The question of free will has been central to philosophy for thousands of years, and yet, the clash between free will and determinism has not been resolved to this day. The idea of free will permeates many cultures and underpins their very foundations. Concurrently, socioeconomic, political, and psychological realities often challenge the illusion of human omnipotence and bring forth the often defining role of circumstances.
In social sciences, the debate is known as agency vs. stratification where agency denotes the human capacity to make decisions unimpeded, while structure refers to patterned arrangements that contain and limit the said agency. Their complicated relationship is reflected in Cottom’s quote: “We are people with free will, circumscribed to different degrees by histories that shape who we are allowed to become.” This paper reflects on the tension between agency and stratification.
The Tension Between Agency and Stratification
The ideas of agency, stratification, and their interactions are at the very heart of the sociological theory. In essence, they echo the fundamental questions concerning the origins of the social world and the determinants of human behavior. On the one hand, a group of thinkers and sociologists argue in favor of stratification’s predominant role. For instance, Marxism reasoned that any human society is defined by a class struggle in which the dominant class oppresses and exploits the proletariat. In this case, the whole is greater than its part, and a person’s life and its quality are largely contingent on their belongingness to a certain class.
Today, there is scientific evidence substantiating this claim: for example, it has been established that poverty implies long-term stress, which, in turn, suppresses cognitive function (Mani et al., 2013). At the same time, history knows many examples of when people were able to overcome their circumstances and rise above their humble beginning. Hence, there is an opposing school of thought that stresses the human ability to construct and reconstruct their realities. From this perspective, an individual can be more influential than the system, removing the primacy of stratification.
C. Wright Mill’s Theory of the Sociological Imagination
A concept that is useful for understanding the tension between agency and stratification is Wright Mill’s sociological imagination. He wrote that “neither the life of an individual nor the history of a society can be understood without understanding both,” striking a balance between agency and stratification without assigning the leading role to either of them (Wright Mill, 2000). In essence, Wright Mill argued that one can replace the lenses through which they see the world and take a look at their reality from a new angle. What changing one’s perspective may do is debunk the illusion that every person’s struggle is unique and they are pursuing a solitary path.
Many phenomena, such as marriage, education, employment, and others, deal with more than one individual at once. For instance, choosing a life partner may seem like an individual task, but society dictates a relationship timeline and rites of marriage that have been established long before the said individual was even born. It might as well be that every individual action has been taken by others as well and, moreover, a result of interlocking influences and circumstances.
When developing his concept of sociological imagination, Wright Mill does not negate free will. However, like Cottom, he emphasizes the role of the socium and opines that free will is limited to different degrees. Indeed, oftentimes, people are not completely free in what and who they are “allowed to become.” Wright Mill explains that deviant and delinquent behavior often takes root in early childhood experiences. Besides, the environment in which a person is born provides them with blueprints and patterns that they see as the norm. Yet, understanding the origins of deviance cannot serve as an excuse. Blaming circumstances for every action is an essentially defeatist position that should be avoided.
Following Wright Mill’s argument, one can conclude that a person has outright important freedom, which is the freedom to assign meaning to things. While some circumstances, especially those that mattered in the past, may be unchangeable, a person can gain more free will through changing their perspective.
Conclusion and Reflection
It seems like the debate between agency and stratification will never come to a halt with a meaningful resolution. I personally think that instead of assigning primacy to either agency or stratification, it makes sense to develop the third position. In particular, it would be compelling to investigate interactions between free will and limiting circumstances. To think, this approach already underlies some social policies and phenomena, such as affirmative action.
They acknowledge the existence of a system that may treat people unequally and discriminate against some groups of people. At the same time, with a nudge and help, the underprivileged can become empowered enough to carve their own path and overcome the obstacles they did not choose. Therefore, the question should be posed not as “Which is more influential – agency or structure” but as “How do they impact each other?”
References
Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. science, 341(6149), 976-980.
Mills, C. W. (2000). The sociological imagination. Oxford University Press.
The proponents of this paradigm assert that reality is not fixed and therefore knowledge is not fixed waiting to be discovered by social scientists (Travers, 2010, p.22). There is emphasis on the individual both the subject and the researcher. There is a sensitivity to the other person’s world view. For example, there is a need to realize that indigenous people question why researchers always take the position of dominance while the natives are expected to be nothing more than the object of their research (Smith, 1999, p.119).
Another researcher succinctly explained in this passage: “We do not construct our interpretations in isolation but against a backdrop of shared understandings, practices, language, and so forth” (Travers, 2010, p.22). It can be argued that this paradigm will enable researchers to work closely and effectively with the target group, be it the people living in the poor section of a city or indigenous peoples living in a remote area.
In the Mackenzie Valley pipeline inquiry, the commissioner could not rely on mere analysis of what is normally believed to be the highest form of information or “truth”, this is what is commonly attributed to empirical evidence that is the result of extensive use of techniques derived from the scientific method of knowing. However, it is clear in the results of the inquiry that the Dene, Inuits and the Metis are people with a different mindset .
A business only approach to the study of the viability of the oil pipeline will provide no insight to the extent of the social and economic cost of the proposed project. Therefore, the ideas that will be generated for problem solving purposes will not be enough to address all pertinent issues to the satisfaction of all those who are involved in the construction of the pipeline.
Critical Discussion
The people behind the construction of the pipeline are experts in engineering and the business aspects related to an expensive and risky venture.
Therefore, it can be said that it is not their first time to build a pipeline. They may have constructed one in the United States, the Middle-East or even in Europe. There is therefore the tendency to look at the proposal to build the Mackenzie Valley pipeline as another one of those projects. The engineers and the project managers will simply use the same methods employed in other sites and expect success.
But it can easily backfire as pointed out by one researcher who said that the establishment of oil and gas industry “could deprive the people who live in the frontier of their rights to the land, and it could offer them employment for reasons that have nothing to do with their needs” (Berger, 1988, p.170). This means that the project team will have to work closely with the natives to understand their dilemma, their fears and even their aspirations. They will be able to develop a better plan. This is the importance of using this paradigm.
Feminist Paradigm
This paradigm was developed based on the ontological assumption that this world is dominated by men (Travers, 2010, p.27). Those who favor this view are working hard to rectify what they call is an injustice or an erroneous way of looking at things. They also believe that “conventional knowledge production is a tool men use to maintain and naturalize this dominance” (Travers, 2010, p.27).
For example one analyst said that in some indigenous cultures women are seen as assertive and confident and if this is the case in the Northern Frontier then project managers will have to be informed with the way community makes a decision especially with regards to a proposal that will forever change the lives of the indigenous peoples (Smith, 1999, p.96).
In the case of the Mackenzie Valley pipeline inquiry the feminist paradigm comes into play when one will consider the research design and what was the rationale as to why these issues were the main focus of the said inquiry.
It seems that the focus was only on the breadwinner of the family which are the men or the father of the household. There was an extensive discussion with regards to the impact of the pipeline to the local economy but these issues were discussed with the head of the family in mind and how this can affect their role and responsibility as the provider of the family.
No emphasis was given when it comes to the impact of the men’s jobs on their family such as separation from their wives and children (Berger, 1988, p.178). There is therefore limited information when it comes to the women of the household, but a feminist perspective can help widen the scope of inquiry.
The absence of a feminist paradigm makes it easier for researchers to fall into the trap of conventional thinking. For example, in the Mackenzie Valley pipeline inquiry, the voices of women were rarely heard, if at all. As a result no one knew what the women really felt about the project. This is unacceptable because women have a role to play in shaping society and their inputs are valuable when it comes to creating a plan that will ensure the success of the pipeline.
Critical Discussion
In the Mackenzie Valley pipeline inquiry there was very little information with regards to the role that women play in the event that outsiders come pouring into the said region because of the presence of an oil pipeline. The feminist paradigm will help encourage the planners to be more conscious about women and what they can contribute to the said endeavor.
More importantly the focus of the inquiry was on the male members of the indigenous population. This does not mean that there is male-bias as suggested by the adherents of the feminist paradigm nevertheless it is important to get more information regarding the impact of the project to the women, mothers, and daughters. This will create a more credible report.
5 Facets of Constructivist-Interpretive Paradigm
There are at least five aspects of this paradigm that makes it an effective tool in research when it comes to the subject matter of Northern Frontier, Northern Homeland. The first one is the idea that knowledge is not fixed.
It is a crucial piece of insight regarding the acquisition of knowledge because it immediately acknowledges the fact that the researcher is not infallible and that there are still many things that he does not know about. The researcher comes into the scene and project the idea that he or she is better than the natives. The researcher may not be aware of but it will certainly affect the findings of the research process.
This is because the researcher armed with his so-called proven techniques comes into the area with the belief that he or she can discover the truth. However, no one really has the ability to see the truth in its entirety and this is the beauty of the constructivist-interpretive paradigm because it makes the researcher aware of his or her limitations and yet firm in the conviction that it is possible to acquire knowledge.
The second most important facet of this paradigm can be seen in the idea that knowledge is the byproduct of interpreting information gleaned from the research but not using tools and models and rules but according to what the person says.
This was clarified even further by one researcher who revealed that, “When using figures, you do not have to consider the reality of what is happening on the ground; with pages of text, flow charts and graphs, you can express ideas about cash income and gross domestic product and avoid all consideration of hwat is really occurring among the families of the native communities” (Berger, 1988, p.178).
With this paradigm researchers are made aware of the other important aspects the project that has to be studied and empower them to report what they had discovered in the field.
The third facet of this paradigm is that knowing is not a passive process. This means that the researcher can never be fully objective while doing research. When an information is relayed and digested in the mind the person is affected by that information and at the same time his past experiences, knowledge, and training comes into play and affect the way he or she interprets data.
This is why it is important to understand and acknowledge that this process occurs while doing research and instead of suppressing it a much better alternative is to use the researcher’s interpretation of reality and fuse it with the worldview of the subject matter. In this case, the indigenous people.
Finally, the fourth aspect of this paradigm that would make an appropriate tool for research in the Northern Frontier is the insistence that “there is no material reality that exists outside of interpretation” (Travers, 2010, p.22).
This means that researchers are the final arbiters. They cannot rely on formulas and they cannot say that a technique or model has allowed them to discover the truth. It is their interpretation of the data based on a thorough examination of what the indigenous people had relayed to them when it comes to the way they perceived the outside world around them.
All the four aspects of the constructivist-interpretive paradigm are crucial in understanding the indigenous people of the frontier. If they go to the site with a prior understanding of the Mackenzie Valley, of its people, and a fixed belief system on how humans behave then they will simply discover ideas and behavior patterns that will conform to their own biases.
For instance if they believe that the indigenous people living in this region are uneducated and primitive then they will see their traditional way of life as somewhat barbaric and must be transformed in accordance to Western lifestyle.
Here lies the danger because they had sealed-off their minds from information that has the potential to radically impact their inquiry. Yet, since they are no longer willing to absorb information by attempting to understand the indigenous people’s point of view then there is not stopping their error-prone ways.
Outsiders trying to exploit the natural resources of a particular region comes into the territory with a bias towards technology. Nothing is important except the technology that is believe to be the savior of the world (Smith, 1999, p.99). It is like going into a territory with blinders and insensitive to the needs, fears, and aspirations of the people. This is why researchers will never understand why there is conflict and that they cannot gain the favor of the natives.
As explained by one social scientist, “The most fundamental clash between Western and indigenous belief system … stems from a belief held by indigenous people that the earth is a living entity” (Smith, 1999, p.99). The investors and project managers may be able to separate the people from their natural habitat but the people will resent this. There is therefore conflict that will not be resolved because one of them operates within a system that does not accommodate this kind of worldview.
The constructivist-interpretive paradigm has one last final facet that has to be pointed out in this study. The fifth aspect when it comes to this paradigm is its capability to utilize the best in other paradigms.
In other words the scientific approach used by those who believed in the positivist paradigm can be adapted here. An aspect of the feminist paradigm which is the need to acknowledge the place and contribution of women in society can be also be adapted into the constructivist-interpretive paradigm without compromising its core principles. There is therefore a great degree of flexibility.
A researcher can still use the data gleaned from scientific studies. For instance, a researcher is aware that the indigenous population will greatly benefit from the successful recovery of petroleum products, however he is also aware that the process must be sustainable in order to minimize the impact to the environment (Berger, 1988, p.168). The researcher who uses this paradigm will come to realize that the natives are not only after the wages for they also value the natural resources that for them is not only raw materials but a source of life.
The use of this paradigm will not limit the researcher. He or she can even use other paradigms and other methods of knowledge acquisition but will never feel confined to a particular methodology. More importantly those who use this paradigm will be able to know exactly th concerns of the people.
They will be able to articulate these issues to the project manager or even the investors. As a result there is a way develop an action plan that will ensure success and happiness to all concerned not just the big companies who comes in to exploit and profit from the destruction of a region and its peoples’ culture.
References
Berger, T. (1988). Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry. British Columbia: Douglas & McIntyre.
Smith, L. (1999). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. New York: Zed Books.
Travers, A. (2010). The Philosophy of the Social Sciences. CA: Simon Fraser University Press.
Social science focuses on the study of society. The research centers on the importance of the scientific method in generating more convincing social science perspectives. The research focuses on the natural sciences and physical sciences to support the social science research activities. The scientific method as well and the other related sciences contribute to a more effective and convincing social science research course of actions.
In terms of psychology of group behavior, the social scientific question is: What is the effect of taste on the prospective clients’ product preference. The question is significant for analysis. The question will help identify the prospective and current client’s product preferences.
The results of the research will help company’s identity which product should be prioritized. The cost of the research is minimal compared to producing lots of goods that are unsalable. The company’s huge advertising budget would go to naught when the current and prospective clients refuse to buy products that are not in line with their taste preferences. Each person has a unique taste preference. Some prefer coffee, others prefer beverages.
Some prefer chocolates, others prefer mint candies. Some prefer pork food products, others prefer chicken food products. Some prefer McDonald’s hamburgers, others prefer Kentucky Fried Chicken. Some prefer office clothes, others prefer work clothes. The list can go on and on. The research will lessen the guesswork and frustration of producing products will does not fill the discriminating prospective target market’s needs, wants, and caprices (Black, 2002).
How should the survey be conducted? The first sub-question shows that he survey can be conducted by letting the respondents answer questions in a survey form or oral form. Some respondents prefer the survey form because it is grounded on privacy. On the other hand, people in the vicinity can hear the respondents’ answer to orally made questions. The survey can be conducted by letting the respondents take a taste test of two competing products.
The survey will indicate which product will be chosen by the respondent, according to taste. The survey can be conducted in universities, kindergarten or middle school locations. The different school groups will generate a different set of survey results. The results of the middle school respondents may differ or mimic the survey results of the university students. The survey can be conducted in grocery stores.
The researcher can set up a taste test table for the grocery visitors to freely partake in the research. The action avoids getting the survey results of person who do not frequent the grocery stores. The taste test can be conducted by setting up a taste test table along a busy street corner. The people of all ages, gender, religion, race, or other walks of life can contribute their share in determining the most sought after taste.
The survey will exclude other possible taste test respondents who do not pass along the busy street corner. The taste test can be conducted in the morning or in the afternoon. The taste test will indicate the taste preferences of busy morning people. On the other hand, the afternoon taste test will exclude the busy morning people as possible respondents. The taste test can be conducted during the prospective clients’ peak hours or during their non-peak hours.
The researcher will gather more research data if the research was conducted during peak hours. However, the deluge of the long queue of respondents will reduce the quantity and quality of the taste test process. The researcher must reduce the taste test time allotment in order to accommodate more taste test respondents. The researcher can generate the taste test result from 50 respondents. On the other hand, the research can have more convincing taste test results if the respondents reach 500 or more respondents (Yates, 2004).
How should the survey questions’ results be formulated and tabulated? The second sub- question focuses on how the survey questions will formulated and tabulated. The second sub-question focuses on the content of the survey questions. The survey question may indicate the respondents’ names, contact numbers, and addresses.
Some respondents freely give their personal data to the researchers. However, other groups of persons prefer to hide their identity. The United States constitution gives everyone the right to privacy. Thus, the respondent can tell the researcher that he or she elects to hide one’s identity by not stating any personal information on the survey form.
The survey form may indicate the person’s age, gender, occupation, education attainment, or marital status. The respondents can fill the blanks asking for the respondent’s average monthly salary. The respondents can fill the survey questions asking one’s religion (Yates, 2004).
How should the gathered data be interpreted? The third problem focuses on how gathered taste test results will be interpreted. The research may use different tools to interpret the above gathered research data. The research may use the mean statistical tool in the interpretation process.
The same researcher may implement the standard deviation to answer the taste test question. The research can use analysis of variance to determine if the there is a significant difference between different groups when taking the taste test results. The groups may be segregated according the respondents’ age. The group may be segregated according one’s gender.
The research may determine if there is significant difference between the taste test results of the respondents according to educational attainment. The researcher may use the mode statistical tool to interpret the gathered taste test results. The researcher can use the frequency statistical tool to determine the frequency results of the different respondent groups.
The researcher can use the ranking statistical tool as basis for coming up with an answer to the research question. The researcher can use the chi- square statistical tool to determine if there is a relationship between the respondent groups in terms of answering the taste test survey questions (Yates, 2004).
The social scientific method provides a complete framework for investigating the three research problems that were identified. The first three steps of the standard scientific method are defining the question, gathering relevant information and references, and forming an explanatory hypothesis.
The next three steps of the standard scientific process are testing the hypothesis by performing an experiment, analyzing the gathered information, and interpreting the gathered information and generating conclusions. The last steps of the standard scientific process are publishing the results of the scientific experiment, and retesting the scientific process to determine if the same results will be repeated (Aronson, 2011).
In terms of the first sub-question, the researcher can introduce all the eight steps of the scientific process to determine if the survey can be conducted by letting the respondents answer questions in a survey form or oral form. The researcher can gather relevant information and references on the different data gathering processes, especially the survey aspect and the oral interview aspect. The researcher can form an explanatory hypothesis that oral interview and the use of surveys are valid methods of gathering relevant data.
Next the researcher can test the hypothesis by conducting a survey and oral interview. The researcher can gather the results of the survey experiment and the oral interview experiment as basis for interpreting whether the survey method and the oral method are valid data gathering methods. The research can publish the results of the scientific method.
The results may include affirmation or negation of the suggested survey questions as appropriate data gathering procedures. Lastly, another group of social and scientific researchers can retest the same scientific experiment on the creation of survey questions. The repetition will affirm or dispute the findings of the first scientific experiment on the question generating hypothesis as valid data gathering processes (Aronson, 2011).
The researcher can implement all the eight steps of the social scientific process to determine if the second sub- question focuses on how the survey questions will formulated and tabulated. Similarly, the same researcher can implement all the eight steps of the scientific process to establish the most effective set of survey questions.
The researcher can gather related information and resources on the most practical method of generating data gathering questions. The researcher can form an explanatory hypothesis that the inclusion of age, gender, occupation, and religion, and other data are valid methods of gathering relevant data.
Next the researcher can test the hypothesis by making one’s own set of data gathering questions. The researcher can research on the most optimum set of questions asked in standard social research and scientific research activities. The researcher can use the sets of questions as basis for interpreting whether the selected questions are valid data gathering methods. The research can publish the results of the scientific method done on the question generating process.
The results will incorporate affirmation or negation of the survey method and oral interview methods as appropriate data gathering procedures. Lastly, another set of researchers may repeat the same scientific experiment. The repetition will confirm the findings of the first scientific experiment on the viability of surveys and oral interviews as valid data gathering processes (Aronson, 2011).
The researcher can apply all the eight steps of the social scientific process to determine how to resolve the third problem. The third sub- problem focuses on how gathered taste test results will be interpreted. The researcher can gather related data and resources on the best way to analyze and interpret the gathered results. The researcher can form an explanatory hypothesis that the analysis and interpretation process is correct.
Next the researcher can test the hypothesis by analyzing and interpreting the data gathered. The researcher can use the results of the analysis and interpretation process as basis for interpreting whether the current data analysis and interpretation processes are correct. The researcher can publish the results of the scientific method on the data analysis and interpretation experiment.
The results may confirm or negate the hypothesis presented in terms of data analysis and interpretation. Lastly, another set of researchers may reset the same scientific experiment on data analysis and interpretation. The repetition will affirm or contradict the findings of the first scientific experiment on the correctness in terms of data analysis and interpretation (Aronson, 2011).
The social scientific responses extensively rely on methods drawn from the physical and natural sciences. The social science spectrum focuses on how society acts. Man lives in a planet that filled with physical and natural objects. The physical objects fall under the concepts and theories of physical science.
Likewise, the natural objects fall under the theories and concepts of the natural sciences. The physical sciences include physics, chemistry, and astronomy. Chemistry is used in the study of determine the best tasting product. Thus, the social scientific research must delve into chemistry to discover the most salable product. Without the inputs for physical science, the social scientific responses would be incomplete (Shipman, 2009).
In addition, natural science includes the study of sociology and economics. The other natural sciences are chemistry, earth science, biology, and statistics. The social scientific responses are needed to successful generate realistic social scientific responses. The research must include the biology studies to determine the feasibility of not selling products that are expired.
The research must includes statistics in coming up with a convincing report that affirms or negates an established hypothesis on the taste test data gathered. In addition, the lack of inputs from natural science precipitates to inconclusive social scientific responses (Kant, 2004).
The research methods required for the formulated question (from part A2a) complements the scientific method as understood in the natural or physical sciences.
The scientific method incorporates the concepts of the natural sciences and physical sciences to explain the effectiveness of the social science research methods required for the formulated question, what is the effect of taste on the prospective clients’ product preference. Specifically, the scientific method will prove that the survey gathering process, analysis, interpretation, and conclusion are correct.
The social science perspective must rely on the scientific method in the same way that natural or physical science would. The scientific method is based on experiments. The experiments will prove or disprove the hypothesis. The social science perspective should use the scientific method to determine if the social science research (generating the question, etc.) is realistic. Experiments will prove that the survey and oral interview taste test gathering process is scientifically correct.
Based on the above discussion, social science focuses centers on the study of society. The scientific method generates more convincing social science perspectives. The natural sciences and physical sciences to support the social science research activities. Indeed, the scientific method, and the other sciences contribute to a more effective and convincing social science research processes.
References
Aronson, D. (2011). Evidence -Based Technical Analysis: Applying the Scientific Method and Statistical Inference. New York: J. Wiley & Sons Press.
Black, T. (2002). Understanding Social Science Research. New York: Sage Press.
Kant, I. (2004). Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. New York: University Press.
Shipman, J. (2009). Introduction to Physical Science. New York: Cengage Press.
Yates, S. (2004). Dong Social Science Research. New York: Sage Press.
In statistical research, we use sampling on many occasions. It would be hard to engage a whole population in a study because of the costs and time associated with such a census. However, in many a sample, there is the possibility of errors. Statistically, these errors result in bias. We also infer results by using methods such as hypothesis testing and estimation, which may not be entirely true in the entire population.
In the case of Auburn, specifically at a station, this is not an all in-inclusive sample to help us make a conclusion. This is because there are problems of communication and many immigrants may be unwilling to offer information. This may result in untrue data.
Surveys
There are two major types of surveys used in collecting data for a given study. They are cross-sectional and longitudinal survey. In cross- sectional surveys, the aim of the researcher is to get a snapshot of views and thoughts from a different variety of respondents.
Just like other surveys, the cross-sectional surveys gathers information from a sample representative of the whole population according to Hay (2010) However, the sample is cross sectional in terms of age, gender and socioeconomic background.
It also involves collecting information at one point in time. In longitudinal surveys, we gather information at different points in time to study change. The major aim of this kind of survey is to compare differences in practices and opinions of the population over a given period (Hay 2010).
Interviews
Interviewing is a method of collecting data from human beings by asking them questions for which they answer verbally. It is a systematized way of talking and listening to people in order to get information regarding a particular topic or phenomena.
In interviews, the respondent provides the primary data for the study and the views of the researcher are not important as most of the information comes from the respondent. The respondents are able to give their conceptualizations and interpretation regarding the topic under study (Hay 2010).
Reasons for Using Interviews and Surveys
Interviews have many advantages. They include the following.
More Information
They allow for probing, follow up, and it is possible to get in depth information on a topic. They also have many disadvantages, which include consumption of time and very expensive administration. It is not possible with a large number of people as they are very axing and take a lot of time to complete.
The chances of the interviewer bias are high especially in closed-ended interviews. Analysis of data may be take a lot of time, especially data from open ended interviews and respondents may not remember important information or may lack self awareness (Ragin 2005).
In this study, the sample of the study will be the immigrants who live in the Auburn suburbs. These will be the interviewees to get the data required to carry out this study. However, the interviews will take place in three areas within the Auburn suburb. These areas are the Auburn council, people from two different organizations, which offer different services to the immigrants.
Equal Chance of Selection
There is a random selection of people to involve in the study. This will ensure that every member of the population under study has an equal opportunity of selection. Hence, a well representative sample. Issuance of questionnaires to the participants will follow. Each questionnaire will have five questions each seeking to get different information related to the study.
The researcher will issue forty questionnaires to the participants between ten and four at the Auburn train station. Each questionnaire will take approximately ten minutes to complete (Holliday 2007). In this case, however, there is less representation of immigrant population. This is true because our area of focus does not have all immigrants proportionate to the entire population in the country.
Confidentiality
Throughout this study, the researcher will ensure utmost confidentiality of the participants. All information gathered during this study will also be treated with a lot of confidentiality. No names or any other information that can be used for identification will appear on any of the materials that will be used during the interview. Each respondent will be given an identification number that will be used in all interview materials.
Tape recorders will also be used to record the information. They will however be destroyed after they have been transcribed and analyzed to ensure that nobody else apart from the researcher accesses the information in them. The information from the interviews will be emailed to the organizations in Auburn from where they will be used for research purposes only (Creswell 2003 and Ragin 2005).
Advantages of Surveys
Survey as a method of collecting research information has many advantages. It, for example, saves a lot of time and money conducting the research since only a few samples is studied. They are also easy to deal with. Moreover, they are free from many errors since they are the same all through. According to Holliday (2000), however, there are also difficulties experienced in administering surveys or disadvantages.
They include the information given by respondents may not be accurate or truthful. In most cases, the respondents’ sincerity, ability to answer plays an important role in determining the type of answers that a researcher gets. Some of the respondents may give answers that are not true to portray themselves in a favorable manner thus making them inaccurate. Poorly constructed surveys can lead to faulty results.
In close-ended questionnaires, the choices given may not be an accurate representation of the true feelings of the respondent. The initial study design does not change throughout the entire study thus making surveys inflexible and for the results to be reliable, the researcher must make sure that a great percentage of the study sample responds to the questions, which is quite hard (Holliday 2007).
Biasness
Use of interview may bring about statistical bias. This is because some people may not use trains. In addition, some may have their own cars, use private means to get home or to work. This means I will miss a huge chunk of the target population. It is important to reduce the chance of bias in any research to ensure probity and to sustain the confidence interval chosen.
Other Methods
As mentioned earlier, sampling survey and interviews are the best ways to conduct a research in the situation we have here. However, many other methods can come in handy. This includes
Observation– the researcher just looks and makes individual collections of what is happening. This is just ideal for a situation where personal information may not be necessary.
Generalizing- in the case a researcher just makes random conclusions about the population without carrying out a study. This is suicidal because it may arrive at an untested hypothesis.
Secondary Information– the researcher may opt to rely on information already available to him in the previous similar studies done. This is not a good source of information because the circumstances may have been different from what we have now, which may render our information unusable.
Systematic learning and observation is another way of arriving at considerable data. This way the researcher examines trends and behaviors of the target population with a view at getting and analyzing data.
Reference List
Creswell, J. (2003) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method Approach. Journal of Management, Vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 8-10.
Hay, I. (2010) Qualitative Research Methods in Human Geography. London: Oxford University Press.
Holliday, A. (2007) Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. Journal of Geography, Vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 14-16.
Ragin, C. (2005) Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity. Bulletin of Sociological Methodologies, Vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 4-5.
In this exercise, multiple regression analysis is carried out to investigate the impact of different factors including Usefulness, Male-Dominated Field, Tutor Attitudes, Confidence, and Age that are considered as the independent variables affecting the Self-Efficacy of students that is the dependent variable in this study (Dancey & Reidy, 2017). According to the studies including Bleidorn et al. (2016) and ELDaou (2016), there is a positive relationship between self-esteem and usefulness, confidence, age, and the tutor’s attitude. Javed and Tariq (2016) conclude that female students may experience low self-esteem in choosing careers dominated by males. Therefore, the regression analysis carried out in this exercise tests the following hypotheses.
H0: There is no relationship between self-esteem and usefulness, confidence, male-dominated field, tutor’s attitude, and age.
H1: There is a significant relationship between self-esteem and usefulness, confidence, male-dominated field, the tutor’s attitude, and age.
The model summary provided in Table 1 indicates that the value of R-square is 0.338, which means that the relationship between the dependent variable and its predictors is not fully explained by the regression analysis. There are a lot of variations as indicated in Table 2 that remain unexplained by the model. However, it could also be noted that the significant F is less than the alpha value of 0.05, which represents the confidence level (Sen & Srivastava, 2013). It means that the findings of the regression analysis are significant.
Table 2: ANOVA.
Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
1
Regression
34384.946
5
6876.989
9.597
.000b
Residual
67360.764
94
716.604
Total
101745.710
99
a. Dependent Variable: Self-Efficacy
b. Predictors: (Constant), Age, Usefulness, Male-Dominated Field, Tutor Attitudes, Confidence
Table 3: Coefficients.
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
Model
B
Std. Error
Beta
1
(Constant)
166.876
53.174
3.138
.002
Confidence
-1.082
.467
-.331
-2.314
.023
Usefulness
-.455
.366
-.144
-1.245
.216
Male-Dominated Field
-.206
.483
-.039
-.426
.671
Tutor Attitudes
-.772
.613
-.152
-1.259
.211
Age
2.984
1.982
.129
1.505
.136
a. Dependent Variable: Self-Efficacy
Based on the values of the coefficient of each relationship provided in Table 3, the following regression equation is obtained.
Self-Efficacy = 166.876 -.455 x Usefulness -.206 x Male Dominated Field -.772 x Tutor Attitudes -1.082 x Confidence + 2.984 x Age
It could be indicated that the coefficient of the constant is 166.876, which means that this value is not explained by the linear model. The coefficient of Usefulness is negative, which means that there is an inverse relationship between Self-Efficacy and Usefulness, i.e., if the value of Usefulness increases, then the value of Self-Efficacy decreases. The coefficient of the Male-Dominated Field is also negative, which means that there is an inverse relationship between Self-Efficacy and Male-Dominated Field, i.e., if the value of the Male-Dominated Field increases, then the value of Self-Efficacy decreases. The coefficient of Tutor Attitudes is negative, which means that there is an inverse relationship between Self-Efficacy and Tutor Attitudes, i.e., if the value of Tutor Attitudes increases, then the value of Self-Efficacy decreases. The coefficient of Confidence is also negative, which means that there is an inverse relationship between Self-Efficacy and Confidence, i.e., if the value of Confidence increases, then the value of Self-Efficacy decreases. The coefficient of Age is positive, which means that there is a direct relationship between Self-Efficacy and Age, i.e., if the value of Age increases, then the value of Self-Efficacy also increases. The p-value of all independent variables other than Confidence is greater than the standard error of 5%, which means that the relationship between Confidence and Self-Efficacy is significant and others are insignificant (Rumsey, 2016). It also means that the null hypothesis is accepted for all independent variables other than Confidence.
References
Bleidorn, W., Arslan, R. C., Denissen, J. J., Rentfrow, P. J., Gebauer, J. E., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2016). Age and gender differences in self-esteem – A cross-cultural window. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(3), 396–410.
Dancey, C., & Reidy, J. (2017). Statistics without maths for psychology (7th ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearson.
ELDaou, B. (2016). The relationship between teacher’s self-e cacy, a tudes towards ict usefulness and student’s science performance in the Lebanese inclusive schools 2015. iMedPub Journals, 2(3), 1-10.
Javed, Z., & Tariq, O. (2016). Career-decisions, self-efficacy and self-esteem among students of private and government academic institutions. Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14(2), 42-46.
Rumsey, D. J. (2016). Statistics for dummies. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Sen, . K., & Srivastava, M. S. (2013). Regression analysis: Theory, methods and applications. Chicago, IL: Springer.
The practice of research in the social sciences is a disciplinary construct that has emerged over the past thirty years. As shown by reviews of recent methodological developments, social research proved insufficiently effective when using only one scientific approach. Successful sociological research may often require recourse to disciplines that are in the gray zone relative to the social sciences or are completely unrelated to them.
An example of establishing the causes of low fertility in Europe in the twentieth century seems quite typical here (Greene, 2018). Using purely socioeconomic scientific instruments, the researchers found them insufficient to fully explain the social phenomenon. By applying cultural theory and considering this problem from several angles the decline in fertility received an adequate and more complete explanation. This example demonstrates the possibility and sometimes the need for a mixed approach in social research.
In an article on mixed methodology, Greene attempts to describe this method not as dialectical but as clearly structured (2018, p. 10). Four scientific dimensions are provided, combining which the researcher can carry out the most complete and accurate social analysis. At the same time, it is not so much a combination of disciplines that is important as different methods and approaches to research. The philosophical, scientific attitude appears to be the first and fundamental, providing a framework for further research. Greene then describes the second stage of the study, that is, the logic of questioning (p. 13). After this phase of research is the selection of a methodology in terms of not philosophy but practical relevance and feasibility.
The third fundamental element of mixed sociological research is the direct approach to combining various methods. For the sociologist practicing mixed media research, an understanding of the basic rules for combining scientific methods in such a way as to combine the strongest aspects of the disciplines used is required. In this regard, resorting to practical guidelines regulating the use of methodologies helps not only to combine knowledge but also to turn research into a step-by-step process.
The value of the study and its philosophical relevance is the final principle for creating a study with a mixed methodology. Sociological research using this approach demonstrates significant results in the field of family therapy, in particular, in working with adolescents. With the help of a mixed as well as a quantitative approach, as the researchers note, it became feasible to trace and compare the statistical results of family therapy as closely and clearly as possible (Christenson & Gutierrez, 2016). The innovativeness of this type of research is noted in the fact that a mixed approach is able to give a voice to those who did not have it before; that is, it has a liberating, emancipating role. The great moral benefit of the mixed approach is expressed in the fact that this technique is able to shed light on those facts or theoretical and practical constructions that could not have been revealed earlier due to the lack of effectiveness of one disciplinary lens.
Finally, it should be noted that the value of this approach is seen not so much in the creation of new and specific scientific structures but in the ability to hear and understand something new. This method is aimed at generating new information and at obtaining potentially new optics under which one can look at scientific and social problems. Therefore, the mixed method seems to be so promising in sociology, demonstrating certain flexibility and fluidity inherent in the diversity and variability of the modern world.
References
Christenson, J. D., & Gutierrez, D. M. (2016). Using qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research to promote family therapy with adolescents in residential settings. Contemporary Family Therapy, 38(1), 52–61. Web.
Greene, J. C. (2008). Is mixed methods social inquiry a distinctive methodology? Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 2(1), 7–22. Web.
The field of social sciences aims to provide researchers and the public with insights into the patterns of human living experiences. While people frequently possess an individualistic feature of extrapolating their personal experiences to the lives of others, social studies use statistics to show how one’s assumptions are justified or rejected statistically. For this reason, quantitative research is of utmost importance to inform humanity about existing social trends. According to Zanganeh (2020), quantitative research in social sciences aims at measuring the variables effectively to generalize the data and present tangible solutions later. Hence, the numeric findings from quantitative research present a foundation for social studies and the existing relationship between different variables.
Variable Analysis
At the early stages of the statistical analysis, the research was focused on defining the values of the independent variable (IV) of religious affiliation and the dependent variable (DV) of one’s sexuality. The study’s preliminary results demonstrated a striking difference between the validity of responses in IV and DV. With more than 40% of respondents missing the question of sexuality, it has become evident that they were unwilling to reveal their sexual identity. As far as the IV is concerned, the major output was the relative absence of people stating their religious affiliation “in the middle,” with the majority of responses varying between STRONG/NOT VERY STRONG and NO RELIGION. These findings, although not surprising in the overall social context, justify people’s rather radical points of view on religion and stigmatized perception of sexuality.
Crosstabs and Measures of Association
The crosstabs analysis between the IV and DV revealed an epsilon higher than a borderline of 10%. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that there is a strong correlation between the variables that indicate that one’s religious affiliation potentially affects one’s sexual identity. As far as the measures of association are concerned, the level of predictability is low, suggesting that one’s sexual orientation cannot predict one’s religious affiliation. Nonetheless, it is impossible to declare that the variables have no correlation whatsoever. As outlined by Hinman and Lacefield (2020), previous research on the matter supports the hypothesis of the analysis.
Across the development divide, countries such as the UK confront the challenges of populations increasingly skewed toward the elderly (and rapidly so) while some developing countries still cope with the strain of predominantly young populations. Economic historian Emma Joseph of the London School of Economics and Prof. Johnson of the University of Pennsylvania ascribe the phenomenon of “greying” populations to long-term declines in both fertility and mortality, notably in Europe as a whole, the United States and Japan (BBC, 2004).
Main Text
There are three grounds for universal concern, a United Nations briefing for the World Assembly on Ageing and its follow-up warns (Population Division, 2002):
The phenomenon is entirely new to human experience and will continue become even more pronounced in the twenty-first century;
Accelerating ageing has the potential to affect everyone in the nation, if only because of the competition between the elderly and the very young for support from wage earners and the self-employed.
There is no reversing the trend. Progress in the life sciences will see to that.
Figure 1
By 2050, the UN Population Division estimates, the large cohort of Britons in their 30s and 40s will be at the threshold of retiring or have done so (see Figure 1). Fully a third of the nation’s population will be 60 years of age or older (see also Appendix 1 for other details), over one-fourth will be at least 65 and one in nine 80+ years in age. In total, there will be only a 2:1 ratio between the working population 15 to 64 years old and the elderly.
In just 17 years or by 2025, there will be 13.4 million Britons 65 years of age or older. This is a very substantial increase of 42.6 percent over the 2000 population of 9.35 million in the time it takes to raise an infant to mature and enter university. In the present situation where the NHS is hard pressed to even man all its services and commitments, forward planning is plainly needed to make provisions for care, to grapple with the scale of economic impact, and to accelerate the initiative of government for soliciting advice and assistance from all stakeholders.
Current State of Affairs
The more forward-looking of academic and health authorities empathize with the desire of the elderly to live out the third epoch of life in dignity, to receive the care they require, and in all other ways, to enjoy reasonably excellent quality of life. At the university level, preparing for the next decade and a half or the rest of the century must start with a sober assessment of where matters stand.
The following examples suffice at this point to suggest that viewpoints remain myopic and that concern for the elderly remains inextricably linked with gerontology. One needs to get away from a narrow-minded focus on degenerative diseases and dementia.
While the concern with dementia is valid enough –the University of Bradford estimates there are three-quarters of a million afflicted in the UK (2008) – the fact is the school offers no less than three ways to specialise in treating the degenerative condition: a Professional Development Programme in Dementia Care, DipHE in Dementia Studies, and BSc (Hons) in Dementia Studies. These have the unfortunate consequence of revealing narrowed perspectives on the clearly varied needs of the elderly.
Representative of the other extreme is the somewhat lackadaisical attitude where degrees and clinical practices subsume concern for the elderly under more general areas. For example, the University of Reading offers a 3 year full-time Degree in ‘Psychology, Childhood and Ageing’. At the Cheltenham General Hospital and Gloucestershire Hospitals NHS Trust, elderly care is entrusted to Registrars and Residents specialising in either ‘General and Old Age Medicine’ or ‘Adult Medicine/Elderly Care’. True, the department of General and Old Age Medicine admits to dealing primarily with the diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of older people. During confinement, patients are seen by a multidisciplinary team usually including doctors, nurses, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, dieticians, social workers, pharmacists and psychologists since the avowed aim is to restore the elderly not only to health but also independence and a sustained quality of life. In turn, the Delancey Hospital, RW1 and RW2 units of the Trust provide ongoing care of older people with more complex needs, and those requiring a re-organisation of their care at home before leaving hospital. There are also specialist clinics, usually led by Consultants, that specialise in stroke, falls and movement disorders like Parkinson’s disease. Once older patients regain optimal health and can be discharged to community living, the Trust has ongoing links with community hospitals and a variety of Intermediate care services in Gloucestershire so primary care can subsequently be administered as needed.
Forward-looking releases from government notwithstanding, it would seem that educating for elderly care under the aegis of a great drive for training in the healthcare sector are limited to upgrading staff to NVQ level 2 (Train to Gain). At that, institutions that respond are left on their own to find sources for mandatory and bespoke short courses.
Aims of Plan
In general terms, this government-funded study will aim to:
Test target public awareness, interest in, and conviction about taking action to prepare better for an ever-expanding population of elderly.
Gauge public attitudes to care, health, accommodation, quality of life gaps, professional preparedness, and many other issues associated with ageing.
Test the consensus for the extent to which gaps in service delivery to the elderly can be remedied with new areas of academic and professional training.
Gather expert opinion on occupational effects of expected advances in life sciences and technology that might apply to various aspects elderly lifestyles.
Investigate what other opportunities exist in respect of care for the elderly in the coming decades.
What is the Research Question?
Accordingly, the central question of this research plan pertains to ‘what is the broader scope of academic curricula’ that will better inform public policy and provide the full range of specialised occupational skills the elderly will need in future?’
Proposed Methodology and Rationale
The study hypothesis going forward is that enriching academic curricula must take into account the concerns of all stakeholders. As well, a combination of primary data-gathering methods will be required to optimise the rigour, reliability and validity of the plan.
The Key Resources to be Surveyed
Over a time scale of 30 months, this study will pool a variety of resources:
An extensive review of the literature in order to arrive at a comprehensive inventory of the needs of the elderly and the specialist occupations required to satisfy those needs.
The elderly themselves, including those nearing retirement, to update our understanding of a cohort that had, in the course of their working and business lives, known war, liberalism, wrenching economic change and the flowering of the information age.
The families and community-based carers expected to lend an objective view of assistance needed from known and absent specialist occupations.
The front liners in primary health care.
Pulling together interdisciplinary teams of social and medical scientists to consult with academic leaders on occupational manning needs in the long term.
All other organisations that presently play a role in catering to elderly wants and needs (see below for a partial listing).
As to the stakeholders:
Stakeholders by Type
The elderly themselves
Still gainfully employed
Retired/Second career
In home, nursing or care home
In need of acute or emergency care
Government bodies or support organisations Area: Learning and Technology
Age Concern – supports people over 50, provides day care, information, age discrimination and pensions. Digital Unite – provides ways to deliver IT literacy, to individuals and communities. Help the Aged Seniorline – provides over 50s with free advice leaflets and a welfare rights advice line. Learndirect – provides online courses, and information about the network of learndirect centres. REACH – brings together voluntary organisations and volunteers with career skills. RSVP – assists over 50s to participate in their local area through volunteering. Silver Surfers – provides website resources for over 50s.
Care and community contacts
Action on Elder Abuse provides information, advice and support to victims and others who are concerned about or have witnessed abuse. Commission for Social Care Inspection Community Legal Service – first port of call for legal help and information in England and Wales. Office of the Public Guardian (Scotland) Protection of Vulnerable Adults (POVA) – compiles a list of people who are unsuitable to work in social care settings. Public Guardianship Office – handles the financial affairs of someone mentally incapacitated through illness or injury. WRVS – a charity that supports people in need who might otherwise feel lonely and isolated.
Work and career
Age Positive promotes the benefits of employing a mixed-age workforce, that includes older people. Business Link – providing practical information on all aspects of running a business. Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) – responsible for the government’s welfare reform agenda, delivering support and advice to people of working age, employers, disabled people, pensioners, families and children. HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC) – have a helpline for the newly self-employed. Jobcentre Plus Mentoring + Befriending Foundation — offers support to practitioners and organisations about mentoring and befriending. New Deal 50 plus – a programme for people aged 50 or over who have been out of work and claiming benefits for at least six months. PRIME – the Prince’s Initiative for mature enterprise, a not-for-profit national organisation dedicated to helping people over 50 set up in business. Shaw Trust – provides training and work opportunities for people who are disadvantaged due to disability, ill health or other social circumstances. The Age and Employment Network (TAEN) – an independent charity that works with people in mid-life and later life who are looking for employment, developing their careers, undertaking training, or want a change of direction The Coaching and Mentoring Network – keeps users informed of the latest developments in coaching and mentoring.
Retirement Contacts
Financial Assistance Scheme (FAS) – offers offers help to some people who have lost out on a company pension. Pension Protection Fund – pays out compensation for certain company pension funds where an employer became insolvent on or after 6 April 2005. Pension Tracing Service – provides help with tracing an old pension. Senior Railcard The Pension Service – providing information for individuals about pensions and other pensioner benefits in the UK. The Pensions Advisory Service (TPAS) – helps the public with pensions problems. Provides information and guidance on State Pension; company, personal, stakeholder and occupational pensions. Veterans Agency – administers War Pension Scheme and provides welfare services to former servicepeople.
Financial advice and support
Citizens Advice Bureau – offers advice on a wide range of subjects from housing and health, to debt and consumer issues. Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) responsible for the government’s welfare reform agenda, delivering support and advice to people of working age, employers, disabled people, pensioners, families and children. Financial Services Authority (FSA) – regulates the financial services industry in the UK. Forces Pensions Society – helps members with individual pension problems. Help the Aged – provides Over50s with free advice leaflets and a welfare rights advice line.
Health and well-being
British Heart Foundation CancerBACUP – provides help for people living with cancer. Department of Health (DH) Extend – supplies recreational movement to music for men and women over 60. Keep Fit Association – aiming to bring people together with safe and effective exercise. National Insititute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) – an independent organisation responsible for providing national guidance on the promotion of good health and the prevention and treatment of ill health. NHS Direct – operates a 24-hour nurse advice and health information service, providing confidential information. Ramblers – promoting walking and improving conditions in the UK for walkers. Sport England – committed to the modernisation of sport, driving up skills and improving services across the sector.
Data Collection and Analysis
Research Strategy and Process
In broad terms, we plan for a three stage process combining:
The first stage of qualitative methods is required by the presumption that one needs to know the full range of quality-of-life goals and care that needs to be delivered to a sophisticated population of elderly Britons. The open-ended mindset of focus group discussions, depth interviews and (for those nearing or already in retirement) a one-month electronic or traditional diary will be required to canvass all critical issues and:
Complete the questionnaire content for the second-stage quantitative studies.
Refine the working hypotheses and independent variables that will be examined in randomised controlled trials.
At the third stage, findings will be discussed in professional, government and academic symposia in order to draw up the recommendations for academic curricula.
Study Instrument
Even at the exploratory stage, it is already possible to foresee study instruments that address a comprehensive range of issues relating to care or quality of life for the elderly. These issues include:
General primary, acute and critical care
Disability care
General health and fitness
Mental health
Day centres, residential and nursing care homes
Second careers and personal learning
Counselling
Entrepreneurship, home business
Care payments, personal financial management and pensions
Volunteerism
Travel, leisure, driving and mobility
Social activity, belonging to organisations such as political parties or trade unions, charities or sports clubs
Extended and nuclear family networks
End-of-life issues: wills and benefits
Area Coverage
Nationwide, in both urban and rural settings across both England and Ireland.
Data Analysis
This will consist of content analysis in the first stage, cross-tabulation and statistical significance in the second, and consultations or peer review in the third stage.
A hypothesis is a position put forward as a preliminary, conditional explanation of a particular phenomenon or group of phenomena, an assumption about the existence of some phenomenon. Testing statistical hypotheses are the accepted standard for the analysis of empirical data in the social sciences if the resulting effects or relationships are not noticeable and an assessment of the reliability of statements about their presence or absence is required (Pandey & Pandey, 2021). Without this, no practical effect can be established in any of the social sciences. One of the paradoxes of the development of the experimental method is connected with this: deterministically formulated statements about causal dependencies are evaluated probabilistically (Pandey & Pandey, 2021). It is assumed that in natural conditions, the established dependence should make its way through a chain of accidents or unplanned influences from these side variables. It is not the hypothetical relation between variables itself and not the truth of the psychological explanation that is assessed probabilistically, but the reliability of the fact that the expected dependence is empirically established.
The scientific method of proving hypotheses is the main one in any science. Nevertheless, alternative methods of testing hypotheses include the method of Rene Descartes: “Never take anything for granted, of which you are obviously not sure; in other words, diligently avoid haste and prejudice and include in your judgments only what seems to my mind so clear and distinct, which in no way can give rise to doubt ” (Descartes, 2019). The meaning of the philosophical, epistemological method of Descartes is that the process of cognition relies only on absolutely reliable knowledge and uses completely reliable logical methods to obtain new, also reliable knowledge.
References
Pandey, P., & Pandey, M. M. (2021). Research methodology tools and techniques. Bridge Center.
Descartes, R. (2019). Meditations on first philosophy and discourse on the method. Naxos.
Sampling and sampling methods in research is a major factor that not only guides a research study throughout its preliminary stage in line with the major research objectives and research questions but helps to determine its viability (Chance, Gibson & Eisenhardt, 2010). To effectively achieve and represent all demographic and social aspects of a population, the appropriate technique to use should be a strategic sampling method. The strategic random sampling method enhances the holistic representation of all demographic and social aspects of a population in the area of study.
Questionnaires
The use of questionnaires as the main data collection method is widely used in research. Its design reflects the advantages and disadvantages in the vital roles it plays in determining response rate. Therefore, it is apparent that the nature of the questionnaire ensures that the respective contents and requirements are understood by respondents. The following are some of the key strengths and weaknesses of using questionnaires:
One of the advantages of questionnaires is a well-constructed survey that offers high reliability (Mathers, Fox & Hunn, 2007). In certain instances, a target population could be made up of professionals who have knowledge of the technical language used in the study. However, it is important to note that the language to be used in the study might not be appreciative of the missing link between legibility and comprehension. Language construction may help or hamper the readability of the questions.
Besides, the use of surveys or questionnaires offers a quick turnaround. It saves time. Only pertinent issues are included in the questionnaire. This reduces the input required from respondents and therefore plays a role in providing a suitable condition for high response rates. On the other hand, questionnaires provide a low response rate of between 25% and 50%. Regardless of the time taken, the latter is not a good representation.
A questionnaire as a literary piece is affected by its internal structure issues such as the length of the sentences and the level of interconnection between various areas of the questionnaire (Chava & Nachmias, 2007). The structure is an important variable in determining the levels of understanding that respondents will attain in discerning the contents of a questionnaire and is therefore an important variable in ensuring informed consent and accuracy of data collected. Yet, respondents may not understand the questions or they may just fill anything and render the document invalid.
Privacy is an important factor in determining the level of openness with which a respondents engage in a research. This factor greatly affects the levels of accuracy that can be attained and is sought by the questionnaire design. Questions relating to personal information are omitted from the questionnaires. This ensures that the subjects freely express their viewpoints.
Interviewing
In an interview, the quality of result is found in the measures an interviewer takes (Daniel, 2010). It is critical that the interviewer understands the contents of the interview. This is to ensure the interviewer asks questions as they are exactly written and remain standardized. For instance, interviewers may alter the tone of words of the question to appear friendlier. Some of the factors to consider include the description of the entire study, respondents and their selection process. The interviewer demeanor and appearance are critical in getting a respondent’s attention. For instance, in order to gain entry, initial appearance and professional dressing are important. To a respondent, it reflects honesty and shows the interviewer is trustworthy. Understanding the content of the interview will enable an interviewer to know the questions to ask, use the probe method and conclude the interview.
References
Chance, B. Gibson, Q. & Eisenhardt, R. (2010). Rapid mixing and sampling techniques in biochemistry. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Chava, F. & Nachmias, D. (2007). Research Methods in the Social Sciences. New York: Worth Publishers.
Daniel W. T. (2010). Qualitative interview design: a practical guide for novice investigators. The Qualitative Report 15(3), 754-760.
Mathers, N., Fox, N. & Hunn, A. (2007). Surveys and Questionnaires. New York: Yorkshire and Humber Press.