of African American citizens, nowadays serves as a reminder and vessel for distinct racial experiences (Dwyer, p. 662). Public spaces give or deprive of the opportunity of interaction and shared experiences between the members of various racial groups  they may serve both as separating barriers or melting pots.

Except for overtly visual power-struggle that has as its battlefield public spaces directly, naming is another more indirect strategy to assign a particular racial identity to a place. Moreover, naming is a tool not only to change the present but also the past. African American population in the south of the United States had as its political mission to commemorate Martin Luther King, particularly by naming streets after the activist (Alderman, p. 681). Street naming after King was also a way to establish a strong presence of African Americans in the region. Alderman notes that MLK street naming appears to be most overrepresented in places where the African-American population is at least 30% of the total population (p. 678). The rule of majority or at least the power of a strong presence is how society negotiates different demands, especially those that concern public spaces despite the political hierarchy. In this way, street naming functions as a quintessence of collective memory, helping the African American population of the south to both construct their past and commemorate a crucial figure of North American history through geographical surroundings.

Managing public spaces may be an inexhaustive source for political conflicts based on racial prejudices. In 1995, a statue of Arthur Ashe in Monument Avenue became the focus of public debates as citizens of Richmond could not find common ground on the questions concerning the statues placing (Leib, p. 287). The discussion quickly shifted from the statue placement to the racial demographics and identity politics in Richmond, which illustrates Leib s argument that the cultural landscape can be a reflection and component of a racial project (p. 306). Thus, public places as a point of common interest have immense value in determining what is politically appropriate, especially in regards to memorialization.

In contemporary circumstances, urban areas become a place of racial diversity and incorporation of this diversity in public places. Nevertheless, the struggle for representation and even presence in the generalized public sphere was a long and thorny road for some ethnic groups. Racial segregation, as one of the characteristics of the history of the United States, created artifacts that nowadays serve as a reminder for researchers of the profound connection between social perception and public places.

References

1. Alderman, Derek H. A Street Fit for a King: Naming Places and Commemoration in the American South. The Professional Geographer, vol. 52, no. 4, 2000, pp. 672684.
2. Basu, Ranu, and Robert S. Fiedler. Integrative Multiplicity Through Suburban Realities: Exploring Diversity Through Public Spaces in Scarborough. Urban Geography, vol. 38, no. 1, 2016, pp. 122.
3. Dwyer, Owen J. Interpreting the Civil Rights Movement: Place, Memory, and Conflict. The Professional Geographer, vol. 52, no. 4, 2000, pp. 660671.
4. Leib, Jonathan I. Separate Times, Shared Spaces: Arthur Ashe, Monument Avenue and the Politics of Richmond, Virginias Symbolic Landscape. Cultural Geographies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2002, pp. 286312.
5. Sieber, Tim, et al. The Neighborhood Strikes Back: Community Murals by Youth in Bostons Communities of Color. City & Society, vol. 24, no. 3, 2012, pp. 263280.

Introduction

Guzzini and Leander (2006) do not agree with Wendts theory that under the anarchy regime, the state society is unable to cooperate into identity formations. Guzzini and Leander (2006) contradict this theory, emphasizing that a lot of other factors influence identity state formation. They also disagree with Wendts consideration that while forming, states are free from institutional constraints, and only in the developmental process, these constraints appear.

Wendt does not take into consideration several modern world tendencies which can influence his theory. A big number of different identities in modern world are not considered by Wendt that may shake his theory. The other fact is the rapid growth of international cooperation. The power of different nations is different. Some nations possess a huge power and influence, the others are limited in influence, or are absolutely deprived of it. The presence of absolutely different agents in the world with lots of different ideas and directions of thought also cannot lead society to identity formations of the state.

Discussion

Reading Guzzini and Leander (2006), it is possible to understand that, in spite of Wendt, Guzzini focuses his attention on cultural development, human nature characteristics, while dwelling upon identity formation. In order to fulfill the culture, the state should come through several stages, corresponding to lots of factors, and only in this case it is possible to talk about constructive identity formation. Guzzini tried to characterize Wendts synthesis in Social Theory of International Politics with the usage of constructivist theory of identity. Let us show all the interconnections on the figure 1.1. (Guzzini and Leander, 2006)

Copeland (2000) provides his own theory making an emphasis on the fact of different amounts of power and influence. He represents the example where one state is dependant on the other, and in this case it is impossible even to mention about the identity of states (that is Copelands sureness).

Some judgments, provided by more powerful state may create some negative consequences for dependant ones. In this situation dependant country cannot rely on any independent decision, and as a result, no any identity may be provided. Copeland is guarded by present state of affairs, taking into consideration the modern and real understanding of the issues. Copeland (2000) criticizes Wendt, as his theories are not provable, ha states that it is impossible to provide and understand Wendts theories about state identities in the society as his ideas are too identical.

Maja Zehfuss (2001) puts into critique Wendts theory in the question of identity state formation. The main argument which Maja Zehfuss (2001a) puts into her critical issue of Wendts theory is the absence in his theory the level of domestic politics or his commitment to scientific realism (Zehfuss 2001a). She confirms his statement about considering identity as corporate and stable, but at the same time takes notice of some defects in his theory.

To the point, her arguments are not so new, because the same theories were considered by the others theorists and investigators of Wendts theories. Zehfuss (2001a) inclined to think that Wendts theories are more based on positivism; she is sure that he should consider his theories and provide some changes according to her book, Constructivism in International Relations: the Politics of reality. Entering into a controversy with Wendts variant of conceptualization of identity, Zefuss (2001a) is guided by poststructuralist approach that no one identity can be one and the same to itself. In the case of united Germany this, according to Zefuss (2001a), is expressed first of all in simultaneous recognition and negation of Nazi past as the part of modern Germany history.

Ruggie (1998) in his work, relying on Wendts theory, states that social constructivists in international relations have not yet managed to devise a theory of constructive rules, but the phenomenon itself is of central concern of them (p. 23). Ruggi (1998) emphasizes that the question about the primary factor in identity formation of this or that is not answered. A lot of factors, including social, may influence the identity formation of the state. These factors allowed Ruggi (1998) to verify the fact that constructivists have not formed their value theory.

Conclusion

Chekel (2004) is also one of the professors, who criticize Wendts vision of state identity. He fairly notices that shift from identity to interests and concrete political decisions are much worse studied than the very investigation of identity. Chekel (1998) is sure that constructivists need to pay more attention to research design (p. 339). The reason is that much attention is paid to single countries and issues, without using cross-national design. Chekel (1998) also reproaches the admirers of this theory as bad political actions are not noticed by them. While constructing their theories, only good norms are taken into consideration. Constructivists attention is paid to key term definitions.

Their works are fulfilled with different notions and terms but no any definition is given. Chekel (1998) in his work gives the example of word institutionalization, which is mentioned almost in every analysis. Chekel (1998) has noticed that institutionalism and constructivism, in general, similarly identify that institutions have significance in international relations, taking into consideration that they provide their influence on existing processes. Checkel is sure that Wendts theory of constructivist identity needs to be carefully considered as it seems to lack something (Chekel, 1998)

Reference List

Chekel, JT 1998, The Constructivist Turn in International relations Theory, World Politics, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 324-348.

Checkel, JT 2004, Social Constructivism in Global and European Politics: A Review Essay // Review of International Studies, vol. 30, no. 2, p. 230-231.

Copeland, DC 2000, The Constructivist Challenge to Structural Realism: A Review Essay, International Security, Vol. 25, No. 2.

Guzzini, S, & Leander, A 2006, Constructivism and International Relations: Wendt and his critiques, Routledge.

Ruggie, JG 1998a, Constructing the world polity: essays on international institutionalization, Routledge.

Ruggie, JG 1998b, What Makes the World Hang Together? Neo-utilitarianism and the Social Constructivist Challenge // International Organization, vol. 52, no 4.

Zehfuss, M 2001a, Constructivism in international Relations: the Politics of reality, Cambridge University Press.

Zehfuss, M 2001b, Constructivism and Identity: A Dangerous Liaison // European Journal of International Relations, vol. 7, no 3, p. 335.

Introduction

Human service professionals often encounter acts of violence in their daily work. James, Gilliand, and James (2008) have noted that violent behaviors in institutions are mainly precipitated by such elements as gender, mental illness, drug and alcohol abuse, gangs, as well as deinstitutionalization. Increased cases of violence have been linked to a rise in the number of people abusing drugs. Gender stereotypes can also play a role in precipitating violence as some of the social and cultural stereotypes associate males with increased cases of violence, in comparison with females. On the other hand, the elderly are identified as being more vulnerable to violent attacks compared with the youth. The following essay shall examine the precipitating factors of violence as well as the institutional and staff culpability, legal liability, and the nine stages of intervention as discussed by Piercy (1984).

Precipitating Factors

The American Psychological Association published a report in 2000 which critically showed the urgent need for improved clinical education and training in the management of behavioral emergencies in clinical practice (American Psychological Association, 2000). Newly recruited clinicians are at a higher risk of falling victim to cases of violence owing to their inexperience, compared with older therapists who are more experienced. This is because they are not alert and may not identify possible cases immediately.

Some of the psychiatric clinics assign severely sick patients to clinicians who are still undergoing training thereby contributing to the increased susceptibility for attacks by patients. Patients with specific disorders are more prone to attacking their therapists in comparison with the rest of the patients. In addition, patients diagnosed with Schizophrenia and Axis II disorders have been known to be violent towards their therapists. The research conducted before the publishing of the report indicates that violent patients tend to be young and predominantly men. Furthermore, these patients are more aggressive than the female and old male patients.

Therapists are exposed to violent behavior by patients because they do not want to be accused of malpractice. Also, when therapists are attacked by patients, they do not take any measures to defend themselves. This leaves them vulnerable to random attacks by aggressive patients because they know that nothing will be done in self-defense (American Psychological Association, 2000).

Institutional Culpability

The report by the American Psychological Association advises that medical practitioners need to be formally educated and trained to deal with patients violent behavior. This can be done by including behavioral emergencies in their training program. Medical institutions have a role to play in ensuring continuous improvement by organizing post-doctoral workshops and courses to discuss new trends in their field as well as sharing knowledge on the treatment and handling of patients with mental disorders. Psychology graduates and professional programs need to teach skills necessary for handling behavioral emergencies (American Psychological Association, 2000).

Staff Culpability

The therapists and clinicians are advised to learn and observe life-threatening behaviors and know how to handle them professionally. Psychologists are required to perform their duties in a professional manner and must possess sufficient education and training in handling behavioral emergencies. Psychologists are not meant to practice outside their area of competence and if at all they should handle cases that are outside their area, they will require additional skills and competencies to handle them. New staffs with no experience in handling trauma undergo emotional and psychological difficulty and as such, they need to work under supervision in hospitals where such cases exist (American Psychological Association, 2000).

Legal Liability

Legal procedures should be fair to clinicians who have been exposed to violent behavior from patients by allowing them to give their medical opinion and prevent them from being accused falsely without considering their position as caregivers. The legal aspect ensures that the psychiatrists adhere to specified standards of care while managing behavioral emergencies. This means that they can be held liable for malpractice and negligence and legal action can be taken where necessary to punish those who do not adhere to the regulations (American Psychological Association, 2000). The legal discovery process applies to clinicians who choose to divulge patient information to external people as this is considered non ethical. There are cases where violent patients hold institutions and their employees liable for failure of duty of care owed to them. In this case, the patients accuse institutions and their staffs of lack of proper diagnosis and treatment (James, Gilliland & James 2008, pp. 545).

Stages of intervention

There are nine stages of intervention as discussed by Piercy (1984). These are education, avoidance of conflict, appeasement, deflection, time-out, show of force, seclusion, restraints and sedation. In all these stages, personal dignity and responsibility are important. Also, it is important to uphold personal dignity and respect during treatment. It also worth noting that talking to the violent patient is a dominant feature of the first five stages of the intervention as it helps to alter the patients violent status and establish a sense of control (James, Gilliland & James 2008, p. 555).

References

American Psychological Association (2000). Report on education and training in behavioural emergencies. Web.

James, K., Gilliland, B. & James, L. (2008). Crisis Intervention (7th Edition). Stamford, Mass.: Cengage Learning.

Piercy, D. (1984). Violence: The dry and alcohol patient. In J. T. Turner (Ed.), Violence in the medical care setting: A survival guide. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.

Transportation is definitely a critical input in the economic activities of a nation. The choice or portfolio of the different modes of transportation adopted in a country or region is an important determinant of the proportion of the costs of production which go towards the transportation. In cases where this proportion is too high, then the competitiveness of the country in relation to other nations is highly reduced meaning that the country losses out on trade opportunities in the international markets. This paper discusses issues concerning mass transit.

Mass transit is mainly composed of the transportation services available to passengers in a public rather than a private setting. In normal circumstances, passengers will pay a fee for the use of public transportation as opposed to purchasing fuel. This amounts to a form of pooling system where a number of people fund the operations of one carrier. The net effect of this is that the amount used by each passenger is drastically lower than the costs incurred by private means.

Indeed mass transit is a fundamental element of the economy. Big cities have millions of people who have to commute to and from work on a daily basis. The efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the transport mode they use is a big determinant of the wages they receive. If they are not able to report to work due to high flight charges then economic activity will definitely be slowed down. Workers have to get to and from work fast and cheaply, students have to also get to and from school with minimal inconveniences.

The common mass transit vessels used include buses, trains, airplanes and, to lesser extent sea vessels. Buses are a convenient means since they more often follow routes similar to those taken by other private cars. This means they get people closer to their destinations than the train or the airplane thus are more preferred for short distances.

The importance of transportation cannot be over emphasized. Apart from facilitating other economic activities, the transport sector is a significant income generating activity in any economy. In many countries, the transport sector accounts for as much as 10% of the entire economic activity. Income generation means employment opportunities for the people as well as increased tax revenues for the government. This then prompts the need for governments to adopt proper policies and guidelines for the all important sector in a bid to make the economy more efficient (Geist, par4).

The choice of the public transport mode to be adopted by the concerned authorities depends on a number of factors. The first is the cost of developing the infrastructure required. Here, it may be easier to adopt the bus instead of the train due to the infrastructural costs as well as the multiplicity of use of roads as opposed to the rail. However, the bus may not be the best option considering other factors such as congestion. Traffic jams are a common feature of most large cities. This necessitates the development of railway systems as alternatives to the buses. The railway is faster, safer and timelier than the bus. Again, distance is an important consideration in choosing the transport mode. Internal and international flights are a common means of transit between cities which are miles apart. They are fast hence saving valuable time for travelers. The invention of the electric train has also availed a cheaper and reliable method of transportation between cities in the last few decades.

It is however imperative to note that the portfolio chosen is what matters. Combined use of airplanes, trains, buses, and taxis is what defines the efficiency of a transportation system. When one alights from a plane or a train, it is more likely that he/she needs a bus or a taxi to get to the destination. These have to be available at the terminus. Planners hence need to be well informed of the movement of people across the region and their transportation needs in order to develop a plan which ensures that the existing situation improves.

Notably, developing an efficient mass transit system is a costly undertaking. Funding thus becomes an important consideration for the sector. The primary funding party in most countries is the government. Tax revenues and other levies are commonly used to fund such huge infrastructural developments. However, few considerations have been given to partnerships with the private sector where the users are charged and the money used to repay the private developer as well as maintain the infrastructure. This is mainly done in cases where public funds are inadequate to cater for such important developments (General Accounting Office, par4). The feasibility of such an infrastructural development is determined by a cost benefit analysis. The cost is mainly composed of the cost of building the infrastructure. The benefits are in the form of savings accruing from the use of the new infrastructure over the years in the future. The scale of estimated benefits should determine how much funds should be allocated to the infrastructural project (Kiplinger, p12).

Two major concerns in the use of mass transit include security and the rise of modern day contagious pandemics. Security issues are mainly compounded by the terrorism activities around the world (National Center for Transit Research (NCTR), par6). Terrorists mostly target areas with large crowds which is characteristic of any terminus for mass transit. Airplanes and trains are most targeted (Homeland Security, par4). Contagious diseases are also known to spread fast in areas which host a large number of people. Again, the people in the terminus are on transit meaning that they are more likely to spread the diseases to their destinations. A recent outbreak of bird flu was spread across the world in a very short period of time mainly due to air travel (Homeland Security, par6).

Despite the challenges that face mass transit, the benefits which accrue far outweigh the costs. Most importantly, people are able to share costs of travelling a factor which greatly boosts both business as well as social communication. The costs of international flights can hardly be borne by many individuals even in the rich countries. The cost reduction effect ensures that people are able to travel affordably a situation which improves the economic performance of a country. The main constraints to the development of adequate mass transit channels hinged normally hinged on the funding requirements. This thus necessitates the need to depart from the overreliance on tax revenues as the only source of funding. The need to cut transportation costs more often outweigh the costs incurred. Issues of security and contagious diseases are a rare occurrence and even when they occur, there are experts who are able to guide mass transportation to prevent spread.

References

Geist, Rick. Mass Transit through the Eyes of a conservative. Cygnus interactive. 2005. Web.

General Accounting Office. Mass Transit: Bus Rapid Transit shows promise. 2001. Web.

Homeland security. Pandemic Influenza. 2008. Web.

Homeland Security. Transportation Security Administration: Office of intelligence. 2008. Web.

Kiplinger. It pays to ride Public transportation. Kiplingers Personal Financial Magazine. 2009. Web.

National Center for Transit Research (NCTR). Florida Public Transportation: Anti-Terrorism Resource Guide n.d. 2010. Web.

Households and families

Single Parent Families in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, most families are single parents and a significant number of children grow up in a family that does not have both biological fathers. One of the social trends that is alarming is that many families in the United Kingdom are fatherless, a factor that have far reaching effects on the households as well as the children in such a family. This state of affairs can be attributed to such things as divorce and births outside a marriage. There are also the changes in the way people are viewing marriage and cohabitation. It is important to note that the ideals of a marriage are still highly regarded by some people in the United Kingdom and this is why there still exist the traditional families of a father, mother, and children. However, some people feel that the traditional setting of a marriage is a thing of the past and hence are not committed to their families (Ermisch, 239).

This kind of social trend has far reaching effects to the households and families. One of the underlying effects is that families that are fatherless are very prone to poverty. Single mothers in the United Kingdom have been noted to be living in abject poverty compared to other families. Lone mothers also have the tendency to suffer from psychological problems such as stress and depression and may require the services of a psychologist more than other mothers of normal families. Apart from psychological problems, single mothers also are at risk of other health problems and may have problems interacting with their children (Haskey, 47).

The children are also affected by the lack of a father figure in the family. This can be attributed to the fact that a father is very important especially for growing up children. It has been noted that many children who come from a fatherless family also tend to develop psychological problems which can be manifested in their adult life. This can be very destructive to the livelihood of the children. It has been noted that children of fatherless families are more likely to become teenage parents. These children are also likely to be engaged in anti-social behavior which may be harmful to society at large and also to them (Social Trends 32, 49).

Low-Income Families in the United Kingdom

Families in the United Kingdom which are considered to be low-income families are increasing by the day and this has led to the families calling for the government to introduce policies that are viewed as being income incentives to the families. There are various causes of families being categorized as low income and one of the reasons is the fact that the families are suffering. One of the causes has been cited that many families are single-parent families and this has subjected single parents to live in poverty while struggling to raise the children. The most affected are the single parents with the mother as the only parents. This has led to the mothers struggling to raise children while the biological fathers have not been contributing to the families upkeep (Kiernan, 49).

Another cause can be attributed to the fact that the government has not been introducing policies that are deemed to be supportive of single parents. This can be attributed to the government facing economical hardship and have to concentrate on other avenues and this has led to the fact that families are living in poverty. It is also important to note that there exists discrimination in the employment pattern which is against single mothers, and this has led to single parents having more financial problems amid the rising cost of living (Ermisch, 239).

Another cause can be attributed to the rising inequality levels which can be attributed to the government not distributing the countrys resources. The government has concentrated on families that have both biological parents and marginalized single-parent families. There exist a scenario in which the system does not recognize single-parent families and this can be viewed to have escalated to such levels that many single families do not have permanent and well-paying jobs. This has been very hard especially for single families which have the mother as the only parent raising the children.

Another cause is the rising cost of living which has affected all the people in the United Kingdom and also around the world. This is very hard for a single parent who is raising children and has to meet the needs of a family alone. The case can be made worse if the mother is the only parent and she does not have a well-paying job (Social Trends 32, 49).

Marriage and divorce

Marriage in the United Kingdom has been grossly affected by the post-modernism ideology which has undermined the institution of marriage in the country. Many he people view marriage as an arrangement and hence they do not have the commitment that is required in a marriage. It is on this development that many people do not uphold the virtues of the marriage and hence many social problems are associated with families (Haskey, 47).

There is the concept of cohabitation whereby couples live together like a married couple but in the real sense there are not married. This has also played a very important role in undermining the institution of marriage. When people cohabitate, they are engaged in sexual relationships and this leads to the bearing of children. However, these types of relationships are not stable and end being broken after some time. This means that the children will be forced to live in single-parent families. There are increased divorce rates in the United Kingdom and this can be attributed to the fact that many people in the country have not taken the institution of marriage seriously (King, 40).

Effects of the current social trend in the United Kingdom

The current social trends harm society. One of the effects is that the country has witnessed increasing rates of crime and this can be attributed to the fact the family roles of bringing up responsible children have been done away with by many people. This means that the country has increased rates of crime and violence and this can be attributed also to the fact that many families live in poverty and hence the youths in such families will result to criminal activities to earn some form of a living. The law enforcement forces of the country have been overwhelmed by the increasing rate of crime and in turn, they have resulted in using various methods of curbing crime. These methods only help in aggravating the situation and hence crime rates are increasing by the day (Ermisch, 239).

The social trends also have the effect that the country is experiencing decreased community ties which can be seen as a fact that has resulted in many social problems. There is the feeling that everyone has to fend for themselves and this has even escalated to the family levels. By the fact that the families are not working towards providing stable people in the future is a clear indication of how loose the community ties are in the United Kingdom (Social Trends 32, 49).

The family structure of the United Kingdom has been affected that there is a growing culture of divorce. This has been very destructive because the emergence of single-parent families lays a basis by which the children are not growing up to be the model citizens in society. This has been attributed to many factors and one of the most important reasons is the lack of a father figure in many families in the United Kingdom (Haskey, 47).

The state of fatherless-ness has also increased and this can be attributed to the increasing divorce cases and the growing divorce culture in the country. This means that the country has many families that do not have a father figure and this is not because of natural causes like death but due to social trends where the institution of marriage has been greatly undermined (Kiernan, 49).

There is also the increased dependence on state welfare in the United Kingdom and this can be attributed to the fact that many households and families cannot rely on themselves to sustain themselves. This has put on pressure on the government and a special kitty has to be set aside to cater to the problem (Social Trends 32, 49).

Works Cited

Ermisch, J. and Francesconi, M. (2000), The increasing complexity of family relationships: Lifetime experience of lone motherhood and stepfamilies in Great Britain, European Journal of Population 16, pp. 235249.

Haskey, J. (1994), Stepfamilies and stepchildren in Great Britain, Population Trends 76, Office for National Statistics, London: The Stationery Office.

Kiernan, K. (1999), Cohabitation in Western Europe, Population Trends 96, Office for National Statistics, London: The Stationery Office.

King D., Hayden J. and Jackson R. (2000), Population of households in England to 2001, Population Trends 99, pp.1319; and Social Trends 32 (2002), Office for National Statistics, p. 40.

Social Trends 32 (2002), Office for National Statistics, p. 49.

Seeing is a gift given to us by Mother Nature. Seeing is wonderful just because we can do it, can experience it. Healthy people cannot even imagine how it feels to be unable to observe the beauty of the world around us. Visual images are very easy to recognize and percept. But most people believe they are good in perception, while they are wrong. When a conspicuous feature of a visual scene changes we normally notice. However, if that change occurs during a blink or saccade (large eye movement), or at the moment when a mud splash appears or there is a cut in the film, we do not (Blackmore 260).

Change blindness in visual perception is the phenomenon that happens when a person looking at the image when a person viewing a visual scene evidently turns out to be unable to notice large changes in the image. For change blindness to happen, the alteration in the scene usually has to coincide with some visual destruction such as an eye movement or a short obscuring of the scene or image observed by a person. When looking at immovable images, an observer can experience change blindness if even a large part of the image changes. Change blindness can be very tense when changes happen suddenly, and many spectators even did not manage to notice when a person they were talking to was by stealth displaced by another actor during the experiment. There are some slight differences between the problems of change blindness, it depends whether a person does not notice the change of the scene, or an observer does not remember the previous scene and thus, cannot recognize the change.

It might seem to us that we see the visual image of the surroundings sharply focused and in detail, but the experience of minutiae is a deception. According to this theory we do not even realize how things are perceived by people (Noë 53). The sudden information about the change blindness being more pervasive than before might have been enormous to inspire a n interest to the concept of change blindness (Ross 308). Over the next few years, several laboratories independently began to produce evidence for change blindness, both for simple objects and for photographs of natural scenes. Perhaps the most important innovation was the realization that change blindness for natural scenes can occur in the absence of saccades (Ross 309).

I accept Susan Blackmores arguing that while seeing our perception does not build up a detailed representation of the visual world, and that the visual world is all a grand illusion. I believe she is right, because the scenes we see are only images. These images are gathered together by our imagination. Every person perceives the visual scenes in different ways, as everyone possesses different experience, different ways of image perception. One and the same image or scene can be apprehended in diverse ways by different people (observers). Thus, the visual world is full of images comprehended by different individuals in diverse ways. The visual world is all a grand illusion.

Works Cited

Blackmore, J. Susan. Conversations on consciousness: what the best minds think about the brain, free will, and what it means to be human. Oxford University Press US, 2006.

Noë, Alva. Action in perception. Representation and mind. Bradford Books. MIT Press, 2004.

Ross, H. Brian, and David Irwin. Cognitive Vision: Psychology of Learning and Motivation.The Psychology of learning and motivation. Gulf Professional Publishing, 2003.