Want to know the difference between inductive and deductive method in political science? This paper explores inductive and deductive approach in social science – both as a research methodology and a teaching method.
The inductive and deductive approaches provide two different types of reasoning. Inductive one is based on moving from the specific to general information, while deductive starts from the general and moves to specific. Therefore, the main difference between the inductive and deductive approaches consists in the way of expression of the arguments.
Deductive & Inductive Approach in Social Science
The inductive reasoning starts from the observation or experience, moving to the patterns and hypothesis (Leming). A formulation of the tentative hypothesis helps understanding the small elements as well as the whole picture. As the result, the conclusions present a theory based on the ideas that were developed while reasoning. This method is open-ended and requires the exploration.
As the ampliative structure, induction contains the arguments which are found beyond the premises. This approach may ask providing several arguments and hypothesis, where one of them can support the conclusions more than others. Therefore, inductive reasoning requires moving form specific observation or experience to the summarization.
For instance: All my friends are kind, therefore, all people are kind. In this example, the conclusions are based on the personal experience and moves from the particular statement to the generalization. However, this approach can lead to the false conclusions even in case of the valid arguments and a true statement.
The deductive reasoning is called a top-down method. The reflection starts from a theory and narrow it to particular hypothesis (Using Varied Instructional Techniques: Inductive and Deductive Teaching Approaches 2006). In the social science, the deductive approach provides the conclusions which are based on a specific case derived from a broad theory.
In the other words, the deductive method requires moving from the general idea, theory or statement to the particular elements. As the intermediate stage, hypothesis presents some specific reflection that helps finding the concrete conclusions needed. Besides, hypothesis can lead to the confirmation or negation of the theory. For instance: All people are kind.
My friend is a man, therefore, he is kind. In this example, the general statement is a basement and start point of the reflection. The conclusions present a particular fact derived from the general idea. The deductive approach helps gaining knowledge, providing many specific ideas and facts that may be not clearly seen at the beginning.
These approaches are very different; therefore, they can be used within the different situations. The inductive one as an open-ended and exploratory method is used in order to explain the situation that happened or find a general reason. More narrow deductive approach is based on the confirmation of the particular hypothesis, using some general idea, statement or theory as the beginning.
The social research requires the use of both methods. Starting from the particular idea, the scientist can develop a new general theory, and vice versa, some summary, generalization can be chosen as a basement for the research of its particular element.
Conclusion
Based on the different methods of reflection, the inductive and deductive approaches can be useful for the social science in order to analyze the various types of the situations. Both methods were popular historically.
Nowadays, the method of deduction is more accepted than the inductive one due to its approximation to the scientific research. However, these two approaches can be used together, while the initial theory can be developed using the inductive method, the results can be tested using the deductive approach.
Reference List
Biology Success! Teaching Diverse Learners. 2006. Using Varied Instructional Techniques: Inductive and Deductive Teaching Approaches. National Institute – Landmark College. Web.
Leming, Michael R. n.d. Sociological Theory: A Social Science Approach to the family. Web.
The purpose of this research is to investigate how training helps the employees’ building of personal resources essential for successful teamworking and how it contributes to significant teamwork practices. The study aims to offer a broader perspective on the existing research by utilizing a mixed-method approach. The research’s objectives are to evaluate the effects of four different types of training and examine how the organizational context influences employees’ training experiences and outcomes. It also strives “to integrate qualitative process evaluation and quantitative effect evaluation” to investigate the intervention outcomes. Another objective is to generate additional knowledge for the research literature. Besides, the study also intends to assess whether a mixed-method approach can provide a more exceptional understanding of the organizational change processes.
The research’s nature is causal because it uses a quantitative design to exclude alternative explanations and qualitative approach to comprehend the results. The study incorporates a three-level process evaluation model because it aims to capture an understanding of training, employees’ attitudes, and mental models and context. Consequently, there is a need to follow a model that can training might enhance the integration of effective teamwork practices, but it depends on the context and leaders’ mental models. Moreover, the study revealed that the utilization of quantitative and qualitative techniques strengthened the validity of the findings.
Methods & Empirics
As mentioned earlier, the article uses a mixed-method approach that allowed withdrawing more exceptional results to achieve the research’s purpose. The work focused on collecting the data from four participants’ groups, including those who received no training, team members’ training, the leader’s training, or the whole team’s training, including the head. The gathered information represented qualitative data, and the timing was arranged to get information during the training and after a particular period, so that the employees could provide a more general opinion on their experiences. The quantitative part of the research implicated incorporating specific surveys in different forms. It involved the documentary evidence of the employees’ and leaders’ contributions, the meetings’ time, and focus groups and interviews by the end of the training assessment. Besides, the researchers distributed a questionnaire before and after the training intervention with a one-and-a-half-year period in between, which generated relevant findings of employees’ autonomy, performance, and interdependence.
It is crucial to look at the details of the data collection process. At the initial study’s stage and a while after the intervention (second period), the participants received the questionnaires. Each round gave forty-five days for the contributors to return the answers, and two reminders throughout this time were sent. The study conducted individual interviews to collect the data related to the perceptions and experiences of the leaders. The average time for one discussion varied from twenty-five minutes to one hour. Moreover, the randomly selected employees who participated in the focus groups, each of which had from two to seven participants, also had interviews that lasted for approximately fifty minutes. The research utilized the outcome evaluation, which included self-report measures withdrawn from the questionnaires, and process evaluation, which constituted the work’s multilevel analysis.
The next significant stage is assessing the sampling techniques and the target population for this research. The study focused on elder care personnel who work in community-based or residential care for seniors. The employees who participated in this study included the representatives of administrative staff and physiotherapists. The participants were divided into geographical units based on the nature of their activities and a specific geographic area. Before the intervention, the group size varied from five to thirty-five people. As a part of interference, the groups were alienated into smaller teams, which resulted in having up to thirteen members per unit. Each group had its team leader, which provided 14 individuals to participate in the research. Around 350 employees received questionnaires in the primary phase of the intervention, out of which 277 were returned. During the second period, 310 workers got the survey, and 152 were answered. The participants’ average age was 43 years old, and around 90% of them were females.
One of the critical points is that going through training was not random for the participants, but all chose it voluntarily, which explains to the different sizes of the units. For the study’s purpose and objectives, not undertaking a randomization technique played a favorable role because motivation and personal commitment are vital for the training’s success. Nevertheless, the research incorporated the eldercare sector employees, where teamwork and proper training are of particular significance. In such a way, the chosen sample well represents the population of the employees who receive training, because it incorporates the participants from different units. However, it might limit the findings since the contributors were chosen from one industry.
The article used qualitative and quantitative methods and arranged it into a quasi-experimental study to achieve a high level of external validity. The interventional approach that this work utilized is more relevant to the potential population and helps to accomplish “a better balance between internal and external validity” (Handley et al., 2018, p. 7). This study design allowed comparing the leaders’ and employees’ experiences to validate the qualitative assessment from the different parties’ perspectives. The quantitative part, in turn, endorsed excluding the threats to internal validity. Hence, the researchers tried to integrate the most effective design and approach to conduct a proper process and outcome evaluation that ensures a broader perspective on the objectives and answers a research question.
Using the mixed research method entails the integration of numerous tools and additional time and resources. Nevertheless, those techniques and activities can help gain a clearer understanding of the contradictions or connection between quantitative and qualitative information (Shorten & Smith, 2017). Consequently, this work used various instruments to rule out the threats and create a more extensive view of the analyzed question. The study tools “focused on the hypothesized working mechanisms of the interventions and the impact on both of the prevailing organizational context” (Nielsen et al., 2015, p. 232). The used techniques included the interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, and organizational materials, like the documentation on the involvement or meeting time. The interviews conducted with the leaders and focus groups were coded in QSR NVivo. The analysis was carried out based on the description of the intervention, mental models of the participants, and the intervention context. The research also used various theories like the social identity leadership model.
Critical Review
The article opens up a new perspective on the issue of training and employees’ motivation. The authors mention previous research conducted in this area and emphasize that not a lot of detailed work was performed to assess the influence of training when implemented into teamwork. Still, none of the works directly investigated different types of teamwork and training intervention. Thus, the study reveals a new aspect of the concept and manages to look at it from different angles. The fact that the paper bases the research on three different themes, as mentioned above, provides more in-depth insights and lays the foundation for possible recommendations for the organizations. According to Morse (2016), research requires more than one method for one project to grasp a complex phenomenon. The concept analyzed in this study is multifaceted, highlighting the necessity of integrating a mixed-method approach, as the authors did it.
As stated above, the paper talks about the previous research held in this field. The crucial aspect is that the sample size is large compared to other studies that use a mixed-method approach. Besides, the majority of the participants were represented by women, which might limit the findings as well. Still, comparing this research to other studies in this area, it is possible to say that incorporating mixed-method techniques allowed this work to grasp a more excellent view on the issue. The article followed the research standards, describing all the integrated information, including the data collection process, measurement and classification, analysis and interpretation, and the limitations (Duran et al., 2006). Besides, the paper is written in an academic manner, well-organized, and complies with the referencing requirements. All of the sources are correctly cited, and the work includes the list of utilized materials.
In a general sense, power gives an individual (or an entity) the authority to control the behaviors of other people or influence the environment to suit ones need. Power has often been perceived in a number of ways but legitimately, it has often been referred to as authority (Greiner 1988, p. 4). The exercise of power in the society can be either beneficial or retrogressive to the society, depending on how it is applied.
For example, in the business environment, power can be either perceived as top-down or bottom-up (Greiner 1988). Either way, control is exerted on the subordinates or the leaders. For example, in the top-bottom approach, power is exerted on the subordinates but on the bottom-up approach, power is exerted on the leaders.
Often, power is confused with coercion and arm-twisting of peoples’ will towards the advantage of an individual or entity (however, this need not be the case at all times). On one hand, power is normally referred to as influence (in the European society), and often, the two terms are used interchangeably; but practically, it refers to different things (Moore 1990, p. 1).
Nonetheless, in political and social circles, power has often been analyzed in the context by which it enables individuals to do something. Many researchers and philosophers such as Michel Foucault and Niccolò Machiavelli have in the past tried to expose the existing dimensions of power but evidently, power is witnessed in almost all forms of human actions (Moore 1990, p. 1).
Comprehensively, it can be analyzed that power is the distinctive tool that makes most human actions possible and in the words of Michel Foucault (a French philosopher) (cited in Moore 1990, p. 1), power is “a complex strategic situation in a given society social setting”.
These definitions abound, this study seeks to analyze the concepts of power and how it dictates the social and political landscape of the society. Emphasis will be made on how power influences the setting of agendas and how it determines structural and disciplinary practices. These factors will develop a conceptual understanding of power after which this study will analyze the sources of power and how it can be created.
Agenda Setting
Agenda setting is basically a political process which involves very competitive players who normally have conflicting points of view regarding a number of political, social or economic issues (Sanchez 2002, p. 1). When power is in play, the agenda setting process is normally contingent on competing entries on policy agendas; but most importantly, power influences the behavior of groups in the entire process.
This means that the position and views of policy makers can be directed in a pre-determined manner, upon the exercise of power. For example, if a decision maker is the custodian of power, a lot of the interest groups can tailor their decisions towards the decision maker’s point of view.
In a different light, there are many issues that affect the society, and a number of them require immediate spotlight during the process of agenda setting. Power is a tool that is normally exercised to elevate certain issues to become matters of priority, with some of them being accorded high or highest attention, depending on the amount of power that may be exercised (Puentes-Markides 2007, p. 1).
This analysis exposes the fact that power can be exercised to spotlight certain issues to reach the highest platform in political agenda setting through capturing the attention of the government, media or the public. In fact, the agenda setting process is normally very competitive, such that, even the most important issues may fail to be highlighted.
A clear example of how power play takes centre stage in the agenda setting process can be evidenced from the recent healthcare debate in the United States. Puentes-Markides (2007, p. 5) explains that this kind of example is a political process where the numbers of people who support a given bill are categorized on one side and those who oppose are categorized on another.
He points out that the power-play going on in this kind of situation is based on the power to mobilize players and an assessment of the strength of all supporters in the agenda setting process. More emphasis is made on the political feasibility of a given process, based on the powers and strengths of the players in the process. The powers and strengths of players can either be categorized as low, medium or high.
Structural and Disciplinary Practices
The structural concept of power can be easily determined through power structures that influence how long one can be influenced by control and who ultimately holds the realms of power in any given situation (Strange 1996, p. 54). The structural aspect of power can be equated to democratic processes where the structures in place (electoral structures) are set to determine who holds power and for how long.
Through the structures of power, the relationship between power and the people is redefined. For example, dictators like Adolf Hitler (and the likes) assumed a lot of authoritative power because the people let go off their power in the first place. This kind of scenario affirms the point of view that power does not exists in a vacuum because often, it is people or leaders who exercise it, therefore birthing it.
When deeply analyzing power structures, the relationship between the actors or players in a power game is exposed because their relationship is defined by power structures.
Power structures however vary from one geographical region to the other. For example, the power structures in the rural and urban communities are different because of the nature of homogenous communities in the rural areas and the disintegrated communities in the urban settlements (Moore 1990, p. 7).
In the field of social science, power structures are normally perceived as static, but in the real life situation, the structures of power change and shift due to changing coalitions brought about by conflicting interests on various issues (Moore 1990).
For instance, in the modern society, where power is more complex than the rural areas, the structures of power are normally sophisticated and an evident focus on specialization of skill and knowledge is often evidenced.
This kind of situation can be represented in a manner whereby in a community, a certain individual can have knowledge and skills about how to deal with the community’s issues; meaning that they would be a source of power (as pertains to matters regarding the particular community).
The power structures existent in any given community does not exist in vacuum because a number of external forces are normally in play. For instance, there is the issue of government influence that normally influences the power structures in the community, or the issue of external financers who sponsor the work of different communities (Moore 1990, p. 11).
Power structures are normally evidenced in a number of ways. For instance, there is a power structure that gives control and influence to a single individual who makes most of the decisions within a community. This type of power structure is quite rare in today’s society (even when studied in rural community settings) and can be equated to the pyramidal power structure where excessive control and influence is entrusted on a single family, industry or any other entity (Moore 1990, p. 10).
Secondly, there are clique power groups that can wield so much power, as to control the activities of a given group. This implies that a group of individuals with common interests come together and pool their influence to create a centre of power. Thirdly, there is the opposite of the clique power group which concentrates power on two different communities (Moore 1990).
This can be generally assumed to be a split-community power structure where power is concentrated on two separate centers of power. Normally such situations are evidenced when there is competition between two opposing groups or when there is a force of change working, where one group opposes change and the other supports it.
Thirdly, there can be a power pool structure that concentrates power to different centers which are formed by a clique of people who are aware of each other’s existence, but do not partake in each other’s decisions (Moore 1990, p. 11). Finally, there are amorphous power structures where new communities develop but no strong power structure exists. Such sort of situations can be evidenced in mobile home parks, apartment complexes or other similar environments.
In the area of disciplinary practice, power can be exercised to affect virtually all types of disciplinary practices. First in the formulation of disciplinary practices, power can be used to determine the type of disciplinary measures to be undertaken in any given social setting.
In most traditional societies where power was heavily vested on an individual; the individual could use his position to determine the type of disciplinary measure to be carried out in a given situation. For instance, if a person committed the crime of robbery, the power wielder could determine the type of disciplinary measure to be given to the offender.
However, in today’s world, power has been focused on the law and the constitution, such that, disciplinary practices are essentially defined by the law. Courts are the official custodians of the law and they execute what is written down as the law of the land. In a general sense, this means that power is vested in the law and the courts in particular.
However, the exercise of power can surpass the laid down disciplinary practices and structures as identified in this study. Again, the type of power structures evidenced in a given community is the determinant for excessive control that power gives people or institutions.
For instance, there have been many situations in a number of countries where power is excessively exercised by an incumbent president, such that, the laid down laws and disciplinary practices in a given community are subordinate to his or her control.
For example, if an offender is arrested by the government for committing a certain offence and sentenced to life imprisonment; in some societies, the president (who is vested with immense power) can pardon the given offender. This kind of excessive control is even evidenced in the Western society.
How Power is Created
Power is normally created in a number of ways. However, before we understand how power is created, it is important to reiterate that power does not exist in a vacuum but rather in relationships between two or more parties (Mann 1993). In this manner, we can deduce the fact that power is not constant but can shift from one party to the other.
The first way through which power is created is through coercive means where power is vested on an individual, out of the basis of fear or an unimagined force (Moore 1990). For instance, the power God has over people, or the power religion has over its followers can be largely termed as coercive power because it is largely based on an unimagined force and fear.
However, this power is still wielded in the real world where people give power to an individual, out of the pretext of fear or of escaping hurt or unfair treatment from the central source of power. This is one way through which dictators, the world over, have used to exercise authority over their fearful subjects.
Some of them have perfected the art in such a way that they reinforce the belief that a contravention of the will of the person in power can tremendously affect the life of the subordinates. Some use threats, extortion, death and such like tact to instill fear on their subjects so that they rule. If people cave in to such fears and coercive tact, then they give the mastermind of such tact, the power to rule not only over them, but their consciouses as well.
The above power relationship can be evidenced through the power wielder and the subjects. In other words, the subjects give away their power to the power wielder by acting in a given manner that suits the power wielder (in order to avoid being hurt). This kind of power creation method is not as common today as it used to be in the past because in most societies, democracy is quickly taking root and more freedom is being evidenced through unrelenting global, political and social pressures to do away with coercive forces.
Secondly, power is created through legitimate or positional means whereby an officeholder enjoys immense powers attributed or entrusted to a given office (Mann 1993). For instance, the office of the British prime minister is an example of an office that has immense powers on national politics and the office holder enjoys premiered powers attributed to the office.
Often, the higher the status of the office, the more compliance one is able to enjoy; as can be seen through certain high offices like the president’s, dean’s, directors’ and the likes (because such officeholders can practically determine what happens in their spheres of control and be assured that whatever they order will be carried out) (Moore 1990, p. 14). Usually, such sort of power is uncontested because it is legitimate and positional; meaning that people acknowledge its existence and decide to let it prevail over them.
The relationship evidenced in this type of power-play is almost similar to the coercive type; only that the will of the people is normally respected in the positional type of power. For instance, in the election of the president of America, or any other democratic country, a democratic electoral process is normally undertaken where people vote to entrust a certain individual with the power to lead.
The biggest distinction between coercive and positional power is that no coercion actually takes place in the creation of positional power and people vest power to a given individual, purely on their own prerogative. However, instances where democratic processes have been infiltrated by malpractices such as voter bribery, voter coercion (and the likes) are isolated cases. Nonetheless, the kind of relationship depicted in positional power can be evidenced between the voters and the officeholders, where voters give authority to a given individual to wield power.
Thirdly, power can be created through the possession of knowledge or expert skills needed in a given social, economic or political environment (Moore 1990, p. 14).
However, such powers cannot be created until the followers or subjects acknowledge that the skills, talents or expertise possessed are needed (and they respect the custodians of such expertise) (Moore 1990, p. 14). Examples of expert power can be manifested through doctors, lawyers, college instructors and similar professionals and where subjects respect the expertise brought by these individuals.
Giving rewards is also another way through which power is created among individuals and institutions. In the socio-political discipline, this type of power is normally referred to as reward power. It is created out of the ability of an individual or institution to give gifts, promotions, recognitions or such like rewards (to the subordinates).
In this manner, subordinates are bound to reciprocate through acknowledgement and respect, which ultimately gives an individual immense power. The organizational setting is a good platform to explain this kind of power because certain individuals hold reward power over others.
For example, a managing director is normally entrusted with the power of acknowledging or recommending certain employees for promotion or bonuses. His or her ability to do so automatically elevates him or her to some level of power within the organization, where he or she can determine the fate of an employee in the given organization (with regards to career progression or monetary reward).
This kind of ability gives one the power over subordinates because many would not cross such power wielders, just so they get a given reward. In organizations or setups where the stakes are too high; the power of individuals who wield the reward power is also likely to be increased in the same manner. The opposite is also true whereby if the stakes are low, the power wielded by an individual may equally be low.
Power can also be created on the basis of an individual’s traits and characteristics (Moore 1990, p. 15). This can be evidenced when a leader possess charm, charisma, sensitivity or creativity in a given field of excellence, where other players in the same field recognize him or her as the power wielder.
These types of powers are normally intangible and it becomes increasingly difficult to quantify them, but when well exercised, an individual can command a lot of loyalty, respect and awe in his or her peer circles. This kind of situation can be evidenced in the political scene where leaders who possess charisma, charm or such like attributes command a huge following.
In fact, the possession of such traits normally increases the popularity level of such leaders and therefore other political players in the scene can easily acknowledge the potential of such kind of power in changing the political scene (because with it comes a huge following of people).
The ability to possess information is also another way through which power can be created (Moore 1990, p. 16). This kind of power exercise can be evidenced in the ability of certain individuals to disseminate or withhold information in the society. The same power is also evidenced in the ability of an individual to get hold of information.
The power of an individual increases if the kind of information withheld by a given institution or person is of utmost relevance to someone else, organization or a given community. This means that many people would go out of their way to get hold of a given piece of information if they cannot do without it. The person who holds such kind of information is therefore the power wielder.
People who have been synonymous to such powers have effectively used information power to channel and withhold information to suit various interests in the organization or community (Moore 1990, p. 16). This sort of strategy has been observed to be an effective way to control human actions because people act in a correct or incorrect way, depending on the kind of information they have.
The ability of an individual to know someone who holds power is also another way through which power is created (Moore 1990, p. 17). This kind of power is often referred to as relational power. It is interesting to note that this centre of power normally differs with information power because its proponents are normally motivated by the assumption that “it does not matter what you know but who you know” (Moore 1990, p. 18).
The ability to develop strong networks between individuals is therefore very essential to the creation of relational power, but more importantly, such networks should be proved beneficial to the community, individuals or a given organization. For instance, people who have stayed within a given social setting for a long time are likely to develop relational power because they are more likely to have developed strong social networks as opposed to those who have stayed within a community for a short time.
Conclusion
Power in social science can be a useful piece of study, as this study points out, because power affects most functional areas of life. Understanding power structures (as this study identifies) can be a useful tool to induce change within a given society and in understanding past and current political systems.
In the political setting, we can see that power significantly affects agenda setting where comprehensively, this process determines what issues are to be dealt with in the society.
We can also see that power significantly affects, or surpasses disciplinary practices in the society. This is majorly evidenced in the social context. From the understanding of power-play in the society, it is therefore easy to understand how power is created. This is the ultimate step through which individuals can learn how power affects the society. Comprehensively, these factors determine power in social science.
References
Greiner, E. (1988) Power and Organization Development: Mobilizing Power to Implement Change (Addison-Wesley Od Series). Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall.
Mann, M. (1993) The Sources of Social Power: The Rise of Classes and Nation-States, 1760 – 1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Moore, E. (1990) Understanding Community Power Structures. Web.
Puentes-Markides, C. (2007) Policy Analysis and Decision Making. Bridgetown: Barbados.
Nowadays, it became a common practice among many political scientists to suggest that, since the observable emanations of international relations in today’s world do seem to have acquired a number of qualitatively new subtleties, the application of a positivist methodology in IR can no longer be considered appropriate.1 This suggestion, however, cannot be referred to as such that represents an undeniable truth-value.
This is because, even though that, during the course of recent decades, the operational principles of IR did undergo a rather drastic transformation, the innermost essence of how different countries relate to each other on the arena of international politics remains thoroughly ‘functional’.
This, of course, implies that IR-related subject matters can be best addressed within the conceptual framework of a specifically positivist methodology, which in turn suggests that IR may indeed be studied as a natural science. I will aim to explore the validity of this thesis at length.
Analytical part
The methodological principles of natural sciences are based upon the empirically tested assumption that there are a number of objectively existing impersonal laws, which define the essence of a surrounding reality. In its turn, this makes it possible to predict the vector of a researched phenomena’s spatial development.
For example, we are well aware of the fact that, after having been thrown high into the air, any physical object will necessarily fall down back on earth – the law of gravity will cause it to do so. This is exactly the reason why physics is considered a ‘hard science’, for example – physical laws are thoroughly objective.
Even though IR cannot be considered a ‘hard science’, in the full sense of this word, there are many good reasons to consider IR’s discursive conventions as such that fit well within the methodological framework of biology (another ‘hard science’) and physics. This points out to the fact that IR can indeed be considered a subject of a positivist scientific inquiry.
For example, even though that traditionalists and post-positivists suggest that, there is too much complexity to the subject of international relations (in order for its integral components to be disassembled for the purpose of positivist testing); this point of view does not stand much ground.
This is because, once we apply a naturalistic approach for assessing the actual significance of IR-related conventions, the earlier mentioned ‘complexity’ will simply evaporate.
After all, just about all the aspects of how countries coexist/compete on the arena of international politics can be well discussed within the context of what positivists consider the foremost purposes of every state’s existence:
Economic/geopolitical expansion,
Protection of internal stability,
Impairment of the internal stability of competing/neighboring countries.2
In their turn, the earlier mentioned purposes of states’ existence reflect the scientifically proven fact that, biologically speaking, the representatives of Homo Sapiens species are nothing but primates, whose foremost existential pursuits are being concerned with reproduction and with trying to impose their dominance upon others.
What it means is that national states can be well conceptualized as culturally/scientifically advanced and geographically bounded packs of apes that remain in the state of a continual competition for natural resources.
The validity of this statement can be well explored in regards to the actual consequences of 2011 Arab revolutions.
Even though that Western mainstream Medias never ceased referring to the downfalls of secular regimes in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya, as such that have been predetermined by the citizens’ strive towards ‘democracy’, it now became clear to just about anyone that the ‘Arab spring’s’ actual cause had to do with the America’s decision to take control of natural resources in the area – pure and simple.
The same can be said about the actual cause of the ongoing civil war in Syria.
The significance of IR’s subject matters can also be assessed within the methodological framework of physics. The reason for this is quite apparent – given the fact that human societies are essentially material (they consist of psychically-bodied individuals), the qualitative dynamics within just about any society do reflect the effects of people’s exposure to physical laws.
After all, every human society (country) can be well conceptualized in terms of an open thermo-dynamic system. The continuous functioning of such a system can only be ensured for as long as the extent of its inner complexity remains higher than the complexity of a surrounding environment.3
When the extent of environment’s complexity is being higher, it becomes only the matter of time before this system ‘dissolves’ in it. In its turn, this explains why, as of today, Western countries suffer from the inflow of illegal immigrants, while being slowly ‘dissolved’ in the surrounding Third World.
Conclusion
I believe that the earlier deployed line of argumentation, in defense of the suggestion that IR can indeed be studied as a natural science, is being thoroughly consistent with the paper’s initial thesis.
Apparently, only the application of a positivist approach to dealing with IR-related subject matters can help us to gain an in-depth insight into the dialectically predetermined essence of a particular IR’s phenomenon in question. This is exactly the reason why, even though traditional and post-positivist elaborations on IR do sound pretentiously sophisticate, they rarely account for any practical value.
Emerson, Niou & Ordeshook, Peter, “A Theory of the Balance of Power in International Systems.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 30, no. 4 (1986): 685-715.
Lapid, Yosef, “The Third Debate: On the Prospects of International Theory in a Post-Positivist Era.” International Studies Quarterly 33, no. 3 (1989): 235-254.
Footnotes
1 Yosef Lapid. “The Third Debate: On the Prospects of International Theory in a Post-Positivist Era.” International Studies Quarterly 33, no. 3 (1989): 239.
2 Niou Emerson & Peter Ordeshook. “A Theory of the Balance of Power in International Systems.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 30, no. 4 (1986): 687.
3 William Ashby, Introduction to Cybernetics (London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1964), 75.
Marge Percy’s poem the Emperor criticizes the leadership within governments. Many poetic aspects have been applied to ascertain that every reader understands and relates to the current leadership dominion. Similes were diversely utilized within the rhyme. The writer uses the aspect when talking about the evil old men and how they rule the world like a comic strip. This is a demonstration of the amount of influence these leaders have over the world (Prosyannikova 19). The comparison of the world to a comic strip is a show of how these leaders have made the world incapable of operating independently. Comics are artistic creations that can be very efficient for entertainment and educational purposes. These scripts are developed according to the developers’ flow and imaginary prowess.
When the poet says these leaders hold the globe like something they might bite into, it is clear that these elderly leaders see the world as nothing but an investment opportunity. Leaders have forgotten their responsibility to their citizens and their roles in improving the well-being of their nations. These claims are justified in the poem, where the writer uses similes to demonstrate how these evil leaders see the world as insignificant unless they are growing their gains. Imagery in the rhyme appears when the poet describes the obsessiveness of the current leadership regime when watching and manipulating the world. The emperors sit and watch all that creep, and they obsess over the grasshoppers, the minnows, and leaves that reproduce to provide food. Imagery in poetry helps readers to visualize the writer’s ideas (Xu). Although everyone is unique in their interpretation, imagery in poetry creates similarities that form compatible images for the readers regardless of their position.
The poet develops a very recognizable image pattern from the beginning of the poem. The beginning states the ruling powers have aged, yet they are unyielding. These old evil leaders are adamant about retaining their control over the world, yet their ages require them to retire. The destruction these cabals have caused in the world has been compared to lakes of smoking asphalt wherever their influence has been directed. The cruelty and indifference of these leaders are further portrayed through the similes. As mentioned earlier, comic strips follow the writer’s imagination and express their stance based on their story. From the rhyme, it is evident that leaders, regardless of their domain, are determined to maintain their hold of power over the young and the female gender.
The poet uses metaphors to compare evil leaders to door knobs. These leaders are supposed to provide opportunities where the young and the world can develop. However, in the rhyme, rather than operate as role models, they are eating the young. This can be interpreted as a leader standing to gain more benefits from the efforts of the youths or failure to provide the young with opportunities to grow and develop their skills, personalities, and even a chance to replace the older generation. The poet defines society to be a snake with its tail in its mouth.
According to the rhyme, the current world order does not yield profits, each generation feeds the next, and they have to coexist in order for a future to happen. Unless the current demoralized order in society is changed, the next generations will not have a future to look up to. Their greed and plunder have made them fat and heavy as dinosaurs; they crush and flatten all that comes their way. Leaders have little regard for their subjects, and if they notice any resistance, they will actively commit atrocities to display their power.
Personification in the poem is evident where creeping grasshoppers are used to represent the regular subjects. From the rhyme, the elderly yet unyielding emperors are always watching all that creep, the grasshoppers, minnows, and plants that yield food. According to the poem, grasshoppers represent the subjects that are governed by these arrogant leaders. Like the insects, these subjects are very fragile, and emperors are determined to assert their dominion over them (Sayakhan 99). The poet uses these aspects to relate how incapacitated the world and its population were before these impulsive rulers. Insects make up the lowest life forms in all of creation, and using them to represent human subjects exaggerates their insignificance.
The personification of insects can represent the aspect of poetic exaggeration. It is accurate to conclude that subjects of an oppressive regime are powerless before their arrogant and self-imposed leaders. However, comparing them to grasshoppers proves the extent of inhumanity and irrationality within leadership systems. Agribusiness initiated by governors, leach the soils, and the waste in the form of mercury and slug has been deposited into rivers and on the plains. The current world governance is polluting all opportunities without concern for the future.
Symbolism was widely applied in the poem; in coherence with the above-discussed poetic aspects, the writer uses symbolism to describe immorality in governments. Symbolism in poetry uses hieroglyphs that represent the ideas and qualities of the poet (Dudareva 54). Society has long tolerated the rot in governance, and it has spread to all sectors, even to the lowest of leaders. Like a snake with its tail in its mouth, the wheel of seasons has adopted immoral governance that does not generate any profits. Since each generation is responsible for mentoring the next, the old and unprincipled will continue to demoralize society unless fast and firm actions are taken.
Works Cited
Dudareva, Marianna A. “Apophatic Elements in the Poetry of SA Yesenin: Thanats’ Characters.” Amazonia Investiga, vol. 8, no. 22, 2019, pp. 51-57.
Prosyannikova, Yana. “Semiotics of Similes in English Poetic Texts of Canadian Poetry.” Technology Transfer: Innovative Solutions in Social Sciences and Humanities, 2018, pp. 16-18.
Sayakhan, Najat Ismael. “The Use of Personification and Apostrophe as Facilitators in Teaching Poetry.” Journal of Language Studies, vol. 1, no. 4, 2019, pp. 98-106.
Xu, Linli, et al. “How Images Inspire Poems: Generating Classical Chinese Poetry from Images with Memory Networks.” Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Vol. 32. No. 1. 2018, 5618–5625.
Language is a critical tool in the humanities and social sciences. It would be impossible to study communication arts, history, philosophy, religion and the classics if one will deprive himself of this tool. Language is the key that opens the door in the study of humanities. However, the same thing can be said when it comes to the social sciences.
It would be impossible to understand human society, how it was formed and how it is being sustained without the use of language. It is the code breaker that will allow a student of the social sciences to understand the complex communication systems used by human beings. Language is the backbone for both humanities and social sciences.
Benedict Anderson had a brilliant insight when it comes to the purpose of language and its link to the creation of social classes. He said that printed language is the reason why democratic nations were formed out of kingdoms ruled by tyrants. At the same time he also implied that prior to the rise of nationalism verbal language was used primarily to build communities.
With regards to the rise of nationalism he was convinced that it would have been impossible to achieve it without a way for the common people to connect beyond family or tribal loyalties.
Anderson argued that in the past there was no other means of establishing communities but through the rituals associated with kinship, clientship, and personal loyalties (Anderson, no date).
These rituals can only be accomplished by the use of verbal communication and therefore the expert use of language to bind people together in marriage, treaties, and other forms of personal transactions. It is language that facilitated the knitting together of families, friends and neighbors. Language is the primary tool that brings people together.
It is important to master the verbal language and even the written language as a means of communication. But language should not be limited to the building of communities and societies. Language must be fully maximized because it can provide more than a set of symbols and sounds for communication purposes. Language is the only thing that can express what is deep within the spirit of man.
Walter Benjamin said that storytelling is the best way to experience life to the full (Benjamin, 2003). Storytelling is different from the usual use of language such as a means to organize a community to compel them to action.
Storytelling compels the soul of the storyteller and the audience to soar in regions inaccessible by the physical body – a place beyond this present reality. It can only be accessed by the spirit of man. The means of transport is the use of language.
Time on the other hand does not contain symbols or even sounds. It does not have anything that can be perceived by the five senses – taste, smell, hearing, sight, and touch. It is some sort of an idea that can only be imagined but there is nothing tangible about it. This is perhaps the reason why some philosophers tried to argue that time does not exist.
However, the invisible does not mean that it is not real and it is not present in this world. It may be that the invisible cannot be captured by human hands and human strength but nevertheless it is as real as the invisible air and the invisible power that binds atomic particles together.
This is perhaps the reason why at the end, critics of time like Jose Luis Borges were forced to accept that time is real and that time is needed by all especially when it comes to the study of humanities and the social sciences.
It is impossible to begin to understand the complexity of the humanities without the element of time. It is difficult to fully understand what Borges tried to say when he quoted Shakespeare. If he meant to say that Shakespeare shared his enthusiasm to negate time then he is wrong. The works of Shakespeare is one of the proofs that time exists.
This is because there is no way to understand his sonnets and his plays without the element of time. This is obvious when one studies the eternal Romeo and Juliet it is impossible to miss the terms Act I, Act II, and Act III and so on and so forth because this is a way to delineate time. It is contrary to what Borges tried to prove that there is no linearity in life (Borges, 1947).
At leas it is linear in the plays of Shakespeare. It would have been impossible to enjoy or even to understand Romeo and Juliet without the use of time because events had to be in proper sequence. The scene where the Montagues and the Capulets tried to kill each other must come first before the scene wherein Romeo fell in love with Juliet.
The scene wherein the messenger took a long time to deliver the message to Romeo must come first before Juliet took her own life. The sequence of events must be in order to make sense of the love story. But without time these events floats into the air, without order and no one has the power to bring it to a discernible pattern.
It is also impossible to understand the social sciences without the element of time. History is possible through a chronology of events. In other words a linear succession of events explains the present because of the things that occurred in the past.
The United States of the 20th century is an impossible concept without the occurrence of the American Revolution that in the 18th century. The United Nations would never have been created without the horror of two World Wars. The social scientists could never create a solution to the problems that he encountered without using the tool we call time.
It is part of the measuring rod that determines success and failures. Time tracks movement, without it there will be no action that resulted in meaningful work and in turn those activities resulted in a body of work that benefited people. There is no way to understand the evolution of a society without time. It is much easier to refute Borges refutation of time rather than to find a way to support his claim.
It is easier to criticize his analysis on how to negate time than to seek a philosophically accepted framework to defend his ideas. Even Borges at the end has to concede that perhaps his desire to refute time is borne out of desperation. He is perhaps fearful of his impending demise and so he tried his best to make time go away but alas there is no escaping time.
Human beings are obligated to evolve into a higher state. It is their destiny to become better, stronger, faster, and wiser. There is no evidence to show that mankind is regressing. There are societies that demonstrate its capability to resist change but they only succeeded in resisting but not in the total apprehension of change.
There are only a few tribes and communities that can actually say that they prefer to stay the same and that they are doing their best to maintain what they currently have. The rest of mankind proves the opposite. It can even be said that there is an eagerness to change, to improve and to enhance what is at present.
The majority looks at the future because it is there where their hope lies and they know that a better version of themselves can only be achieved through movement. It is only possible through human progression.
Humanity must move forward, it cannot afford to look back. A society must learn to use everything that it possesses in order to reach the next level of progress. It is good to treasure memories of days gone by but an obsession with the past will only pull that particular community backwards instead of moving forward. Mankind’s destiny is to become a better species and by doing so he will be able to transform the planet.
Visit a classroom and listen to what children say. Go to a place where the children are not yet tainted with malice and sarcasm and they will tell you that they want to be an instrument of positive change.
This is the reason why they dream of becoming a doctor, an engineer, nurse, police officer, and fireman because deep within – without anyone telling them – they know that they have a mission to fulfill.
Unfortunately, when they are all grown up and exposed to the rough and tumble world they began to doubt if they are really destined for something bigger than trying to pay the bills or working hard for someone who does not appreciate their efforts.
Mankind must make commitment that there is no other way to go but to move forward. Progress is its savior. Technological breakthroughs had proven to be a major catalyst of change and indeed made life easier. It is now easier to grow food, store them, and transport them as compared to the hunter-gatherers of ancient times.
It is now easier to acquire clothes and build homes as compared to a tribe’s struggle to acquire materials and process them. However, technology has also proven to be the source of today’s problems such as pollution, deforestation, garbage, climate change, overcrowding etc.
Nevertheless, this does not mean that technology should be blamed and that it is time to take a step backwards and revert to the medieval mindset of yesteryears. This simply means that mankind must keep moving forward because as human beings continue to clamor for change and for self-improvement then they will be able to solve these problems. It is not technology per se that is the culprit but the lack of knowledge.
The knowledge that we have is enough. Scientists, explorers, and mavericks must rise up to take up the challenge of pushing the boundaries of progress and change.
Future progress assures mankind’s survival but also its improvement as human beings. This is made evident when it comes to the humanities and social sciences. In the study of the humanities a person who seeks improvement will have a better capacity to absorb, appreciate, and teach the profound lessons contained in the humanities as a subject matter.
This means that personal development will enable man and woman to unlock the secrets of philosophy, religion, history, and even the classics so that it can be used to improve the community in particular and the world in general.
Aside from using the humanities as a tool to build better and stronger communities there is another way to improve the lives of people and it is through the correct application of the wisdom and knowledge that can be gleaned from the study of social sciences. However, social scientists must also long for the same thing and it is the desire for growth and progression in their field.
It is not enough for them to know a certain amount of information and then proceed to change the world. Social scientist must discover new methods and new techniques of doing things and this can only be achieved if they learn how to increase their capacity. There is therefore a symbiotic relationship between the study of the humanities and social sciences and human progress. One needs the other.
Works Cited
Anderson, Benedict. Old Languages, New Models. Borges, Jose Luis. A New Refutation of Time. Walter, Benjamin. The Storyteller.
This study seeks to critically analyse the current state of knowledge in the field of Defence medical Information system, as a unique profession, which I have been a part of, for the past ten years. Information systems are sometimes viewed as an academic discipline, but for purposes of this study, we will analyse it as a professional discipline. The concept basically works through the theoretical utilization of information, in a computational manner, such that, business models can be developed to aid basic managerial decision-making processes, across all levels of the organization.
The working of the defence medical information system is based on people input, and specific procedures to be undertaken while utilizing it. However, data, software and hardware applications also play a significant role in the proper functioning of the system. The scope of the information system in the conventional work setting is within the organizational boundaries and across organizational borders. Comprehensively, the defence medical information system is used in areas relating to decision-making functions, processing of various financial transactions, office support functions, knowledge management processes and data management processes.
Utilization of Knowledge
Considering the fact that I work in the defence medical IT system, a number of knowledge bases that we use are health related. Knowledge is normally sourced worldwide. This means that the system relies on a relational based database system that comprises of medical history and experiences of all military servicemen across the board (throughout the course of their careers). Currently, the system is equipped with knowledge relating to more than 7 million servicemen, since the year 1990, and current decisions are based on the information obtained (relating to the military and medical experiences of all the servicemen from 1990) (Rubertone, 2002, p. 1). Past medical and military experiences are especially relied on by researchers in the field because such knowledge acts as the background for their research studies. This is therefore the starting point of all current and future studies in the field. Global knowledge is also relied on when operating the system because global comparisons are also made to gauge the type of service output the system will produce, and how best the system can be improved.
Philosophical Assumptions
In using the defence medical IT system, a number of philosophical assumptions are often applied. These philosophical assumptions are normally pertinent in the analysis of how the information system works. In other words, they guide not only how the information system works, but how inquiries should be made, and how various users must comprehend the system. Functionalism is one of the most evident paradigms through which the system operates on. The paradigm is built on a number of humanistic behaviours and technological attributes which eventually enable users to have a stronger command of their socioeconomic environment (Hirschheim, 1995, p. 47). Users of the system must therefore be aware of how the system enables them to arrive at a given end-result. The system is built with the aim of enabling users transcend computational barriers to achieve their ultimate objectives (Hirschheim, 1995, p. 47).
Radical structuralism is also another openly applied paradigm of the information system. Its popularity emanates from its facilitation of social progress. In other words, the paradigm is centred on the fact that it can be extensively used to transcend social contradictions in the usability of the system and therefore social augmentation and development can be greatly enhanced (Hirschheim, 1995, p. 47). To a significant degree, this involves the wide application of natural sciences as a practical catalyst to this process (Hirschheim, 1995, p. 47). This paradigm is especially useful when there is the transition of any facet of the information system because it helps users understand the requirements of the current evolutionary stage. In close relation, it also helps users understand where the organization stands, in relation to any evolutionary phase. To a large extend, this paradigm is centred on ensuring a sense of continuity and progression of user application (Hirschheim, 1995, p. 47).
One of the operative paradigms used in the system is the cooperative web services paradigm which helps browse current and relevant information from the huge volumes of database available in the system (University of Kansas, 2011, p. 11). This operative paradigm was adopted after traditional crawlers used outdated operative paradigms which retrieve unmodified web pages that ultimately lead to unnecessary internet traffic (which also greatly slowed down the speed of the system). This inefficiency was majorly experienced in indexing and page collection. Furthermore, it was quite difficult to retrieve dynamic information which ultimately led to a loss of important data. However, the new operative paradigm solves a lot of these problems as has been evidenced in its ability to retrieve deleted pages, and its ultimate capability of utilizing up-to-date information (University of Kansas, 2011, p. 11).
Justification for Assumptions
The above assumptions are justifiable and desirably held by practitioners and researchers in the field of information technology because functionalism basically enables users to realize multiple “realizability”. In the words of Bluejoh (2011)
“This means that it is the function with the causal network rather than the physical realisation which is at issue. One good example to explain the idea is that of mouse-traps: Some are made of wire, wood, and cheese. Others are made of plastic and poison. Still others are constituted by bunches of philosophers scurrying around the room armed with inverted wastepaper baskets” (p. 34).
In this analysis, we see that different methodologies in the above example still lead to the same purpose. This flexibility is quite important in the use of the functionalism paradigm because it gives room for different users to arrive at the same conclusion, using a number of methodologies.
The radical structuralism paradigm is also widely accepted by many practitioners and researchers using the system because it eases the transition of information comprehension, especially for researchers in the field (since it makes them understand the intrigues of evolutionary stages in the usability of the system) (WordIQ, 2010, p. 1). Practitioners have also found the paradigm quite useful because it guarantees the sustainability of the system, regardless of the fact that an evolutionary phase may affect the manner of system usability (WordIQ, 2010, p. 1).
From a personal point of view, these assumptions are quite important in the use of the defence IT medical system because the efficiency of the system greatly relies on information technological tools which evolve by the day (Collins, 2001). This is to say that it is important for the system to have a transitional phase, facilitated by the radical structuralism paradigm for example. This view is supported by the post-structuralism view which seeks to understand the functioning of structural designs in the wake of shifting differences in the way structural functions operate (WordIQ, 2010, p. 1). In other words, this is a shift from the structuralism approach where systems were designed in a hierarchical, simple and universal manner (WordIQ, 2010, p. 1).
Conclusion
Information system (and more specifically defence medical information systems) do not significantly differ in the manner other information systems operate. This study points out that knowledge utilization of the system comes from a number of global quarters and the operative functions are guided by radical structuralism and functionalism paradigms which are representative of the poststructuralist approach. Collectively, these dynamics define the current state of knowledge of the defence medical IT system.
References
Bluejoh. (2011). Philosophy of Cognitive Science – Machine Functionalism. Web.
Collins, J. (2001). Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap…And Others Don’t. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
Hirschheim, R. (1995). Information Systems Development and Data Modelling:Conceptual and Philosophical Foundations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rubertone, M. (2002). The Defense Medical Surveillance System and the Department of Defense serum repository: glimpses of the future of public health surveillance. Am J Public Health, 92(12), 1900-4.
University of Kansas. (2011). A Co-Operative Web Services Paradigm for Supporting Crawlers. Web.
Transgender diversity has strongly integrated into the scientific community due to the life- implementation opportunities it provides for scientists. Natural sciences representations have adopted the new trend since it helps better describe the world realities based on fundamental studies. At the same time, from application sciences perspective, transgender studies disclose many possibilities to realize the humans’ potential in the surgery operations domain and overall people’s curing approaches. Even though natural and applied sciences have fundamentally different objectives, they are both interested in analyzing transgender diversity issues in U.S. society with regard to their specialization.
In fact, recent studies demonstrate a dearth of research on how transsexual identity affects behavior and, particularly, the sexual response of another partner. These findings belong to the natural sciences since they tend to describe the world but not develop new elements. More specifically, Raines et al. state that because the sexual reactions of the majority of men and women to pornographic movies depicting men or women are significantly different, we utilized these sexual responses to determine if a person acts in a male-typical or female-typical manner (2021). Consequently, the transgender human analyses have proved the significance of the trans-diversity issue from a biological standpoint. At the end of the studies, authors realized that while transgender males had some female-typical reactions consistent with their feminine birth sex, individuals also demonstrated strong male-typical reactions consistent with their male sex identification. Thus, physiological sexual attraction partially indicates transgender men’s masculine identity for transsexual males (Raines et al., 2021). Even though it is not always evident, but natural sciences are directly interested in developing transgender life in the given boundaries since it provides the exact evidence for many scientific questions that could not be analyzed before.
From the perspective of applied science, transgender diversity problems represent possibilities in the new theories and practices development, especially in medicine. For instance, one study recognized that plastic surgeons had discovered that, indeed, slight surgical modifications might significantly enhance the self-esteem and functionality of transgender representatives (Canner et al., 2018). While these surgeries usually include penile or neovaginal reconstruction, the techniques’ surgical results remain unknown. Additionally, the author state that “only 20% to 40% of transgender individuals seek gender-affirming surgery,” and these numbers are based on questionnaires of a representative sample of transgender people, which considerably limits their generalizability (Canner et al., 2018). As a result, the transgender issue might be even the most perspective field of study for applied sciences representatives since the current situation does not demonstrate even half of the possible surgery market size. Simultaneously, the bigger scale with the higher prices would positively affect the studies’ funding and develop the new analyses concerning this subject.
However, some scientists become concerned about the costs that customers would be obliged to pay for having the qualitative operation of changing the sex. For example, Klein et al. affirm that the analyzing group feels indispensable to contact policymakers in order to develop a plan for covering the uncommon occurrence of preoperative perineal hair removal prior to neo vaginoplasty surgery since the expense of this preoperative necessity might be a substantial barrier to treatment for certain patients. Indeed, the expense of perineal hair removal may surpass Medicaid-eligible individuals’ available resources (2018). At the same time, even though price exposure plays a pivotal role in scientific studies, the general tendency would be to engage the government to provide certain expenditures to incentivize scientists to develop the evidence in the transgender surgery field.
In conclusion, despite the differing purposes, the transgender issue in U.S. society is one of the most perspective fields of study in natural and applied sciences. While the first approach is aimed to describe the world with the help of fundamental knowledge, the second one would experimentally develop a more performative system of human behavior. At the same time, it is critical to correctly distinguish both domains due to their differences in professional approaches so that the scientific studies would successfully derive the needed information about the transgender diversity issue.
In fact, social sciences perspective is the more prominent domain for transgender issues analysis. In particular, this is due to the fact that this phenomenon is mostly influenced by significant shifts in society’s consideration of an untraditional style of living. Since the contemporary world has positively changed transgender representatives’ perceptions, the main issue for this group is not only to continue existence but also to fundamentally develop its integration in society to increase the overall level of welfare.
From a scientific perspective, several efforts have been made to explain the impact of gender diversity on corporate boards on an industry’s financial and economic performance. For instance, Martinez-Jimenez et al. state that some theoretical perspectives such as agency cost theory, the resource-dependency viewpoint, and Becker’s 1964 human capital theory might help to develop the full comprehension of the current problem (2020). At the same time, some scientists emphasize the importance of the multi-stage approach to the issue. More specifically, Gardenswartz et al. affirm that despite all people being indoctrinated into gender-specific behaviors and expectations, gender roles continue to vary throughout time.
In addition, they observe that the same conduct may be seen differently depending on the gender doing it. Simultaneously, the authors concern the gender roles by stating the necessity to accommodate the needs of transgender people through the process of gender reassignment that has gained prominence in recent years (Gardenswartz et al., 2015). As a result, the authors admit the existence of the transgender problem in U.S. society as a whole by providing evidence from workplace studies. They demonstrate one of the examples where a male boss who is aggressive and may be seen as a leader, but a female manager who acts similarly may be perceived as overbearing and arrogant (Gardenswartz et al., 2015). Since there is no precision provided for transgender diversity representatives, they might experience being negatively perceived from both genders’ perspectives. In this case, social sciences helped not only to admit the existence of an issue rather than a single future perspective but also to derive the opportunities for future studies, which plays a pivotal role in addressing transgender diversity in the U.S. society.
In conclusion, the transgender diversity issue is analyzed the most effectively through social perspective since the essence of this phenomenon lies in society’s reconsideration of the gender question. While some studies disclose the necessity of transgender people being equally treated, other ones provide real-life examples of how gender might influence people’s reactions. Finally, it is critical to prevent transgender individuals from being criticized by distinct gender representatives, which is the second big question for social scientists.
References
Canner, J. K., Harfouch, O., Kodadek, L. M., et al. (2018). Temporal Trends in Gender-Affirming Surgery Among Transgender Patients in the United States. JAMA Surgery, 153(7), 609–617. Web.
Gardenswartz, L., & Rowe, A. (2015). The Sage Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence. SAGE Publications.
Grade K-3: A State Standard for Approaches to Learning in Social Studies
“Students can demonstrate curiosity by seeking opportunities – whether independently or in collaboration with peers and teachers – to extend their knowledge” (Assessment for learning and development in K-3, 2013, p. 24).
Grade K-5: A State Standard for Approaches to Learning in Social Studies
“Apply the tools of a geographer to understand the emergence, expansion and decline of civilizations, societies and regions” (State Board of Education, 2010, p. 3).
K-3: Picture Book #1: Seeking Opportunities
Pattis, A.-F. (2003). Let’s learn French coloring book. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Ltd.
The specified coloring book by Pattis (2003) allows K-3 learners to seek opportunities, as it helps the students both explore the French language and culture and draw parallels between English and French. In other words, the book in question presents young learners with a chance to understand the way, in which language works, thus, creating the premises for students to develop an intuitive understanding of both languages.
The author of the book is clever enough to provide the information that the students need to draw their conclusions about the French and the English language, the similarities, and differences between them, and at the same time do not let young learners make erroneous assumptions. The book encourages the students to work independently on the search for new opportunities by engaging the learners in unique games and fun activities. As a result, the students are not pressured into studying – quite on the contrary, they are eager to participate in learning the mechanisms of the language, which sets the premises for their further individual learning process.
K-3: Picture Book #2: Extending Knowledge
Disney Learning. (2005). Phonics & Reading. Victoria, AU: Funtastic, Ltd.
K-3 learners must be able to learn both the material as required by the state standards and at the same time the means of using the rules learned in specific situations, thus, acquiring new knowledge and expanding the existing one and Phonics & Reading by Disney Learning (2005) provides ample opportunities for young learners to expand their knowledge in a very specific way. It would be wrong to demand that K-3 students should study phonetics very closely and in great details from the very start; therefore, instructors miss a lot of opportunities to teach young learners not only the basics of the English language but also the essentials required to learn to read fast and fluently.
This color book, however, fixes the specified problem, offering students a chance to learn not only the basics of reading in English but also some elements of phonetics, therefore, allowing them to understand the way that the English language works. Analyzing the effects of the specified book, one must admit that it may provide an outlook on the specifics of word-building in English as well.
K-5: Book #1: Utilizing the Tools of a Geographer
Moore, J. E. (2005). World geography cards. Monterey, CA: Evan-Moor.
Teaching students the basics of geography, as well as its diverse tools, is far from being hard – on the contrary, young learners absorb new information in a rather expeditious manner. When it comes to training them to apply the acquired information to solve practical tasks, however, major issues arise, as a rule. World geography cards were designed to help learners avoid the specified problems; with the help of the pictures that have been chosen very carefully and the narration that provides rather detailed instructions, the authors of the text show students in a very graphic way how certain geographic tools can be used for specific purposes.
By following the guide designed by Moore (2005), students will be able to learn to use the basic geography tools, including maps, a globe, a chart, etc. It is also remarkable that the book in question encourages the students to use the skills that they have acquired when attending performance art classes, i.e., creating maps and cutting out cards. Thus, linking the activities that most children associate with playing games, the author of the book helps young learners relate their experience of studying with a pleasant pastime, which motivates students to become active learners.
K-5: Book #2: Tracking Down the Evolution of Civilizations
MacDonald, F. (2007). Aztecs: Hands-on history. London, UK: QED Publishing.
It is quite hard to trick young learners into studying subjects that have something to do with ancient history. Perhaps, it is the lack of connection with the present time that blocks young students’ way to getting interested in the history of the ancient civilizations.
Fiona MacDonald, however, knows exactly how to entice young students with the life of people belonging to the ancient civilization, seeing how easily she ties in the elements of everyday life and the concepts that are several thousand years old. More to the point, the book suggests that an activity should be crafted for each week, and in most cases these activities presuppose drawing, making paper cutouts, coloring, etc. Inviting children into the world of the ancient cultures, MacDonald works wonders with the students’ ability to remember new information about ancient cultures and interpret it in different ways.
Reference List
Assessment for learning and development in K-3. (2013). Public Schools of North Carolina. Web.
Disney Learning. (2005). Phonics & Reading. Victoria, AU: Funtastic, Ltd.
MacDonald, F. (2007). Aztecs: Hands-on history. London, UK: QED Publishing.
Moore, J. E. (2005). World geography cards. Monterey, CA: Evan-Moor.
Pattis, A.-F. (2003). Let’s learn French coloring book. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Ltd.
State Board of Education. (2010). Public Schools of North Carolina. Web.
Researchers have carried out various researches regarding parental involvement in education of their children, with many reports implying that increased levels of parental participation in the child’s education can improve the student’s academic achievements.
Generally, children are mainly educated by their parents and teachers throughout their lives. Parents play a very important role in education, by partnering with teachers and students to enhance running of the education systems effectively. In order to assist the parents to become aware of the effectiveness of their partnering in education, teachers should involve dialogue with the parents early enough to discuss about the parents’ hopes and aspirations for their child.
Their understanding of the child needs and their suggestions about the ways that the teachers can help allow the teachers to be able to highlight their limitations and invite parents to participate in their child’s education in definite ways (Nieto, 1996). For the child to perform well academically, it requires substantial support from parents.
Parents involvement in education of a child takes several ways including “good parenting, provision of a secure and stable environment, intellectual stimulation, parent-child discussion, good models of constructive social and educational values and high aspiration relating to personal fulfillment and participation in the school events, work and governance” (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003. P.5). Therefore, the parents involvement normally touches on the school life and the individual assistance offered to the child at home and at school.
Parents and the school are very vital in the roles they play in the children’s education and their impact can be greater through partnering in their duties, since there is no clear line to show where the parents’ input stops and the teachers’ input begins in children education (UK Department for Education and Skills, 2003).
Statement of the Problem
What are the impacts of parental involvement on the educational progress of the children? For many researchers and educational experts, increased parental involvement in children education is always associated with positive students’ achievements; however, others disagree about what really makes the involvements to influence the students’ performance positively.
For the antagonists, they believe that studies to justify increased parental involvement lack scientific rigor, are mainly based on assumptions, the positions they support are not tenable, and many programs and policies supporting parental involvement are explicitly based on the evidence that does not exist. In addition, they may lead to ambiguity in regards to what parental involvement programs and policies actually are able to accomplish (Educationalliance, 2010). Based on the above situation, this paper will review researches to check the impact of parent involvement at home and at school in their children schooling.
Literature review
Parental involvement programs are mostly crafted to be composed of several means of training and participations for parents to work with schools and teachers. Parent involvement normally begins with contacts (phone calls, visits) in which the teachers update parents on the student progress and seek parents assistance.
The second stage of parent participation involves home learning activities. Parents largely use the following methods to aid students’ learning. First, “reading activities in which parents listen, correct, and praise their children’s reading; secondly, teacher advised discussions about television programs that parents and children watch together; and instructional techniques designed for parents to help with homework” (Moles, 1982, P.45). Many of the surveys conducted in this area have indicated that both parents and teachers support increased parent involvement in their children education.
Although parent involvement is widely favored, it is faced by some challenges including: first, teachers’ and parents’ conflicting family commitments and time constraints. Others include parents’ and schools’ conflicting perception of learning priorities, teacher’ low expectations of parents’ efforts, parents’ inability to handle their students’ family problems, and finally, a history of negative communications between the home and school (Moles, 1982, P.45).
Parent’s involvement in their children’s education has always received much support with schools, teachers, and institutional systems coming up with programs and patterns for encouraging parents’ involvement in the education of their children.
After reviewing research findings, it was concluded that “a joint and well organized effort by parents and teachers is very important to handling more successfully the problems of discipline, motivation, and the development of good work habits at home and in school by working with parents” (Gallup, 1978).
Parent participation on students achievement is much encouraged at preschool. According to Bronfenbrenner (1974), having reviewed several of early intervention programs, it was concluded that the active involvement of family is very vital to the success of the programs, and it strengthens and helps to maintain the effects of school parent involvement programs.
Sometimes, there are mixed reactions to parent involvement in education, with schools and teachers tending to support some parental participation well, and at the same time not being contented with other parental participation. According to Williams (1981), after analyzing “the evaluation of a variety of parent involvement by elementary teachers in a six state regional survey, it was concluded that the teachers were not very supportive about parent participation in curriculum development, instruction, or school governance.”
Ideally, parent support was justified and at the same time enhanced through teachers’ assistance despite limitation of opportunities by schools for both to co-work effectively. In a similar study conducted on the same setup of the principals, Williams (1981) observed that principals valued parent involvement in children’s home learning for several reasons: it aids schools by strengthening school learning, and is within parents’ capabilities; but they also felt that parents lack adequate training to prepare them for an active role in children’s home learning.
Studies have been conducted to assess how poorly educated and low- income parents are affected in their parental involvement. Due to challenges faced by these parents, some schools have developed programs to aid them in assisting their children schooling.
For example, “the Parent Plus program in Chicago brings such parents into the school one day a week to learn how they can help at home with current school work and expand their homemaking and community-related skills” (Moles, 1982, P.46).
Further, to understand the impact of parents’ involvement at school and in the home learning for their children, this paper will look at research conducted by Sui-Chu and Willms in 1996 to check how parents supported their children school progress.
Chu and Willms got their data from “the US National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) based on a sample of around 24600 8th grade students in a stratified sample drawn from 1500 schools, with the evidence being collected from student and parent questionnaires and was gauged using standardized attainment tests in mathematics and reading” (Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996). The table below shows the items contained in the questionnaire.
Talk with mother
How often have you talked [to your mother or female guardian] about planning your high school program? (0 = not at all, 1 = once or twice, 2 = three or more times)
Talk with father
How often have you talked to [your father or male guardian] about planning your high school program? (0 = not at all, 1 = once or twice, 2 = three or more times)
Discuss school Programme
Since the beginning of the school year, how often have you discussed the …. selecting courses or programs at school. (0 = not at all, 1 = once or twice, 2 = three or more times)
Discuss Activities
… school activities or events of particular interest to you (0 = not at all, 1 = once or twice, 2 = three or more times)
Monitor Homework
How often do your parents or guardians check on whether you have done your homework? (0 = never, 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often)
Limit TV Time
… limit the amount of time you can spend watching TV? (0 = never, 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often)
Limit Going Out
… limit the amount of time for going out with friends on school nights? (0 = never, 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often)
Home after School
(is your mother or father) … at home when you return home from school? (0 = never, 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = usually)
School Contacts Parents
Since your eighth grader’s school opened last fall, how many times have you been contacted by the school about …. your eighth grader’s (a) academic performance, (b) academic program for this year, (c) course selection for high school, (d) placement decisions …., and (e) behaviour in school? (0 = none, 1 = once or twice, 2 = three or four times, 3 = more than four times)
Volunteer at School
Do you or your spouse or partner … act as a volunteer at the school (0 = no, 1 = yes)
PTO
… (a) belong to PTO, (b) attend meetings of a PTO, and (c) take part in the activities of a PTO? (0 = no, 1 = yes)
Source: Sui-Chu and Willms. Web.
Reponses to the questionnaire items were scored and the scores analyzed to look for major patterns. A principal component analysis with varimax rotation identified four factors with Eigen values greater than 1. Four main factors were assessed to describe most parental involvement activity: two types of home involvement (home discussion of school activities and home supervision) and two types of school involvement (school communication and school participation).
Finally, the data was analyzed to check the relationship between forms of parental involvement and social class of the families. For analysis, multilevel regression analysis fit for hierarchical linear model (HLM) was used, as shown in the following section.
Findings
According to Sui-Chu and Willms (1996), the following results emerged from the study. First, there was a variance of “55 percent in the set of 12 variables”; intra-school involvement, rather than inter-school involvement was found to account for 90 % of the total variation, however, “the distribution was relatively uniform across the schools”; and lastly, the level of parental involvement was directly proportional to the level of social class exhibited.
Source: Sui-Chu and Willms. Web.
Discussion
The results indicated that, levels of communication and levels of parental involvement in the home were relatively uniform across all schools, thus it was not possible to identify reliably, schools that were particularly effective or ineffective in culturing higher levels of parental involvement.
Most researchers argue that successful schools use practices that foster greater communication with parents, encourage parents to assist children at home with their schoolwork and planning, and take parents to act as volunteers or participants in school governance; all aimed at high level schooling outcomes (Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996, P.137).
These results therefore imply that these schools are more of ideal examples but they are very limited. The home-school communication collaboration may be hindered by parent cooperation, “with many parents facing competing demands of work and family life, come from different cultural backgrounds, and feel mistrust and anxiety when dealing with school staff; while many teachers face competing demands at school and at home, are not trained on how to handle parents, and may experience hard times when relating with culturally different families” (Moles, 1982, P.45).
Due to different priorities and perspectives of families and schools, concerns for one’s own child compared with responsibility for group progress, mostly generate conflict over means of attaining common goals (Lightfoot, 1978).
Though social class seems to affect parental involvement, the overall measure of family background explained only about 10 percent of the variations in parental involvement across the four types of involvement; thus, these results do not support the notion that poor or uneducated families are not well involved in schooling of their children.
According to study carried out by Vellymalay (2010) to investigate “the relationship between parent’s level of education and parental involvement in their children’s among the National Medium Tamil Schools in Malaysia,” there were no significant differences found between parent’s education and level of parental involvement; the study found very small evidence linking parents’ with more education to high involvement.
However, these results may not agree with some studies such as the ones carried to determine whether environment can increase IQ scores. The study examined the IQs of African American children from impoverished environments who were adopted into middle class families (some white and some African American), with all of the families providing many social-educational opportunities for the adopted children. Researchers found that the IQs of the adopted children were as much as 10 points higher than IQs of African Americans raised in disadvantaged homes (Plotnik, & Kouyoumdjian, 2010, P.293).
Conclusion
In addressing the question of what are the impacts of parental involvement on the educational progress of the children, these results have clearly indicated that children’s academic achievement and the level to which the parents are involved in schools also depend on the intake characteristics of schools.
These results show that children scored much higher in mathematics and reading, when they attended schools with more social educational system (SES) and parental involvements. The research has also pointed out clearly that volunteering in participation has a double effect of improving the quality education and minimizing inequalities between social-class groups.
Therefore, it is up to school parents to create and forges ahead with meaningful parental involvement programs for the benefits of the students.
Reference List
Bronfenbrenner, U., 1974. Is Early Intervention Effective? A Report on Longitudinal Evaluation of Preschool Programs. Washington, DC: Department Of Health Education and Welfare.
Desforges, C., & Abouchaar, A., 2003. The Impact of Parental Involvement, Parental Support and Family Education on Pupil Achievement and Adjustment: A Literature Review. UK Department for Education and Skills. Research Report RR433. Web.
Gallup, G. H., 1978. The 10th Annual Gallup Poll of the Public’s Attitudes toward the Public Schools. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 60, Pp 33-45.
Moles, O. C., 1982. Synthesis of Recent Research on Parent Participation in Children’s Education. Resource Information Service.
Nieto, S., 1996. Positive Perspectives on Parents and Families. Web.
Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H., 2010. Introduction to Psychology. OH: Cengage Learning.
Sui-Chu, E. H., and Willms, J. D., 1996. Effects of Parental Involvement on Eighth-Grade Achievement. Sociology of Education, Vol 69, No.2, Pp 126-141. Web.
UK Department for Education and Skills. 2003. The Impact of Parental Involvement on Children’s Education. Web.
Vellymalay, S. K. N., 2010. Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: Does Parents’ Education Level Really Matters? School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia. European Journal of Social Sciences, Volume 16, Issue 3.
Williams, D.L., 1981. Final Interim Report Southwest Parent Educational Resource Center. Austin, Texas: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.
