Category: Socialism

Introduction

Socialism is a broad phenomenon that covers wide array of ideologies and political movements that are intended to bring a socio-economic system where the community possesses the authority to control the property and wealth distribution so that there could be more social cooperation and economic equality (Cole, p316). There are three important characteristics that must possess by a country to prove itself as a socialist country.

First of all its economy must be based on labor theory of value and not on money basis. Secondly the industries must be publicly owned that should not run just for profit and thirdly the decisions must be taken in the country democratically where the people at local and national levels have the opportunity to express them. (Cockshott, 2007)

At present many countries of the world are practicing or striving to adopt socialist ideologies and philosophies within their socio-political system. This dissertation is focused on examining that how three countries including Chile, Cuba and Venezuela have worked out for socialism and what are the consequences of the efforts and measures that have been taken in these countries in the context of socialism.

It is revealed from the review of related literature and historic information that Cuba and Venezuela have successfully and satisfactorily worked out for socialism as compared with Chile. It has been observed that at present the socio-economic systems of Cuba and Venezuela is very much inclined with the ideologies and philosophies of socialism; Chile, on the other hand seems lagging behind in attaining and implementing socialism within the systems of the country (Guzmán, 2007). There are several similarities and dissimilarities in the passages of these countries towards socialism that are discussed and examined in the dissertation to find the evidence about the attainment of socialism by these countries.

Socialism in Chile

Right from the conquest of Chile in 1953-37 and after going through political transformation and invasion in later years, the agriculture sector played a major role in defining the social and economic conditions of the country. The agricultural land always appeared as a major issue for the people of Chile because they faced shortage of land that led to miserable living conditions of the peasants. (Woods, p3) The agricultural land of the country was divided into enormous private estates and there were few landlords that had the control over the major portion of the land.

The few landowners mostly made the use of the land for cattle farming for monetary benefits and hinder the growth of the agriculture sector. The capitalist philosophies always governed the country and the economic life of Chile used to be mainly controlled by the interests of the big landlords, bankers and capitalists. These factors acted as main reasons behind the unsatisfactory position and efforts of the country in attaining socialism.

After the presidency of a socialist ruler Ricardo Lagos the conditions of the country seem to change however there are opponent views about the current situation of the country regarding socialism and development. According to one scold of thought the present situation of Chile indicates the disappointments of the general public with regard to the implementation of socialist ideologies within the social, economic and political systems of the country.

The government and the political parties seem to follow the capitalist policies due to which there is lack of improvement in the condition of the general public. The main problems being faced by the people of Chile are increased inflation, personal debts and low wages of the labor that contributes towards the dissatisfaction in the masses regarding the socio-economic conditions of the country. (Guzmán, p47)

The working condition of the people are generally not shown and discussed in the media and besides the fact that seventy percent of Chile’s workforce is working under uncertain and casual situations, the companies operating in the country concentrate towards outsourcing and won’t care about the negotiations to bring improvement in the working conditions of the country. Moreover there is also political instability in the country that can be witnessed in many of the military coups as well as amendments in the constitution of the country since 1925.

The other school of thought believes that besides the dissatisfaction in masses the regime of Chile’s socialist President Mr. Ricardo Lagos was widely respected in the country because being a believer and followed socialist ideologies, he designed and implemented several socialist policies in the country that were aimed at bringing social equality and security of human rights in the country.

Due to his socialist approach the presidency of Mr. Lagos is regarded as the best presidency of Chile since 1900 (Rohter, n.p) that shows that the people of the country are in great favor of socialism and that want to see the implementation of socialist policies in the country because the implementation of socialism in the country not only accounted to economic growth but also bring poverty reduction in the country. Thus the recent economic conditions of the country show some improvements in terms of budget surplus, record-high prices of copper, increased exports, investment in health, education and housing programs; and fast economic growth. (Rohter, n.p.)

All these steps taken by the government of Chile are considered as important steps towards the adaptation of socialism and all over the world the government of Chile is being regarded for taking the steps that bring socialism in the country. The country has attempted to secure free trade agreements with different countries so that the economic conditions could become better due to free trade, low debts, low taxes and economic expansions. (McMaken, p1).

After facing long period of capitalism the people of Chile are now witnessing the improvement in their conditions. Now Chile has become the fastest growing economy of Latin America and investors from all around the world are now looking towards Chile. The growth rate of the Chilean economy is 7 percent per year moreover the country also enjoys a budget surplus of 2 percent, well supported by sound currency and free business environment. (Rohter, n.p.)

Socialism and Cuba

Cuba got independence from British rule in 1959. The issues of improvement in the field of health, education and housing are among the most important issues for the people of Cuba due to which the people always had apposition for capitalism and landlordism. In Cuba the government of Castro enjoyed great support of people for long time as it expressed to promote democracy in the country. The idea of internationalism was also invoked in the country during the Castro regime. (Gott, p4) Despite all the measures of the government of secure socialism in the country the Cuban people did not get the complete benefits of socialist ideologies. The Castro party always has complete monopoly over the state apparatus and economic policies.

Though they claimed that the party serves the interest of the people especially the workforce, the people of the country use to face bureaucratic control in all the departments and few rights are given to the Cuban workers. Socialism does exist in Cuba in terms of government and its policies but what the people of Cuba got from the socialism is nothing but repression, poverty and enslavement. But despite these realities Cuba is considered as a “beacon and socialist paradise in a hostile sea of capitalism and a progressive model whose policies on education and health care ought to be copied throughout the world” (Gott, p4)

Thus it is revealed that socialism does exists in Cuba and the country has faced numerous ups and downs in securing socialism however the outcome of socialism for the country is long debate that is supported by arguments of both sides who opposed and favored the government policies and strategies. It is a fact that the country has enjoyed some very positive steps that were taken in influence with socialist ideologies like the outlawing of racial discrimination, enacting of land reforms, creating of low-income housing program and free availability of health and education for all of the Cubans.

All these measures are considered positive steps towards gaining socialism in the country and it could be established that Cuba is a socialist country. This fact is well supported by the government policies and strategies discussed above but at the same time it is also a fact that majority of the Cuban led desperate life with an average salary of $US13 ($15.45) per month, that is quite a low figure.

Socialism in Venezuela

Just like Chile and Cuba, the socialism in Venezuela is surrounded by different views. It is observed by the some of the experts that the economy of Venezuela is based on money that is considered as the root cause of all the evil according to the socialist philosophy. The economy is also unplanned and democratic revolution is still incomplete (Cockshott, n.p) however on the other hand it is firmly believed that in the twenty-first century Venezuela has paved the way towards socialism and some effective measures taken by the government like the land reforms and local grassroots workers’ cooperatives have contributed towards building the image of Venezuela as a socialist country.

There in not only rapid growth of the cooperatives but the hundreds of “endogenous nuclei” are also established to work together and cooperate with each other in the process of making products and services for the each other. According to an estimate more then seventy thousand cooperatives are working in the country and the profit of these cooperatives is divided among the workers. The workers also have the right to choose their own supervisor and the health and environmental issues are also addressed and monitored by the representatives of the community. In short the people benefits are secured by these cooperatives and this activity is very much encouraged in the country. (Pecinovsky, p2)

The government is playing a very significant role in the promotion of socialist ideologies. To start the business, people got good support from the government in terms of “start-up capital for the purchase of equipment or office supplies and coordinates technical training, enabling community residents to repair, rebuild and perform other skilled tasks” (Pecinovsky, p2)

The bankrupted and failed companies of the country are nationalized so that the workers can get the opportunities to manage work by their own. More over the promotion of democracy is also an important issue towards which the government of Venezuela is concentrating. Venezuela under the rule of Chavez is attempting to expand trade partnerships with different countries of the world and the relationships with the neighboring countries are also become well due to the policies of the government.

It is believed by many of the experts that the Chavez rule has succeeded in attaining internationalism in the country. The country not only has developed mutually beneficial trade deals with different countries but also used to provide heating oil to poor communities at cheap prices. Thus despite the criticism and negative portrayal of the economic conditions of the country by some of the social scientist it could be established that socialism is very well worked out in Venezuela and the people of the country are enjoying lots of benefits due to socialist ideologies.

Analysis of Socialism in Cuba, Chile and Venezuela

The information about the existence and performance of socialist philosophies in Cuba, Chile and Venezuela unfolded different aspects of the issue and in the light of the above discussion it could be concluded that there are much evidence found about the existence of socialism in Cuba and Venezuela for many years whereas the history of Chile is marked with capitalist approaches and thinking. But the rule of a socialist president in Chile also provided some indications that socialism has some signs present in Chile as well.

It is revealed from the above discussion that there are some similarities as well as dissimilarities in the passages of these countries towards socialism. First of all it is found that Chile remained under the capitalist approach for a long time period and the typical capitalist thinking exists in the economic and political sector of the country, on the other hand Cuba and Venezuela have left behind capitalism for many years and besides all the criticism and controversies, socialism exists in these counties for a long period of time.

It is also found that there are lot of controversies surrounding the issue of socialism and its outcome in these three countries. The discussion shows that in all the three discussed countries, some of the experts view miserable economic conditions whereas some highlighted the flourishing economic growth. For example, Chile that is considered for a long period of time, a capitalist-controlled county is enjoying good economic growth and the economy is the country is the fastest growing economy of Latin America at present.

The credit for this development is given to the socialist president of the country but at the same time it is believed that the people of Chile are still facing poverty, low wages and miserable conditions despite the claims of poverty reduction and availability of good working conditions in the country. These problems could be defended by the fact that for a long time there was control of capitalists and landlords on the economy of the country that’s why despite the good performance of the socialist government; the country is lagging behind in receiving complete advantages of socialism.

On the other hand Cuba claims to attain socialism for a long period of time. The government of Castro enjoyed great support because there were many policies formulated by the government in support of socialism and the people also enjoyed the benefits of these measures, for example the promotion of free trade, good working conditions, internationalism and democracy. But at the same time Cube is being criticized on the basis that the people of the country faced high level of monopoly and leucocratic control in different departments and the soul of socialism is not completely followed in the country.

Venezuela also claimed to be a socialist country possesses some weaknesses and strengths in the context of socialism. The performance and planning of the government of Venezuela are highly appreciated because these are intended to bring cooperation within the workforce for the purpose of their welfare. The government supports very well the business community and in case of stating a new business, the people receive valuable support and assistance from the government. However, the economy of the country is claimed to be based on money and profit-making and there is also need of more work for the promotion of democracy in the country.

Hence it could be concluded that Chile is struggling to become a socialist country whereas Cuba and Venezuela have already achieved this goal but the economic performance of these countries and the condition of general public and workforce has raised many questions regarding the outcome of socialism in these countries.

There are many weaknesses found in all of these three countries with respect to the condition of the workforce and =democracy but a fact could be established in the light of the above discussion that Chile is on its way to attaining socialism that’s why the rate of miserable conditions of the people is higher in the country as compared with Cuba and Venezuela, whereas these two countries are following the socialist ideologies for many years and as a result the people of the country used to enjoy many friendly and constructive policies and strategies of the government.

Work Cited

Alan Woods (1979), “Lessons of Chile 1973”, Spanish Marxist magazine Nuevo Claridad, p1-5, Madrid. Web.

G.D.H. Cole (1965), “History of Socialist Thought, in 7 volumes”, p316, Macmillan and St. Martin’s Press.

Larry Rohter (2006), Chile’s Socialist President Exits Enjoying Wide Respect, The New York time, International news page. Web.

Patricio Guzmán (2007), Chile: a new political landscape, Socialism Today Magazine, p47, Issue 112. Web.

Richard Gott, 2004 Cuba: A New History, p4-6, Yale University Press.

Ryan McMaken (2005), “Chile: Socialism, Dictatorship, and Liberalism”, p1, Ludwig von Mises Institute, West Magnolia Avenue, Auburn, Alabama. Web.

Paul Cockshott (2007) Venezuela and New Socialism. Web.

Tony Pecinovsky (2006), Venezuela’s ‘21st-century socialism’, People’s Weekly World Newspaper, p2.

Introduction

With the current advances in automation of production, it could be said that the “bright future” promised to us by socialist forbearers is now foreseeably closer. The platform of the Technological Socialist party is based on a more modern view of non-market socialism. The main focus of the party is on the provision of industrial automation reform, social programs, and the creation of non-market socialism based on the manufacturing of products through the most efficient automated means, their export to neighboring countries. At the same time, the government will be providing re-education for former industrial workers, and other programs required for the sustainability of the country. Education, health care, and housing would be provided to the people according to their needs. These three elements would be a priority to ensure that the public funds are not wasted on extraneous programs. However, the non-market approach would not imply isolationism as diplomacy would be the cornerstone of foreign policy for Canada (Chattopadhyay, 2016).

Under this regime, people would be free to follow their desired careers. Arts and sciences would be prioritized in education to further increase the technological base of the country and its cultural influence on the world. While it is likely that the transitional period would be difficult for the country, as businesses and industries would have to be majorly restructured, the end result would remove the gap between the poor and the rich, provide everyone with means of survival, and show that when technology may be extremely helpful when it is not used for the exploitation of people. The last two decades have shown how uncontrolled capitalist systems can corrupt government institutions, destroy social programs, and even start profitable but deadly wars across the world. Perhaps it is the time to start focusing on the needs of every person in the country, rather than just a few. This is the goal of the Technological Socialist Party (Chattopadhyay, 2016).

Response to Direct Democracy

Studies have shown that a complete focus on democracy can create a larger presence of corruption in the system. This is due to the higher power that wealthy people have in controlling the messages that the general public receives. It is possible that if the GDP per capita hits a certain level, direct democracy may be able to represent a large portion of the population. However, it is unlikely that in the current state of economy and GDP a complete focus on democracy would truly be representative of people’s needs and desires. It is also dangerous to rely on the opinions of uninformed citizens as they may lead to the creation of policies based on public opinion rather than evidence and fact. Currently, it is unreasonable to assume that every voting person in the country would be able to make an informed and beneficial decision on the foreign policy of Canada, economic reform, or social programs. It would also be difficult to represent minority groups such as the native populations in a system that only caters to the opinion of the majority. The difference of opinion in the country may also lead to further unrest if uninformed policies begin to negatively affect the livelihood of citizens (Jetter, Agudelo, & Hassan, 2015).

References

Chattopadhyay, P. (2016). Marx’s associated mode of production: A critique of Marxism. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Jetter, M., Agudelo, A. M., & Hassan, A. R. (2015). The effect of democracy on corruption: Income is key. World Development, 74(10), 286–304.

Introduction

Socialism, also known as communism, is an economic system that involves collective wealth. This simply means that there is social ownership of everything present. This differs from capitalism, which is an economic system that encourages the accumulation of individual wealth.

Many countries today practice capitalism. China is one of the countries that are associated with socialism. This means that whereas the rest of the world encourages individuals to make money for themselves, China encourages its citizens to create mass wealth in order to benefit everyone in the society.

There are various aspects that one has to consider when talking about socialism. Some of these aspects include the rule of law, democracy, and human rights. It is relevant to discuss the three aspects because they affect the whole society. It is important to note that what might be a human right in a capitalistic world might not be a human right in a socialistic world (Gore 1999).

Socialism and democracy in China

Democracy can be defined as a concept that gives the citizens of a given country the power to rule themselves. One of the most common definitions of democracy is that it is ‘a government of the people, by the people, and for the people’. From this definition, one can identify that democracy involves people choosing their own leaders. The definition gives the notion of a number of leaders from which the people can choose from.

Democracy has been mainly associated with the capitalist world. It is, therefore, very hard to have democracy in a socialist state like China. One of the things that make it difficult to have democracy in China is the lack of multipartyism.

Multipartyism is the idea of having several political parties in one country and all of them have a right to vie for public office. This means that there is only one political party in China. The people do not have options when it comes to choosing their leaders because they all come from one communist party (Brodsgaard & Yongniana 2006).

There are scholars who argue that there is some form of democracy in China. Yu (2009) argues that the Qing dynasty of China had some form of democracy. This can be proven by the writings of Liang Qichao who was an activist in the late 1890’s.

Qichao was among the first Chinese people to request for more citizen participation in the activities of the government. What is interesting to note is that even though Liang wanted democracy, he wanted to change China into a democratic constitutional monarch and not a democratic constitutional state.

This meant that even though China would be a democracy and get a constitution, it would still be under one ruler or one family (Shapiro 2001).

Yu (2009) explains that Liang’s ideas were, however, rejected by a doctor named Sun Yat-Sen who claimed that the Qing monarchy had to be removed for there to be a democracy.

Dr. Yat-Sen was of the idea that democracy meant the freedom of the will for the citizens to not only choose the leader they wanted, but also for them to be able to remove the leader who did not perform accordingly. This would have been impossible to achieve with a monarch in control of the government.

Up to date, there is still a lot of debate on whether China has some form of democracy or not. Pils (2006) argues that China has always been fighting the western culture and the capitalist system is part of the western culture.

There are various politicians, scholars, and other professionals in China who believe that there is no form of democracy in China because it is a socialist state. This group of individuals has had various debates on how to change the communist system in China into a more favoured capitalist system. So far, nothing has been done yet.

Pan (2003) argues that there is no room for democracy in the contemporary Chinese culture. He explains that China has always been competitive even with the communist economy.

At the moment, China has among the biggest and strongest economies in the world. He explains that the Chinese would have to rub off their culture completely for democracy to work. The other option is to keep their culture, practice communism, and forget about democracy.

One of the things that have apparently aided China in keeping such a large economy while practicing socialism at the same time is the culture. One of the main aspects of communism is social harmony.

This is also a big part of the Chinese Confucian tradition. It, therefore, acts as a motivation to both the government and the people of China (Harrell 1995). The Chinese believe that having many political candidates to choose from can create disharmony in the society.

Another aspect of socialism that goes hand in hand with the Chinese Confucian traditions is serving the common good and not just the majority. This is probably one of the most misunderstood concepts of socialism. Many scholars are of the idea that socialism works for the majority, unlike capitalism that works for the minority.

The scholars believe that capitalism will satisfy the minority rich, while communism will satisfy the majority poor (Harrell 1995). However, looking at the economic system of China, one will notice that the country still has poor people. This can be attributed to the fact that the economic system they have in place serves the greater good and not just the majority poor.

Socialism and human rights in China

Another aspect of socialism that has been debated with regard to China is the issue of human rights. According to Waterfield (2008), there is no possible way of combining human rights with communism. He argues that the human rights were written by states that do not practice communism.

However, this does not mean that there are no human rights in China. There have been a lot of disputes over the years about the extent to which socialism protects the rights of an individual (Waterfield 2008)

China and her supporters have argued that their laws and cultures are strong enough to protect an individual without adding the human rights that are stipulated in the UN Human Rights Charter. According to a report from the United Nations, in the year 2012, there were twelve requests from different states that asked for the UN’s official visit to China to settle the issue of human rights.

The Chinese government, however, claimed that it is such intrusions that create disorder. This was an indication that the international community did not follow their Human Rights policies. This, however, did not stop other international bodies from accusing China of violating basic Human Rights due to constrictions of culture and socialism.

China is accused of restricting speech. Movement of individuals is also restrained by the government. Chinese also enjoy less freedom of religion and worship. China has, however, stood its ground and explained that it has its own set of human rights that might not be similar to those in the UN Charter.

The government of this communist state has explained that the state is improving some of the rights that its people have and that national culture is a big part of these rights.

In the constitution of China, the “Four Cardinal Principles” have been presented as the country’s form of citizenship rights. The government has a right to arrest any person who violates these principles. The fact that the government is the only body responsible for determining whether a person has violated these four principles or not is a violation of the Human Rights that are indicated in the UN Human Rights Charter.

One aspect that many Human Rights activists are against in the Chinese constitution is the death penalty. Many other countries have done away with the death penalty and replaced it with life imprisonment.

Other policies that violate the global Human Rights include the One Child Policy in Tibet (Cooke 2003), the lack of freedom of the press in the Mainland, the lack of freedom of movement, lack of an independent judiciary, lack of labourers’ rights, and lack of the rule of law (Perry & Seldon 2003).

The lack of freedom of the press has also been hotly debated over the years. The press is controlled by the authorities in the Communist Party, thus there are some pieces of information that are either manipulated or left out to protect the image of the Communist Party (Dutton 2000). Efforts by global bodies to push China to give the freedom of media have not been successful.

The freedom of movement is one of the most important human rights in the UN Human Right Charter. However, this freedom is not acknowledged in the communist state of China. In the late 1950’s the then leader of China, Mao, restricted the citizens so much that he dictated the places where people would work. This restriction on movement has not changed much since then.

In terms of labour, people are known as either rural or urban workers. If a rural worker, for example, moved to the urban areas without permission, they would not have rights to some necessary provisions like health care and proper housing.

The citizens have to get permission to move from one place to another. Failure to get this required permission before moving from one place to another has serious repercussions (Department of State 2008)

The One Child Policy is probably the most common policy in China. The government, especially with regard to Tibet, has a restriction on the number of children an individual can have. The government has argued that denying these people the right to have more than one child is relevant in controlling the population growth.

Those that do not abide by this policy get fined and, in severe cases, the extra children are taken by the government. The international community has argued that this one child policy has led to an increase in forced abortions, sex selective abortions, female infanticide, and gender imbalance in the whole of China (Blanchard 2007).

All these contribute to the violation of Human Rights, according to the UN Human Rights Charter (United Nations News Centre 2013)

Socialism and the rule of law in China

The rule of law can be defined as the impact or the influence of the law in a given society. Every democratic state in the world has the rule of law. Going with this statement, it is true that China has no rule of law, due to the fact that it has no democracy. The rule of law entails good behaviour of all those who have political power. In a communist state like China, there is nobody to keep an eye on the behaviour of the government.

The rule of law also seeks to make everyone equal by ensuring that no one is above the law. Despite the fact that many presidents seem to be above the law, it is no hidden fact that the president is above the law in China. This gives the president so much power that he can do anything he desires without the restrictions of the law (Peerenboom 2002).

The Chinese law uses the Chinese Confucian tradition as its foundation. Some of the traditional aspects of the Chinese law have been reviewed due to the influence of other cultures, industrialization, and modernity.

Even though many countries and leaders disregard the rule of law, the Chinese government has been under the keen observation on its stand on the rule of law. This might be due to the fact that the country does not appreciate the Human Rights that are set out in the UN Human Rights Charter (Li 2000).

Over the years, the Chinese law has adapted both Confucianism and legalism, which make it more complex. Confucianism is the idea that everyone is good, thus everything that they do is good. However, this idea has several shortcomings. It can be argued that the Chinese realized these shortcomings and decided to combine Confucianism with legalism.

Legalism is the idea of having rules and laws that govern the behaviour of individuals. It also includes punishments for all the people who violate the rules. According to the Chinese political culture at the moment, the combination of the two ideas has led to a very powerful president.

The president is the one who makes the rules that govern the people. He is also the one who decides on the punishments for violating the rules that he made. The president is above the law because he is one who makes the laws and stipulates their corresponding punishments. This goes against the rule of law (Winter, Teo & Chang 2008).

Conclusion

In conclusion, socialism is mainly associated with China. This is why many of the characteristics of the state of China are perceived as the characteristics of a communist state. From the discussion, the People’s Republic of China does not encourage human rights.

The party also prohibits democracy and it does not have the rule of law. This means a communist state is one that does not have democracy, does not encourage human rights, and does not have the rule of law. Although many countries also violate human rights and the rule of law, the fact that China has refused to accept these two concepts is what makes it a communist state.

Reference List

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Brodsgaard, EK & Yongniana, Z 2006, The chinese communist party in reform, Routledge, New York, NY

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Introduction

Economic and social problems are the causes of public unrest in Venezuela. The social problems stem from historical struggles among the poor to fit into the society in a bid to afford basic commodities.

Power struggles and inequality perpetuate into modern society because of the affluent, and powerful people enjoy more privileges than the poor and the powerless individuals. According to McCarthy, gender and racial inequalities coupled with economic and social classes, continue to perpetuate modern society because they have adopted novel modernizations (9). The existence of inequalities plunges people into poverty and triggers demonstrations and protests.

Protesters point to the fact that the government has failed to deal with economic issues such as inflation and the rising crime rates. Poverty, inequality, marginalization, and discrimination are socioeconomic issues that people are facing in Venezuela (McCarthy 7).

Overall, high inflation rates, gender violence, crime, and shortage of resources affect the population, irrespective of political loyalty or class. Therefore, this essay argues that the Venezuelan government should enhance democracy, food security, promote freedom of expression, and support gender equality because they are fundamental human rights.

Democracy

Formally known as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Venezuela is located in South America and shares its borders with Guyana and Colombia. The discovery of oil in the early part of the 20th century made Venezuela among the major exporters of oil in Latin America. Through the discovery of oil, Venezuela experienced a robust economic growth from the late 1920s to the 1970s, when Venezuela transformed into a modernized state in Latin America.

In 1958 Venezuela became a democratic state and was ruled by an elite pact (Albo 290). The pact protected the interests of major political parties and social groups such as the armed forces, business people, the church, and organized labor groups. As the economy grew, so did corruption and poor leadership emerged.

During the late 20th century, the Venezuelans government formulated a robust economic plan, which allowed massive investment in sectors such as health, water, and education. In the early 1980s, there was a decrease in the world’s oil prices that shook the Venezuelan economy and increased its foreign debt. Riddel argues that although Bolivarianism transformed Venezuela because it emancipated citizens, when President Luis Herera’s enter into power in 1983, he reversed the achievements of Bolivarianism (3).

In 1989 after Carlos Pérez was inaugurated, he announced an International Monetary Fund- assisted program, which sparked riots all over Venezuela, forcing the government to use the military force. The following year, President Pérez was impeached on corruption charges.

In the successive administrations, Ramon Velasquez (1993-1994) and Rafael Caldera (1994-1999) removed the adjustment package (Albo 21). After his election in 1998, Hugo Chávez wrote a new constitution and implemented social reforms to help the poor. President Chávez died in early march 2013 and Nicolas Maduro his Vice President replaced him as President after winning the elections in April.

The Right to Food

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) identifies food as a basic human right that people should access irrespective of the social, economic, or political classes.

Two international Covenants codify the UDHR’s declared ideals into international law; these are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The provisions of the ICCPR and ICESCR are in tandem with the provisions of the UDHR in supporting a society that is free from hunger. As Venezuela ratified both Covenants in 1978, it is thus bound by the treaty to respect the right to food.

The government should protect, respect, and fulfill the right to food, as they enhance human dignity in the face of hunger (Alston and Eide 256). When Hugo Chavez became President in 1999, he introduced price controls on basic commodities to make them affordable to the poor. A feeding program for school children was also introduced.

Owing to food shortage, Venezuela decided to provide foodstuff in 2006 at subsidized prices by about 40% (Alston and Eide 8). However the controls destabilized the marketplace, and this led to food shortages due to a decrease in production. Another effect of the food price control is that business people either hoarded or sold price-controlled foodstuffs in the black market at unusually high prices.

Freedom of Expression

The 19th article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees that “everyone has a right to freedom of opinion and expression; this includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive, impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers” (Albo 32).

Moreover, the Venezuelan constitution establishes that “everyone has a right to timely, truthful and impartial information without censorship, as well as the right to reply and to demand a correction when they see themselves directly affected by inexact or defamatory information” (Howard-Hansmann 23). In this view, social unrest in Caracas, Venezuela, is as a result of political demands, including calls for freedom of expression.

In October 2013, the National Telecommunications Commission, the state media regulator imposed a larger fine on Globovision for violating the Law on Social Accountability in Radio, Television, and Electronic Media (Howard-Hansmann 10). The government has been accused of bringing down several websites and blocking social media applications by the state-owned Internet operator. The government also monitors emails and web searches.

Venezuela has a little supply of newspapers because printing materials are limited. Privately owned stations practice self-censorship in transmitting information so that the government might not incriminate them because freedom of expression is limited. Thus, the government should promote freedom of expression within its jurisdiction.

Gender Equality

In 1960, the Venezuelan constitution declared men and women are legally equal. Before the early 1980s, the government did not allow both married and cohabiting women to own property, authorize official documents, or make independent decisions about parenting without seeking approval of their spouses (Riddel 5).

The Chávez administration was more receptive to women than previous regimes because the economic growth created jobs for women. However, the law protecting women against gender-based violence is not effective since the judicial system is yet to implement it. Therefore, the Venezuelan government should formulate appropriate legislations that recognize women as marginalized groups and provide affirmative action so that women can overcome the issue of gender inequality.

Conclusion

Examination of violations of human rights such as democracy, right to food, freedom of expression, and gender equality requires the attention of the international community. Democracy is essential in Venezuela because it forms the basis of social, economic, and political reforms. Since a compromise of freedom of press, speech, and Internet stifles a country’s growth, it has no place in a truly democratic society.

Compromised freedom of expression promotes dictatorship, encourages ignorance, and prevents the free flow of information and creativity. Food security is also a pertinent human right that the Venezuelan government needs to re-examine and improve.

Although there have been significant improvements in the lives of ordinary women, the Venezuelan government needs to eliminate gender inequality. Moreover, the Venezuelan government needs to support gender equality and formulate legislations that deal with gender-based violence and have them implemented effectively.

Works Cited

Albo, George. The Unexpected Revolution. Chicago: Chicago Press, 2006. Print.

Alston, Philip, and Asbjorn Eide. Advancing the Right to Food in International Law. Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2012.Print

Howard-Hansann, Rhoda. The Right to Food under Hugo Chávez. Ontario: Charlton Press, 2014. Print.

McCarthy, Philip. Integrated Perspectives in Global Studies. Santa Barbara: Cognella, 2010. Print.

Riddel, John. Venezuela and the International Struggle for Socialism. Ontario: South Branch Publications, 2008, Print.

Introduction

Due to the dynamic nature of contemporary lifestyles, there has been an increasing need for governments and voluntary organizations to promote socialist programs which are aimed at providing financial support and care to the less fortunate in the society. However, pressures to reduce size of government and expand the private sector coupled with the need to use national resources efficiently have necessitated governments to reconsider their expenditure on social welfare.

Increased public concerns regarding the tax burden and the ongoing debate on privatization of socialist programs has prompted the government of United States to be more careful in addressing issues of social policy by ensuring that the funded interventions meet their intended objective.

The socialist programs debate present Americans with a cruel dilemma; while some of the people acknowledge that they are likely to confront hazards such as illness or aging in the course of their lives which private personal resources will be inadequate to facilitate, a significant proportion of the population feels that the American values of hard work, individualism and self reliance should dominate every aspect of life which undermines the legitimacy of the socialist programs (Lockhart 1).

The debate on US social policy has been ongoing for years with numerous criticisms being raised on the effectiveness of these programs, its impact on those being supported, and the burden that they impose on US tax payers.

This has attracted the attention of numerous researchers and scholars some of whom argue that the social programs developed in the 60s and 70s not only serve to improve the living standards of the needy Americans, but also provides substantial incentives for recipients to work hard or otherwise act responsibly in order to improve their living condition.

However, the destructive consequences of increasing government spending on socialist programs cannot be understated. The current unregulated spending on government socialist programs poses a major threat on the free market economy and significantly restricts the rights of individuals and private sector corporations. In addition, it has created enormous national debt and negates the values of United States constitution (Lockhart 1).

Literature Review

Today, the socialist programs have been the center of most political and public debate and have attracted attention from most scholars, researchers and political analyst. According to Joseph S. Hacker, the issue of socialist policies has faced numerous challenges in the recent past due to the increasing economic shocks and political opposition. In Hacker’s views, the government further complicates the situation by apportioning a high percentage of the role to the private sector.

This is because the private sector aims at cutting cost in order to promote profitability rather that delivering social welfare to American society (Hacker 6). Consequently, coverage under workplace plans has significantly reduced and the benefits provided by the sector only serve to promote further economic inequality. In addition, benefits recipients under private sector have to incur more restrictions and risks from the benefit covers provided by these institutions (Hacker 6).

Elizabeth Segal criticizes the capitalistic nature of societies claiming that it alienates those members of the society who are unable to work due to illness, physical injury, old age etc. In addition, the writer infers that the system does not provide sufficient resources for people excluded in the market exchange of salary.

Since the US operates under a capitalist society, is seeks to maintain the social well being of its less fortunate members through adoption of socialist programs. In Segal’s views, social welfare efforts being undertaken in America are a reflection of the values of worth, desirability and usefulness being placed on the less fortunate members of the society (Segal 72). However, the writer acknowledges that these values and beliefs are subject to change which has resulted in varying perceptions on the issue of socialist programs.

William Epstein suggests that the only means through which the government can solve social issues is through actual identification of problem and implementation of the policies within the customary social arrangements.

According to him, efficient solutions to problems facing contemporary America have been rarely effective with the true outcomes of the government efforts in resolving social needs being routinely distorted by pseudoscientific claims of effectiveness. Consequently, the country is not likely to effectively handle the social needs through expansion of socialist programs.

Impact of US Socialist Programs on the Economy

A healthy free market economy is in no way compatible with strong social programs. Social expenditure in the United States includes medical care, education pensions, welfare payments, unemployment benefits and family benefits.

A study conducted on the impacts of prospective demographic trends on the level and structure of social expenditure by government of seven major economies through 2025 revealed that in the United States, the ratio of government expenditure to GDP was 18% in 1980 and was expected to decline through the year 2010 (Heller 9).

Due to the high probability of sharp increment in aging population and deteriorating health conditions in the subsequent years, the social expenditure was projected to increase in the years after 2010 consequently impacting on overall allocation of resources.

According to this study, the overall US government social expenditure was expected to slightly decline in the years preceding 2010 with much of the decline being reflected in education expenditure which was expected to drop by 20% (Heller 9). In addition, the pension expenditure ratio was expected to decline while the medical care plan was expected to increase.

The social expenditure was further expected to grow in the years between 2010 and 2025 by 20 % (3% of GDP) with much of the resources being allocated to medical care and elderly support (Heller 9).

This unregulated spending on socialist programs has had a major impact on the overall national debt which now stands over US $ 14 trillion. Approximately two thirds of the US national debt is owed to the private sector and foreign governments who purchased the country’s bonds and treasury bills while the rest is owed to the government itself.

A significant portion of the debt is owed to the social security fund which was previously in surplus and will have to be paid over the next few years in order to pay the retiring American workforce.

In addition to overburdening the American taxpayers, the government has already spent the money borrowed from the social security fund and the national debt threatens to continue accumulating.

This means that it will have to devise other means of servicing the debt. Since the government of United States discourages loans from foreign countries, the only means through which it can repay the money will be by imposing higher taxes to the American tax payers. This will in turn result in decreased per capita income of the working class hence impacting on their livelihood.

United States Socialist Programs and the Private Sector

Due to the increment in the amount of resources required to fund the socialist programmes, the government of United States have sought to outsource the program to the private sector, a move that has faced a lot of criticism especially from liberalists.

In response to this, President Obama’s has proposed the use of social impact bonds to fund the socialist programs whereby investors in the private sector fund the programs through purchase of government bonds; the government pays the private sector both return on investment and bonuses on condition that they meet the objectives of the program.

This strategy is expected to enhance discipline in the private sector hence significantly improving the effectiveness of the socialist programs. However, the policy does not adequately regulate the admission of socialist programs within these institutions which results in continuous exploitation and misappropriation of taxpayer’s money.

The private welfare state is extensive in America and no other industrialized country spends as much as United States spends on social benefits administered through the private sector. Over 80 million Americans are covered by the public health insurance while more than 170 million access health insurance through their employment. The amount of private social benefits amounted to $ 460 in the year 2000 hence the country’s population relies heavily on private fund for welfare protection (Hasenfeld 72).

The private sector contributes to the national welfare through provision of employment benefits, health insurance, and pensions which contribute to a significant proportion of the total country’s socialist programs expenditure. These benefits are employment based and consequently favor workers in the economy in terms of tax subsidies and benefits.

However, these benefits have been declining with the long term decline in worker’s unions, low wages and unemployment which has been widespread in the American economy due to occurrence of financial crisis which further threatened the security of pensions and health benefits. Consequently, the private sector is not adequately equipped to provide social welfare to the needy citizens of America and the continuing attempts by the government to outsource the role to the private sector does not add any value to tax payer’s money.

Social Policy and the Constitution

The constitution of United States does not contain any definitive statements relating to the right to work, choice of employment and protection against unemployment (Wronka 233). Further no state guarantees its occupants the right to food, housing, medical care and other social services on the event of unemployment, sickness, disability or old age.

Consequently investing heavily on socialist programs is not supported by any fundamental principles of the United States constitution. Indeed, the government’s attempt to incorporate the human rights principles of the declaration in the constitution is not possible unless public sentiments are favorable to the idea.

However, proponents of the socialist programs claim that Article 1 sec 8 of the United States constitution awards power to the congress to collect taxes, duties and other excises from the citizen in order to finance common defense and general welfare of the United States. The government of United States has used this revenue to fund social programs ranging from disability to unemployment.

They further claim that the same tax payers are qualified to social security on the virtue of their contribution during the working period. This may not be necessarily true. For instance, Medicare, a program funded through worker taxation is used to support health care among elderly aged above sixty five and individuals suffering from disabilities.

The constitution of United States further delegates the power not granted to the federal government to the states in its eleventh amendment. Consequently the role of promoting socialists programs in the country has been placed on the state government which gains financial support from the federal government

Social and Political Impacts of Socialist Programs

Provision of social support to the less fortunate in America implies that the impoverished citizens bear little if any responsibility for their predicaments which negates the American culture which emphasizes on equal opportunity and human dignity achieved through hard work and self reliance. This may serve to promote laziness among the needy population hence limiting their efforts to improve their conditions. Consequently, a huge proportion of the country’s population is less supportive of the socialist programs

In an attempt to identify the volume of support for major socialist programs in the United States, Lomax carried out an interview on a population sample of 1209 Americans and a sample of 58 members of the US House of Representatives. The researcher sought to find out the extent to which the current social welfare was supported by the public (Lomax 3). The study revealed that there exist a lot of mixed emotions regarding the policies with tax payers complaining bitterly of the burden being imposed on them.

The 112^th congress is faced by a major challenge of servicing the $ 1.5 trillion budget deficit. Both democrats and republicans are concerned about the impacts of the budget deficit on the overall national economic conditions, eligibility to foreign funding, and continued financial viability. This calls for the need on the government to establish a means of cutting back on the budget without causing adverse effects on people’s welfare.

The republicans have extensively fought for the elimination of some of the social welfare programs as a strategy to cut down on expenditure including the Hope IV program and legal services aimed at helping families to avoid foreclosure. In addition, they are pushing for privatization of social security and Medicare. These cuts are argued to have a greater impact on the poor and struggling middle class who will in turn continuously deny Americans a chance to build wealth and improve their living standards.

The fiscal policies being applied by the democratic government focuses on tax cuts to the wealthy with the recently passed twenty five billion tax cut on estate taxes and income taxes of the richest Americans becoming a major area of government focus. The major question remains as to why the government fails to apply the same strategy to the two billion dollars budget being spent per week to finance troops in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Conclusion

The socialist programs play an important role in promoting welfare within the American society. However, the program is associated with numerous negative consequences which put its effectiveness in question. It is evident from the study that the socialist programs have negatively impacted on the social, political and economic aspects of the economy.

In addition, the move by the government to privatize the social welfare programs has only served to intensify the negative impacts. Therefore, the government should look into other ways of promoting social welfare in the society rather than investing heavily on socialist programs that do not guarantee maximum returns.

Works Cited

Cook L. Fay. Support for the American welfare state: the views of the congress and the public. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.

Hacker S. Jacob. The Divided Welfare State: The Battle Over Public And Private Social Benefits In The United States. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Hasenfeld, Yeheskel. Human Service as Complex Organizations. California: SAGE, 2009.

Heller S. Peter. Aging and Social Expenditure in the Major Industrial Countries, 1980-2025. Washington DC: International Monetary Fund, 1986.

Lockhart, Charles. Gaining Ground: Tailoring Social Programs to American Values. Berkley: University of California Press, 1989.

Wronka, Joseph. Human Rights and Social Policy in the 21^st Century. Maryland: University press of America, 1998.

Segal, Elizabeth. Social welfare policy and social programs: a values perspective, NY: Cengage learning, 2009.

Ahead of its birth in 1949, China had inadequate systems of production and under-developed manufacturing industry. In 1970’s, the planned economic scheme started to prove its limitations. They resorted to focus on the central mission of economic expansion through opening up the economy to the external world and introducing reforms of the economic system.

In 1978 Deng Xiaoping established a chain of economic transformations, described as “social market reforms”. Some of the questions in this context is how did the development of socialism policy impact China government. Scholars such as Horesh (40) claim that China’s economy, ahead of socialism reforms, suffered from an antagonistic international society, faults of the planned economic scheme, which changed after the reforms.

However, this thesis answers the question as follows: The adoption of the social market economy brought rapid economic expansion in China in the form of technological advancement and rise in foreign capital, since international firms augmented their investments in the nation.

The change after the introduction of the policy of socialism market economy, in China, helps us perceive the role that different government policies can have on a country’s economy. Particularly, we can trace the development of foreign capital and technological advancement in China. Socialism market economy brought about a noticeable difference in China’s economy (Alon 70).

The impacts of modernization in china is largely attributed to the emergence of socialism before the reform and as well as opening-up policy in the year spanning from 1949 to 1979. Prior to its rebirth in 1949, despite the government’s lack of a defined blueprint coupled with initial elevated boom-bust cycle a lot can be learned from this country. China’s production systems were inadequate as well as under-developed manufacture industries.

Its shift in economic strength took a new direction upon the realization that a strong foundation on planned economic strides was long overdue. She therefore built a planned economic stride to act as a crucial segment in centralization of distributing the rare resources for the country’s economy revolution. Since the scarcity of resources inhibited economic development, China survived with deficiency for a long phase, ahead of the reform.

The case of Chinese is unique in many aspects. This makes it hard to equally replicate what was witnessed in any setting. Her initial predicaments are largely seen as catalyst towards what it is today. More so it showcases an experimental, evolutionary as well as a bottom up approach. Despite all the factors that contributed in one way or the other to its eventual achievements there are other numerous factors that made it hard for the attainment of what is there today.

Some of these hindrances are the planned economic scheme itself (Alon 70). Others are opposition from conservative party. This revolution took several phases under a number of leaders. Gradual evolution took place despite resistance and opposition from anti reformists de factor leaders. Commencement of economic reforms started with Deng Xiaoping and his reformist allies ousted the going of four Maoist faction (Wakeman 126).

In the first phase of industrialization, centralized distribution assured the financing of several chief industrial schemes at both rural and urban settings. When Deng took over the leadership he knew the first step in moving ahead was to increase food production. Most of these reforms targeted areas that were initially neglected by the communist party.

These includes the agricultural reforms, de-collectivization of agricultural systems and a keen emphasis on responsibility system in household system played a significant role in championing these key developmental aspects. The catalyst for increased food production was largely attributed to the great leap forward famine in late 1950s. Hence, there was noteworthy enhancement in China’s technological competence level, in the late 1960’s (Alas and Wei 298).

Some of the aftermaths that evolved with post Maoist includes increased agricultural productivity; this increased the living standards of both the rural and urban industries. Citizens developed the desire to avoid shortages witnessed during the era of Maoist.

Rapid expansion was largely because of adoption of social market economic. This opened up new avenues for all the people to adapt and conform to the new trends. This kind of approach made it possible for the entire country embrace a culture of hard work and being independent so as to achieve the common goal.

Socialist economic market supported development of other forms of ownership like independently owned businesses. People were allowed for the first time to own their own business amongst other privately owned schemes like individual companies and foreign capital investment was also put forth and its implementation made it pivotal to bring in changes. This organizational innovation stimulated the efficiency of industrial workers and farmers, thus enhancing the country’s resource distribution.

Demonstration of socialist market economic system in China is also attributed to the state of technology it has in place. This played a role especially initially and after the reform. The planned economy did not have the inducement to establish advanced technologies, enhance eminence, or boost factor productivity.

Agrarian revolution largely depended on this. It scaled up the productivity and involvement of the people in food production. Industrial output went up. Even though there was a notion that a segment of elite and rich people benefited a lot at the expense of the majority under the leadership of Xiaoping the overall effect was positive as opposed to what was prior on during communist party.

On the other hand, socialist market economic system encouraged the efficiency of industrial workers, thus enhancing the nation’s technological competence (Chen 54). This catalyzed the entire community to get involved in one way or the other to achieve the set goal. Hence, socialism policies in China government saw the advancement of technology, which had failed during the era of planned economy, due to poor investment atmosphere that hindered foreign investors’ involvement. A change in these policies made it possible for the country to make tangible strides towards realization of what it has achieved so far. These changes after the introduction of the policy of socialism market economy, in China, is noteworthy as it helps in perceiving the role that different government policies can have on a country’s economy. Particularly, one can trace the development of foreign capital and technological advancement in China. Socialism market economy brought about a noticeable difference in China’s economy. These transformation spans a wide extension from rural and urban agrarian, flexibility in pricing policies, allowing the operation of private businesses as well as expansion of service sectors (Wakeman 109).

Socialism with Chinese characteristics combined with the facts related to building socialism is considered unique to china in many ways, scientific socialism, socialism essential feature and common role of practice. The planned economy became lethargic to fine-tune of the swift economical expansions that had vastly augmented the levels of planned economic complexities.

Besides, the dent to the economic system fashioned by the Cultural Revolutions positioned the technological competence level of China on a constant downhill trend. One of the characteristics of Chinese economy is the boom-bust cycle which is a result of institutional incompatibility arising from piecemeal and partial approach to reform.

The emergence of socialism however, had some detrimental effects on the people’s motivation because the deficiency of information and motivation to direct the government’s economic policies became a limiting force. Cultural Revolution took policy-formulators in China to complete awareness of the economical and political faults committed previously.

They resorted to focus on the central mission of economic expansion through opening up the economy to the external world and introducing reforms of the economic system. Other limitations included inefficiencies that were largely attributed to leadership incapability’s. Mal-investments also did more harm than good in stagnating developmental processes. These were some of the reasons that made the CPC to adopt a leadership trend of market oriented reform in an attempt of salvaging the failed economic status quo.

After the reform and opening up policy from 1979 to present date, china started pecuniary restructurings. The adoption of fundamental Marxism principles by the China Community party is largely linked to what is currently in place. The party ensured economic segments were realized on the basis of people’s desire to embrace hard work and wealth acquisition.

A rise in capital from the foreign countries for the first time had a significant contribution in this goal because businesses opening up rose sharply and accommodated most of the limitations that had ensued prior to this devolution. The key driver to this was the intensive labor industries.

The industry provided most workers with jobs. This became a catalyst to drive people in attaining what she has instituted. Apparently, the centralized, egalitarian employment and allocation schemes, served as poor stimulants of employee motivation. What socialism did was to instill a socialist economic market that supported development of other forms of ownerships that made it possible for the Chinese to attain great strides in economic strengths (Lin et al. 1).

China community party responded to a sequence of key questions in regards to china’s own socialism path. The effectively and efficiently of this approach is largely tied to the party’s desire to embark on viable programs to boost economic gains. Socialism with Chinese characteristics enforced Marxism position. This position knew they had to study new conditions, upon which a summary of new experiences to resolve new problems became a guiding principle.

Critical examination of historical period provided a much needed vigor because the lessons as well as new direction proved pivotal in laying down strategic plans to curb any prior challenges that pulled their desires to progress.

Such lessons are only helpful if they can provide directions that would turns out to be beneficial for a common set goal in place. This is because when alluding to the past failures and challenges she was able to learn from her mistakes and embrace new fundamental dimensions of making things possible as well as attaining that goal at the end of the tunnel.

Political instability provided the much needed atmosphere for the attainment of these. There was a strong system of political consultations that ensured governing did not merely relied on one political party or a group of individual. Probably, multiparty cooperation system is the huge contributor. This system of governing instituted by the China Community People alongside the regional ethnic autonomy system became the major player.

This is partly in the essence that when people are allowed with the freedom to own their business ideas and all that comes from their hard work, they will give their best foot. This is contrary to former system where everything was owned with the state and people had to pay something to the state in return, such move was seen as a discouragement in attaining economic milestone.

Socialism with Chinese characteristics is a just and successful direction that China must have taken to bind it into a civilized, harmonious, democratic, and modern nation. This system is unique in many ways as earlier on stated but one major demerit to use it a case study in helping other nations is not possible because Chinese initial conditions were unique in many ways and these features are what made it attain it has achieved and installed in terms of economy.

Implementation of these reforms was also accommodated in almost all facets of life inclusive of educational systems. At a very tender age, school going children ware made aware of their capabilities and potential of their future contribution on the same. This made it possible for this group to later on appreciate their scientific practices that were tailored towards the country’s attempt of streamlining economy (Chen 53).

Marxism position in China followed a scientific open system with advancement of scientific practices. Adoption of this novel technological approach made it possible to open up new avenues in innovations and inventions that sought to improve all segments of economy. From agrarian to industrial sectors, new approaches were put in place in line and spirit of new country that sought to accommodate this idea in all the crucial economic segments.

One of the primary positions of socialism with Chinese characteristics is that productive forces were publicly held in the socialist economic market. This is contrary to what was witnessed prior to, because huge trucks of land were privately owned and the citizens were required to pay a subsidy to the state.

This expanded the service sectors which also witnessed a major boost of price flexibility. These moves played an important role in attaining production. The impacts of modernization in china is largely attributed to the emergence of socialism before the reform and as well as opening-up policy in the year spanning from 1949 to 1979. Prior to its rebirth in 1949, despite the government’s lack of a defined blueprint coupled with initial elevated boom-bust cycle a lot can be learned from this country.

China’s production systems were inadequate as well as under-developed manufacture industries. Its shift in economic strength took a new direction upon the realization that a strong foundation on planned economic strides was long overdue. She therefore built a planned economic stride to act as a crucial segment in centralization of distributing the rare resources for the country’s economy revolution. Since the scarcity of resources inhibited economic development, China survived with deficiency for a long phase, ahead of the reform.

The case of Chinese is unique in many aspects. This makes it hard to equally replicate what was witnessed in any setting. Her initial predicaments are largely seen as catalyst towards what it is today. More so it showcases an experimental, evolutionary as well as a bottom up approach. Despite all the factors that contributed in one way or the other to its eventual achievements there are other numerous factors that made it hard for the attainment of what is there today.

Some of these hindrances are the planned economic scheme itself (Alon 70). Others are opposition from conservative party. This revolution took several phases under a number of leaders. Gradual evolution took place despite resistance and opposition from anti reformists de factor leaders. Commencement of economic reforms started with Deng Xiaoping and his reformist allies ousted the going of four Maoist faction (Wakeman 126).

This work attempted to keenly look at the impacts of the economic changes following the reform and the opening-up policy (1979-present) in China. It also compares these impacts with the period before the reforms and demonstrated that insignificant economic achievement became experienced during the era.

Although this was a catalyzing effect other hindrances had a major influence. These are inefficiencies, mal-investments, and Mao’s death. Despite these setbacks, the deficiency of information’s that motivates for directing the government’s economic policies became the most outstanding hindrance. The planned economy as well became lethargic to fine-tune the swift economical expansions that vastly augment the level of economic planning complexion.

In addition to, the dent in the economic system fashioned by the Cultural Revolution positioned the technological competence level of China on a constant downhill inclination. The adoption of the social market economy brought rapid expansion in Chinese economy. Some aspects that contributed to this expansion included technological advancement and rise in foreign capital, because international firms augmented their investments in the nation.

One major attribution to these trends is the leadership and their unique way of initiating programs besides their successors carrying on the former projects into a conclusion.

Works cited

Alas, Ruth, and Sun Wei. “Institutional Impact on Work-related Values in Chinese Organizations.” Journal of Business Ethics 83.2 (2008): 297-306. Print.

Alon, Ilan. “Analysis of the Changing Trends in Attitudes and Values of the Chinese: The Case of Shanghai’s Young & Educated.” Journal of International and Area Studies 2.11 (2004):67-88. Web.

Chen, Anmin. “Thirty Years of Chinese Reform-Transition from Planned Economy to Market Economy.” Asian Social Science 3.5 (2009):52-56. Web.

Horesh, Niv. “Shanghai Studies: An Analysis of Principal Trends in the Field.” Provincial China 2.1 (2010): 39-67. Print.

Lin, Justin Yifu et al. “The Lessons of China’s Transition to a Market Economy.” The Cato Journal 2.16 (2011): n. p.

Wakeman, Frederic. “The Civil Society and Public Sphere Debate: Western Reflections on Chinese Political Culture.” Modern China 19.2 (1993): 108-138. Print.

In regards to Harry Dexter White (1892 – 1948) and John Maynard Keynes (1883 – 1946), it will be thoroughly appropriate to suggest that neither of the mentioned economists can be considered a Socialist, in the classical sense of this word. Nevertheless, there are indeed a number of clearly Socialist overtones to how they used to theorise what accounts for the objective prerequisites of the market-based economy’s proper functioning.

Keynes’s line of reasoning, in this respect, can be outlined as follows: Contrary to what it used to be assumed by the 19^th century’s economists, America’s market-based economy is not self-regulated – something that was illustrated by the Great Depression. The reason for this is that it is not the availability of goods and services, which triggers popular demand for them, but vice versa – it is people’s demand for a particular product, which ensures that this product is being supplied in adequate numbers. Nevertheless, because people’s economic behaviour can hardly be considered thoroughly rational, it establishes the objective preconditions for the unpredictable demand-related fluctuations in the market to have a strongly negative effect on the economy’s overall stance. According to Keynes, this problem can be effectively dealt with by the mean of enabling the government to act as the active participant of the process of demand-creation (Piereson 2012). In other words, the government must invest in the labour-intensive infrastructural projects (such as building highways, for example), which in turn will result in increasing the buying power of citizens and consequently – in helping the country’s economy to get out of depression. It is needless to mention, of course, that this idea is clearly Socialist.

Throughout the course of his professional career, Harry Dexter White used to position himself as a ‘subtle Socialist’, as well. The validity of this statement can be well illustrated, in regards to White’s strive to work out a strategy for making the U.S. economy less sensitive to the externally induced stimuli. After having conducted much research on the subject matter in question, he came to conclude that, in this respect, the government’s involvement will prove indispensable (Boughton 2002). It appears that the mentioned point of view, on the part of White, has been reflective of the fact that, throughout the thirties, he began to realise that the implementation the Socialist economic paradigm (as it was done in the USSR), does benefit the economy, in the sense of ensuring the stability of its structural elements.

There, however, was much flexibility to White’s Socialist attitudes. That is, the economist believed that America should never cease taking advantage of what happened to be the qualitative dynamics in the arena of international politics, as the mean of ensuring the continual improvement of living standards in the U.S. – even if it comes at the expense of lowering living standards in the rest of the world. The establishment of the Bretton Woods system of monetary management in 1944 (conceptualised by White) exemplifies the validity of this statement (Bordo 2014). This is exactly the reason why the country’s economy experienced growth through the fifties and sixties.

The recent rise of the anti-capitalist movement in the world has been triggered by people’s growing awareness of the fact that the wealth of Western countries comes as the result of the Second and Third world countries being mercilessly exploited by the transnational corporations (based in the West), and by the international monetary organisations, such as the WTO and IMF. Apparently, the situation when the tons and tons of valueless ‘green paper’ (the U.S. Dollar) are being traded in exchange for the world’s most valuable natural resources, such as oil and natural gas, can no longer be tolerated. Given the fact that the representatives of the world’s financial elites no longer try to conceal their true agenda (it is commonly suggested in the West that ‘developing’ countries are being ‘overpopulated’), it naturally causes many people to raise their voices again the impending ‘dictatorship of bankers’, associated with America’s strive to spread ‘democracy’ all over the world, by the mean of subjecting civilians in ‘underdeveloped’ countries to missile-strikes (Revel 2004). This simply could not be otherwise – due to the rise of informational technologies, it now becomes increasingly clear to more and more people that there is simply no way for them to be able to benefit from Globalisation – unless they happened to be billionaires.

References

Bordo, M 2014, ‘Tales from the Bretton Woods’, Open Economies Review, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 981-991.

Boughton, J 2002, Why White, not Keynes? Inventing the postwar international monetary system. Web.

Piereson, J 2012, ‘John Maynard Keynes and the modern revolution in political economy’, Society, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 263-273.

Revel, J 2004, ‘Anti-globalism = anti-Americanism’, The American Enterprise, vol.15, no. 4, pp. 36-38.

The notion that socialism is only attainable by revolution and not by reform is one that has been explored extensively and still remains a subject of great political debate. In examining this question, one has to revert to the original tenets of socialism as delineated by Karl Mark and Frederick Engels in the Communist Manifesto (1848).

In their description of the Marxist principles embodied in socialism, they carefully detail a system whereby the working-class members of a given society would violently overthrow the existing bourgeois state and establish a system of government that is ruled by the working class. Since the writing of the Communist Manifesto, there have been many attempts at establishing socialist states. These attempts ranged from bringing about socialism through violent revolutions to impacting socialism through gradual governmental reform initiatives. The two decades between 1900 and 1920 were marked by very active governmental participation which involved the socialist parties in many European states, especially within Germany wherein there were different socialist ideologies were adopted.

In some instances, the radical socialists who once opposed the bourgeois system were willing to compromise in order to achieve a form of socialism that was less radical and proved less detrimental to the health and well-being of the citizens within the nation.

The notion of moderate socialism is one that incorporates the basic tenets of socialism wherein there are economic and political arrangements within the government which focus on the public or community ownership of the materials which produce the economic wealth of the nation. These materials include land, factories, and other property which are used to produce goods and services for society. Moderate socialism was able to achieve this aim to some degree without the revolutionary underpinnings. One example of this can be seen in the Fabian Society which was founded in 1884 in London and existed within the United Kingdom.

Within this adaptation, the members of society we’re taught that socialist ideology could be achieved in a gradual manner with the utility of a clearly defined set of reforms. These methods were predominantly described as methods of social defiance which included strikes, boycotts, acts of noncooperation, protests, and setting up alternative institutions (Crick 1976).

Another more stringent adaptation of the construct of socialism is the Erfurt Programme which was adopted by the German Social Democratic Party in 1891. Under this program, it was declared that “the struggle of the working class against capitalist exploitation is necessarily a political struggle. The working class cannot develop its economic organization and wage its economic battles without political rights. It cannot accomplish the transfer of the means of production to the community as a whole without first having come into possession of political power.” (Modern History).

Despite the fact that this statement implicitly points out the need for a revolution in that there is a need for the transfer of the means of production, this was not the case. This party was able to abolish a system of class rule in a very democratic manner and was able to maintain control of Germany between June of 1920 and March of 1933.

Their rule came to an end with the declaration of Hitler as a dictator and facilitated by an Enabling Bill initiated by Hitler and voted approved by three-quarters of the members of the Reichstag.

While in power, the German Social Democratic Party did not fight for class privileges and class rights but for equal rights for all irrespective of class, political party affiliation, gender, or race. They did so utilizing ten basic tenets. These tenets are as follows:

1. There was a need for universal rights that can only be attained through suffrage, the free election with individuals over the age of 20 being allowed to participate, and the abolition of any barriers to equal voting rights.
2. Self-determination among the people with majority rule
3. Education to the militia wherein they would be equipped with the knowledge to partake in arbitration and other peaceful means of dispute resolution.
4. The abolition of all laws hinder the meeting of various individuals and the formation of coalitions.
5. The abolition of all laws which inherently discriminate against women.
6. A separation of the Church and State.
7. Completely free secular education which includes all the materials and supplies necessary in the pursuit of education.
8. Free legal assistance and access to equal justice as well as the ability to compensate individuals who are wrongfully accused of crimes.
9. Free medical assistance which includes medicine and burial expenses.
10. Graduated income and property tax.

In addition to the basic tenets of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, there were several demands expressed on the behalf of the working class. These demands included the need for a workday which included no more than eight hours of employment, the prohibition of child labor for children under the age of 14, a strict monition on night work, and many other protections such as the aforementioned.

In theory, moderate socialism is an excellent ideology but when one tries to extend this theory practically, there are many problems and obstacles which arise. The first obstacle is one that deals with human nature and is addressed extensively in the Communist Manifesto. It is one that explores the proclivity of individuals in power and relates to the notion that once in power an individual will take the necessary steps to remain in power. Essentially, individuals in power want to remain in power.

Essentially, the bourgeois will not willingly relinquish the power and acquiesce to the demands of the working class. Karl Marx was adamant about the fact that the only thing that would make them relinquish that power is a revolution wherein the working class of the world would unite with one aim—to acquire all of the productivity resources within a nation and effectively cripple the economy. In crippling the economy, the bourgeoisie would be left with no other alternative but to relinquish power to the working class in order to survive. This involves the coordination of efforts which is almost unachievable.

One answer to the question of the inherent selfishness of individuals by virtue of being human was offered by traditional socialists who felt that society would impact a transformation in human nature and would naturally purge selfishness. In so doing, it would create a New Socialist Man.

This new man would be devoid of selfishness, self-determination and instead would embody the single desire to work arduously for the new socialist state. Throughout the course of history, many have worked with this aim in mind.

Individuals such as Lenin and Bukharin attempted to achieve this end under the tenets of “War Communism.” The same was attempted later by Mao Tse-tung and Che Guevara who worked tirelessly to replace the inclination to seek material possessions with what they referred to as “moral incentives.” This notion was one that was ridiculed by many and when examined closely, one can see the difficulty inherent in attempting to bring about such a drastic change on a voluntary basis.

The very idea of the New Socialist Man is one that proves to be theoretically sound but in all practicality, the only way of imparting such a change is through force and even after force has been utilized there is nothing preventing the individuals who come into power from utilizing selfish motives in their rule (Chen 1969).

Despite the fact that there is a difference in the theoretical construct of socialism and its practical applications, many of the concepts can be practically applied. This is clear in the case of the Fabian Society and the Erfurt Programme. In those cases, socialism was practiced and it was made possible through non-violent and non-revolutionary means. These two cases are not unique but they do illustrate that some concepts of socialism are possible through a reform in the political structure.

These reforms paved the way for increased power on the part of the workers. In fact, a tempered version of socialism has been applied in capitalistic societies as illustrated by the concept of labor unions. In answering the question posed, I would have to emphatically disagree with the statement that “socialism is only attainable by revolution and not by reform” for the reasons stated throughout this paper.

Works Cited

Chen, Theodore Hsi-en. “The New Socialist Man.” Comparative Education Review. 13.1 (1969): 88-95.

Crick, Bernard. “The Character of a Moderate (Socialist).” The Political Quarterly 47.1 (1976): 5-28.

Marx, Karl and Engels, Frederick. The Communist Manifesto: Complete with Seven Rarely Published Prefaces. St. Paul, MN: Filiquarian Publishing, LLC, 2005.

Modern History Sourcebook. German Social Democracy: The Erfurt Program, 1891. Web.

Spartacus Educational. Enabling Bill. 2007. Web.

The three main health care systems are socialist, capitalist and communist system. Decisions on which of the three systems to follow mostly depends on the kind of governance in the land. Arguably, the socialist health system is the best of the three health system.

This is because it ensures all the people in the republic get cheap or even free health care. Health is one of the basic necessities of a human being and therefore it would be such that majority of the people in the society are able to access it.

According to the principles of World Health Organization, everyone should be able to access good quality health care. This will be well taken care of in scenario of a socialist health system because it is a government policy to have everyone incorporated in this system.

Considering that there is a big number of people who cannot afford expensive health care, socialist health system offer a good alternative system of health submission. This means even the poor in the society have their health issues well taken care of.

The socialist system is also non-discriminatory in nature, in that even the minority in the society as well as women and children will enjoy available and accessible health care. Economic accessibility is one factor of the socialist system that makes it more suitable than the other systems of health care (Bowling and Ebrahim 17).

The government may introduce a flat rate that is affordable to the people in the society this means that all the people are well taken care and medicine is cheaper to them.

The fact that due to the low cost of health system in the society few people will be willing to invest in the health sector is an added benefit because people who may just invest in the health sector just to gain profits without the desire to put people’s heath demands first will be minimized.

In turn it means that only the people who are conscious about people’s health are in the health system. Ownership of factors of production is controlled by the government in a socialist set up, which means that the government controls the production of the medicine.

The centralization of the system ensures that quality and amount is well controlled, which may not be the case in other systems, for example, the capitalist where profits gain is the main driving force. Issues of corruption are also cut out in socialist system because every citizen has a say on to what he/she expects of the system and the system is not controlled by a selected few.

Finally, this system can be of benefit to get statistics about the general population that may be beneficial to their planning, for example, a Maternity and Child Welfare Law adopted in Japan helps the government know the number of birth of children, since every pregnancy has to be registered. This system therefore provides the administration with useful information for the purpose of shaping health and child care policy (Spender and Cheris 964).

Many countries have adopted this system and modified it to meet their countries mode of operation. This has led to reforms in these countries, like the introduction of compulsory health insurance legislation in Russian in 1991. The American affordable health care Act signed into law in 2009 has its bases on the principle of the socialist system that gives every citizen a chance to get quality health care at affordable costs.

However, this health care system has its limitations. Paying of high taxes by the public is one of the main disadvantages as this system calls for the administration to spend so much to support it. There is also problem of distribution of resources, and if not well controlled, this system may be a problem since some areas may have an under production, while others face overproduction.

Works Cited

Bowling, Ann and Ebrahim, Shah. “Handbook of health research methods: investigation, measurement and analysis.” Berkshire: McGraw-Hill International. 2005. Print.

Spender, Dale and Cheris, Kramarae. “Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Education: Health to Hypertension.” Routledge: Routledge, 2000. Print.

Introduction

In the last few decades, China introduced economic and social reforms that created a rapid increase in household income in the country. Based on these reforms, a dominant middle class emerged (Wang 1). These reforms also led to new changes in China’s political, social and economic spaces. To explain this phenomenon, this paper answers three questions (1) what is the cost of forming this middle class (2) what led to the emergence of this middle class (3) how has the formation of the middle class in China intensified new social stratification in post-socialist China

What Led to the Emergence of the Middle Class?

Changes in the Education System

The quest for better jobs led many Chinese people to attain higher education qualifications (Fong 87). In this regard, there was an increased vibrancy in the education system, which helped to educate more people, thereby empowering them to secure high paying jobs. Broadly, this trend created a new class of people (middle class) who purchased more goods and services in the economy (Fong 96-97).

Liberalization of the Economy

The legalization of private business also led to the growth of the middle class because people who could not get jobs, and those that did not have the connections to get a job, started new businesses that allowed them to earn a living. Particularly, those that were skilled, lucky and daring became wealthy in this regard (Fong 96-97). This period was profitable for businesspersons because few legislations and taxes prevented them from doing business. Most people who started small businesses this way offered an alternative for low-income people, who could not patronize large businesses, to buy goods and services (Fong 96-97).

Social Aspirations

Heightened social aspirations among the Chinese people led to the rise of the middle class because many people did not want to be in a low class (Fong Paradise Redefined 95). Through the aspiration to belong to a higher social class, many people worked harder, studied harder and looked for new opportunities to improve their welfare. For example, many Chinese people left the country in the late 20^th century and moved to foreign lands to seek better jobs (Fong Paradise Redefined 95). The majority wanted new educational and job opportunities to take care of their parents and children. While most of them succeeded in this regard, others failed to live their dream.

What is the Cost of Forming this Middle Class?

Individual level

With the creation of a middle class in China, there has been increased pressure to conform to the prestige and status associated with middle class people. While this pressure could be positive (by promoting competition and high standards of achievement), it has come with a huge individual cost to different people. Those who have had trouble meeting societal expectations have committed suicide and fallen into depression (Fong 87). Evidence of this cost exists in the Chinese education space where students have committed suicide because of poor grades (Fong 87). Mostly, pressures from parents and peers have driven such students to commit suicide.

Societal level

Economically, the rise of the middle class has led to an increase in the cost of living in China because there has been a rapid increase in consumption within this demographic. For example, there has been a steady rise in the consumption of luxury goods (foods, electronics and clothing) among the middle class (Zhang 107). There has also been a steady increase in the price of houses and cars because of increased demand by the middle class. Collectively, this trend has led to an increase in the cost of living in China.

How this Process has Intensified new Social Stratification in Post-Socialist China

The emergence of a new middle class in China has threatened the communist social strata that characterized the Chinese society (Zhang 26-27). In its place, there has been a hybrid economic and distribution system. Similarly, the class system has changed because people are more preoccupied with private ownership of property and services, as opposed to communal property ownership. In line with this trend is private home ownership because many people are increasingly attracted to the western-styled home ownership model. Furthermore, the commercialization of urban land is another palpable change that signifies how the Chinese society is changing through the emergence of a dominant middle class. Observers say this trend has pushed the Chinese society closer to the pre-socialist period (Zhang 26-27).

The emergence of a dominant middle class in China has also led to localized social struggles across Chinese social strata. Violent class struggles have also emerged in desolated areas (Zhang 26-27). This fact highlights a silent trend in China, where many people are being displaced from urban areas to pave way for commercial developments that intend to cater to the needs of the middle class (such as modern housing) (Zhang 27). The economic and social changes that led to the emergence of the Chinese middle class also intensified new social stratification by decreasing the number of low-income people. Of importance is the increased transition of people from a low-class to the middle class (class mobility). This trend outlines a shift in the demographics of China because there are larger numbers of people in the middle class group compared to people in the low-income group.

Works Cited

Fong, Vanessa. Only Hope: Coming Of Age under China’s One Child Policy, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004. Print.

— Paradise Redefined: Transnational Chinese Students and the Quest for Flexible Citizenship in the Developed World, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010. Print.

Wang, Helen. The Chinese Dream: The Rise of the World’s Largest Middle Class and What It Means to You, Washington, DC: Bestseller Press. Print.

Zhang, Li. In Search of Paradise: Middle-Class Living in a Chinese Metropolis, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010. Print.