Economic inequality is one of the ever-present global issues that social scientists try to resolve. Hunt and Colander (2016) note that even in the US, more than 12% of the population lives in poverty (p. 234). I believe that social scientists currently lack the ability to solve the issue, at least in the short term. Some of the most efficient policies that can help alleviate poverty, such as progressive taxes, will always be opposed by the establishment. In the long term, social scientists could contribute to the solution of the problem by increasing public awareness and participation in politics.
Racial discrimination is another critical problem that plagues American society. I believe that social scientists play a pivotal role in destroying stereotypes that lead to racial bias and developing strategies to deal with inequalities. While some social policies, such as affirmative action programs, are not flawless, they have significantly contributed to alleviating racial disparities (Hunt and Colander, 2016). I believe that every generation is more tolerant than the previous one because of social scientists work. Therefore, the victory over discrimination is merely a question of time.
While social science plays a vital role in society, biased research represents a serious problem that can largely undermine scientists efforts. Carr (1939) states that in political science, the purpose is not, as in the physical sciences, irrelevant to the investigation and separable from it: it is itself one of the facts (p. 5). Overall, it is difficult to predict the future of social sciences, but I believe that the efficiency of political and economic scientists, in particular, will depend on the mindset of elected leaders.
References
Hunt, E. & Colander, D. (2016). Social science: An introduction to the study of society (15th ed.). Routledge.
Carr, E. H. (1939). The twenty years crisis 1919-1939: An introduction to the study of international relations. Harper & Row.
The four lenses (perspectives) in liberal arts represent approaches in which various topics can be framed. Each of the lenses, humanities, social science, natural sciences, and history, has its own framework that allows for enhancing the focus on particular areas of the issue under question. They can be employed both as learned perspectives or ways of interpreting how humans perceive and experience things. The first lens, humanities, represents the disciplines aimed at studying specifically human actions and works, while the second lens, social science, explores how humans act and interact within their respective social environments. The third lens, natural sciences, encompasses methods of understanding the physical world through testable hypotheses and experimental verification. The fourth lens, history, explores the past of humanity using various sources to trace relevant events and look for patterns.
Researching the Topic: Voting Rights
The topic of voting rights is highly relevant and multi-dimensional as it encompasses considerations of political freedoms and the capacity of a population to participate in civic rights, as well as includes discussions of gender and racial issues. It is common knowledge that voting is considered the cornerstone of democracy not only in the US but worldwide and is the crucial right upon which all other civil liberties rely (Freedom House, 2022). However, to explore the topic more deeply, it is necessary to look at the history of voting rights as they did not emerge straight away and without conflict. In the United States, the struggle for establishing equal voting rights for the entire population dates back to the earliest days of the countrys development, while it was only in 2008 that there was the most diverse electorate in US history (ACLU, 2023).
The social science lens will add to the historical perspective of voting rights exploration by illustrating the importance of voting for society as a whole, including the strategies that motivate people to vote as well as the barriers that some groups may experience during voting. When exploring the topic, essential keywords may include the following: history of voting rights, voting rights movement, barriers to voting rights, voting rights and inequality, and others. To answer the questions posed for the current exploration, a search for scholarly and other resources will be implemented, filtering sources by relevance as well as the quality and fullness of information.
Voting Rights Through the History Lens
In American history, a great democratic experiment started at the end of the eighteenth century when a narrow subset of society, which included male landowners, was granted the right to vote (Carnegie Corporation of New York, 2019). Even though the limitations in voting rights started decreasing in the ensuing years and decades, many states, predominantly Southern, built new obstacles to ensure that African American men did not have the right to make decisions about the countrys political orientation. As the country continued its development, voting rights began to be considered a bipartisan priority. However, after the end of the Civil War in 1865, when enslaved people were freed and granted the right to vote, there were still strict requirements for voting qualification, such as literacy tests and poll taxes (Library of Congress, n.d.). The limitations were put in place to prevent poor and uneducated groups from making decisions about public policy.
All restrictive measures on voting rights were only overturned after World War II and the struggle of minorities to gain equality through the Civil Rights Movement. In 1965, the Voting Rights Act was signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson, intending to prohibit any legal barriers existing at the state or local levels that kept African Americans from exercising their voting rights (National Archives, 2022). Therefore, the Voting Rights Act is historically significant because it outlawed any biases and discriminatory practices that ran rampant for decades. Instead, it enforced the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution that gave African American men the right to vote but was consistently ignored by additional laws. The history of voting rights shows a more than a century-long battle to guarantee equal opportunities for the population regardless of race, gender, and socioeconomic background.
Voting Rights Through the Social Science Lens
As illustrated by the exploration of voting rights history, there was a serious issue concerning the social aspect of the countrys development. Race was a detrimental factor in the governments decision to suppress voting rights and narrow the capacity of some groups to make decisions on country policy. The social science lens allows for exploring the connection between inequality and voting rights, which have been shown to have a direct relationship. The less socially disadvantaged individuals are, the more likely their voting rights are to be limited (Swabb & Yang, 2022). Thus, civil rights and social justice are drivers of voting rights and behaviors of the population.
The history lens analysis showed that race and income dictated whether populations were able to engage in the electoral process and face limited to no barriers. Modern scholars focused their attention on the current inequalities and determined that both race and socioeconomic status influence the capacity of populations to engage in elections (Smith & Pattabhiraman, 2020). Specifically, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which had a dramatic impact on the social and economic status of disadvantaged populations, voter participation, and political power were reduced (Wolf, 2022). Both economic deprivation and poor health that affected disadvantaged populations made it harder for them to exercise their voting rights.
Therefore, inequality can be considered a form of voter suppression because economic inequality makes it possible for affluent and wealthy groups to exercise their power during elections. As a result, the interests of the less socially and economically advantaged groups are placed on the back burner, which means that poorer and working-class people have less incentive to engage in elections (Smith & Pattabhiraman, 2020). Besides, it was found that the suppression of voters and bureaucratic limitations made voting in the US more complex than in other developed nations (Washington Center for Equitable Growth, 2021). Thus, despite the common understanding of the need for equal opportunities in voting, it still has not been met.
Conclusion
To conclude, the exploration of voting rights from historical and social science lenses illustrated persistent gaps in access to exercising their political freedoms. The historical lenses used in the current discussion are similar in offering a broader perspective on voting rights, including relevant developments. They are different in the fact that the historical lens allows only looking at past events while the social science lens provides a more up-to-date look at the issue. In further exploration, it is necessary to look at the strategies that could allow elimination voting rights barriers.
Michael Foucault was a brilliant researcher and professor with extensive academic publications in the field of humanities and social sciences abode between 1926 and 1984. He was a political activist, who really despised modern life due to the oppression he witnessed. He used his lecturing and academic opportunity as a forum to criticize tyrannical power.
This made him one of the intellectual heroes of social justice movements in France, with greater focus on the marginalized persons in society including children, women, prisoners, deviants and patients.
Michael addressed the struggle of individuals in the society and the existing institutions of power, giving an in depth analysis of the Marxist capitalist theory. Some of his quintessential works include; Madness and civilization, History of insanity in the age of reason (1961), the birth of a clinic (1963), History and sexuality (1984), Discipline and Punish, The Birth of the Prison (1977) among other prodigious works.
Michael examined some of the underlying rules in society and existing cultures of people while discussing the methods used to understand archaeology. He wrote that society believed that ideas cannot be imagined, asking himself some of the rules that governed these ideas. He used archaeology to analyze what makes an idea powerful or authoritative and the constraints in individual’s thinking. Michael’s idea has been applied overwhelmingly by historians to unmask some of the views which had been hidden for many years.
Archaeological study has been instrumental in analyzing previous research works which were regarded as naïve and insignificant. This study therefore puts into light the truth and history which had not been explained by previous researchers. It opens the minds of historians and the public to trace the root causes of issues that negatively or positively impact the society.
Inspired by Friedrich Nietzsche, Michael looked at genealogy as an attempt to write history for those who had been left out. He believed genealogy looked at convectional and unconventional history which has been silenced, unfinished and subversive. The study also looked at the knowledge which had been regarded as unscientific with a provision for criticism.
Michael had a view that genealogical investigations have been made possible with the removal of tyranny of overall discourses. The genealogical ideas can be applied when studying the society as it helps to trace societal roots and origins through debates which could not be accommodated in the past.
The understanding is important as it allows free absorption of societal knowledge and reactive to local knowledge. This study allows scholars to be tactical and skeptical, as it is the foundation in which archaeological understanding is focused against unitary, formal and scientific theoretical discourse.
Michael believed that every society struggles to get an uninterrupted right to speak. He looked at discourse as involving written, spoken and expressed language.
Foucault defined discourse as authorized statements about a particular subject. He reiterated that discourse is a social language which is created by a given cultural condition at a given time and place to give us information about a person who is speaking, his/her culture, the social institution he is involved in and the cultural beliefs upheld. This study can be applied in situations when one is studying a culture of a particular group.
It is important because it creates a world that shapes our reality with the changing times and assists us to generate truth or what is perceived to be true. Finally discourse enables us to understand how power agitates one to address a situation. For instance, a medical discourse gives a medical doctor a authority to examine patient and give a right medication.
Michael looked at normalization as a social process which treats ideas as normal. This involves construction of some norms and conducts which regulates our behavior in the society; giving an example with what he called ‘Hitler’s boys’. He reiterated that normalization was an ensemble of tactics for ensuring maximum societal control.
This understanding of normalization is applied in the developing of various regulations. Normalization is important as it explains the reason behind existing norms and why people adhere to them. Besides, it explains why there are norms, laws and regulations within the societies and the penalties tagged when violated.
Foucault viewed truth as product of relations of power. Societies have different forms of knowledge which acts as the basis of truth. In his view, power determines the truth which changes with the changing societal systems. Foucault explains that knowledge will be provided when a discourse has been created in life, though this type of truth can neither be true nor false.
The truths in society come from the power which is generally accepted. The idea can be applied when looking at the existing beliefs and opinions regarded by people as true. The study of truth is important as it allows us to fathom factual matters within our societies and how to treat a statement as either true or false.
The social sciences are distinct because of their focus on the human being as their area of concern. This means that although certain principles can be borrowed from the sciences, it is not always possible to apply the scientific methods without certain modifications.
Significance of a suitable question which you have formulated for social scientific analysis
The question chosen for analysis is “How do violent video games affect family members’ perceptions of teenagers?”This question will be particularly important to society because it might provide an explanation for increased separation of the youth from their families. In this age of information technology, computer games have become very common and the family unit would benefit greatly if they found out whether exposure to violence and nudity in these computer games could actually lead to antisocial behavior in their lives.
Society could be nabbing a problem by the bud by dealing with a potential root cause of antisocial behavior. On the other hand, if the research reveals that families only consider positive results such as better hand and eye coordination or quicker brain responses then families are likely to encourage their children to keep playing these games because they encourage development. Games by their very nature are abstract activities and it will be informative to determine whether the abstract tasks would encourage youth to act out what they see and do. The research will therefore give an important indicator of identity formation amongst the youth and hence society. This social scientific question deals with social identity and the social phenomena of media usage. In this case, the media platform under analysis is violent video games. It will seek to evaluate the phenomenon by looking at its effects on human behavior (Perry and Perry, 2009).
Research problems that will help answer the social scientific question
How will data be collected on family member’s experiences with teenagers who play violent video games?
How will data be collected on opinions of family members concerning teenagers who play violent video games?
How will data be collected on actual family interactions between family members and teenagers who play violent video games?
The first social scientific question will be solved through the use of in depth interviews. Here, the major aim will be to determine the kind of history that teenagers who play violent video games have with their other family members and how those experiences have been translated by them. The second research question will involve the use of focus groups. Such a method is preferable because it allows for collection of broad views on the subject matter. Some things that qualify as societal norms can be easily collected using such a method. Issues of opinion can be easily revealed through such a method. The third research question will be solved through the use of participant observation. Since the data being collected concerns behavior then it would be best to do this when the subjects are in their natural settings (Perry and Perry, 2009).
Social scientific analysis required
This research is basically qualitative research and it will result in very rich and subjective data. Consequently, the major aim of the research after collection of this data will be to arrange it in terms of certain patterns and themes. In other words, thematic analysis will be done for all data(Perry and Perry, 2009).
For data collected through the use of focus groups (Data answering research problem 2). It will be critical to first code the information. Information will be coded according to the most repeated themes and also by the frequency of consensus amongst the participants. The following will be the coding strategy for focus data: it will be labeled, it will contain definitions of what the themes means, it will contain an illustration of how to tell when the them has occurred and any exclusions to the theme. After the data has been coded, it will then be reported. This will be done through a schematic drawing that will be guided by the research question “What are the opinions of family members concerning teenagers who play violent video games?”
The first research question (data collected through the use of in depth interviews) will be analyzed through similar process as the focus group. However, in this case because every participant will give their own data, then cross case analysis will be used where all the responses will be put together and then codified and reported using the processes mentioned above.
Lastly, data collected through the use of participant observation will be analyzed individually. In other words, all the notes and observations made during the separate cases will be codified. However codification in this case will be done based on grounded theory because all observations must be based on this. Lastly, the information will presented through the use of conceptual frameworks as determined during the case analysis.
Whether the scientific method can be applied to the research question chosen above The scientific method; how it is understood in the natural sciences
A scientific method is made of three major steps which include, creation of hypotheses, experimentation and finally collection of data. In other words, a scientific research must be one that bases its inquiry on empirical and measurable evidence that is founded on certain principles of reasoning.
A number of characteristics are unique to the scientific method as compared to other methods of inquiry. First, one must have a working hypothesis (Perry and Perry, 2009). This can either be pre existent or it may have to be created by the respective individual. Thereafter, one should be able to carry out tests designed to test this formulated hypothesis. The tests used in scientific methods need to be repeatable and should be able to determine results.
It should be noted that when a series of hypotheses are put together then this can result in the formation of a theory if a wide form of inquiry is being considered. The scientific method also gives a lot of precedence to objectivity. In the natural or physical sciences, there are no considerations for context because it is assumed that this leads to inconsistency. In fact, this is the reason why most scientific experiments or tests are carried out in very controlled conditions so as to eliminate any interfering factors. Because of the need to ensure predictability in results, it is often imperative to subject scientific work to peer review.
In physics, biology or chemistry, scientists will often be required to go through this process because these are experimentally based sciences and often hypothesis based. However, one should not assume that just because the sciences are based on various standards and theories then there is no room for creativity. The scientific method requires utmost intelligence and creativity and therefore should not be mistaken to be a rigid set of rules that cannot be altered. In fact, new and better ways of understanding old theories are frequently being created in order to refine older theories.
When following the scientific method, an individual usually does an operation. In other words, the system under analysis is usually altered by changing some aspect of it. The scientist must then observe that system after the operation. The third step is creation of a model. Here, after a hypothesis is created then a phenomenon is then analyzed. The last step is the utility function where the model created is then measured for its usefulness. At this point, one should be able to explain, control or to predict patterns using the model. Here, issues such as refutability or simplicity are examined because the model should not be too complicated to use or should not be refuted by parties.
Comparison of the research methods required in the formulated question with the scientific method as seen in the natural sciences
In earlier sections of the paper, the research methods required are those ones which do not have a predefined set of answers. This is because the matter under analysis is too sensitive to have predefined solutions. Also, the kind of answers that could come from such a research may be so diverse. Therefore predefining answers would seriously hamper the possibility of getting accurate results. In the natural sciences, the scientific method would require hypotheses that would have to be tested through the research methods (Perry and Perry, 2009). This is clearly not possible in this case.
The nature of the research question is also such that it is culturally specific. In other words, the opinions, behaviors and the values that are related to teenagers who play violent video games and their families are very contextual. Furthermore, one cannot quantify most of the factors that determine perceptions of family members. Therefore, one must use a research method that focuses on the human aspect hence the reason why in depth interviews, focus groups and participant observations were chosen. The natural sciences often focus on collection of data which can be generalized to the rest of the population. However, the most important issue in this research is not generalizability; it is unraveling and gaining insights on a social phenomenon which is violent video games.
Therefore, the scientific method would differ from the methods used in this research because the nature of objectives to be analyzed, the questions that are opposed by those objectives. Furthermore, methods of data collection would also be more structured and easily quantifiable since measurement is given utmost consideration. Lastly, the kind of flexibility allowed in the study design is very different in this social scientific inquiry compared to what the scientific method endorses.
Whether a social science perspective must rely on the scientific method in the same way that the natural or physical sciences would
The natural sciences rely heavily on the scientific method because hypothesis creation and hypothesis testing or experimentation can be done relatively easily. In these types of sciences, one can easily isolate a subsystem from the other subsystems and this makes it possible to differentiate outputs from inputs or to take measurements. The social sciences cannot just borrow such methodology owing to the fact that the subject matter or the system under analysis is the human being. It is extremely difficult for one to come up with hypotheses for the human being because this is a very complicated subject.
It is very difficult to take measurements quantitatively when one does not fully understand the qualitative dimensions of the phenomenon under analysis. Unlike most physical systems, the brain cannot be subdivided and changes introduced to it discretely. The human being is such that he is a product of his surrounding so in order to understand the motivations behind humans, one needs to look at context. This is the reason why objectivity might be rather difficult to establish and it would just be better to study the subject together with his respective environment.
Conclusion
The research questions under analysis are more qualitative in nature and would therefore not be properly studied if the scientific method as understood in the natural sciences were to be directly applied.
Reference
Perry, J. & Perry E. (2009). Contemporary society: An introduction to social science. Boston, MA: Pearson.
The social sciences have adopted the scientific principles of natural or physical sciences such as mathematics for a long time. Social science perspectives rely on the scientific methods of natural sciences such as sampling, observation and other means in data analysis, data interpretation and chiefly, data collection.
Social scientists use a social scientific perspective and social theories to hypothesize about the world around them and how it has an impact on society at large (Jones, 2003).
It is therefore in the light of this that the topic of gender and mass media must be examined in detail to determine that it is of social importance to individuals, communities and society. The question therefore is how does the mass media influence gender perceptions?
How has the mass media influenced gender perceptions?
The question above has been a sociological issue for a long time. TV, newspapers and mostly the internet have various depictions of different genders and their social roles (gender stereotyping). The mass media also portray the female gender as sexual objects or as the weaker sex in general because it has become widely believed that it is so.
From music videos to epic movies, women have been portrayed as the helpless weaklings who can only serve the purpose of catering to the whims of their male counterparts to the dancers who dance half-naked and in erotic manners as the men look on in bewildered amusement.
For example, the Video Phone music video by Lady Gaga and Beyonce’ This is fast changing in this dynamic world where feminism, rights for women and emancipation of women is a common aspect of most of the modern world ( that is the First World Countries and the some developing countries).’
According to a research paper by McConnell (2008), the media also has a significant role in stereotyping along the lines of gender. She postulates that the media is a tool for perpetuating gender stereotypes that mostly target females. These ideas become so prevalent that they go without question and even force some people to adopt these characteristics that they believe are the required norm.
Movie characters, celebrities and sports personality have become the models of what the physical appearance of most women should be. It has even been extended to what they wear and how they wear it. Their works out regimes and diets have been splashed all over tabloids and reality shows as the “holy book” in weight loss programs or “having the perfect body.
This can have such a negative impact on the feeble and malleable minds of most teens such that they begin to doubt themselves and essentially starve themselves so that they can look like Angelina Jolie. This may have the disastrous effects of eating disorders such as bulimia and anorexia and in the worst-case scenario, death.
Men are not spared either. The ideal man should have the ideal body that is tan, tall, muscular or athletic and possess the ‘non-balding gene’. If a man does not achieve these requirements then he feels he may be doomed to loneliness as no one finds him attractive. The statistics of men having eating disorders and going for plastic surgery sessions is on the rise (McConnell, 2008).
Our society is losing a sense of social perspective in this narrow view of physical measures of attractiveness. “By focusing too intensely on the physical, our society risks losing sight of the fuller sense of what people are, and what makes us truly beautiful” (McConnell, 2008).
Social scientific methods in social sciences entail testing and proving hypothesis. “The basic technique of this method is called scientific observation, which is a precise systematic collection of data under controlled conditions by trained observers” (Perry & Perry, 2003, p. 4)
This question of media and gender can be analyzed scientifically through 3 research method problems:
What data can be used to quantify the influence of media on gender especially in the portrayal of ideal types of physical attractiveness?
The methods that can be adopted to provide data include sampling and experimentation on a group of impressionable youth. However, when it comes to distinguishing the applicable data, social scientists can opt to look at medical reports and statistics on the cases of eating disorders, plastic surgery and fitness regimes and work out plans as well as the dieting programs that are popular. The scientific analysis entails defining the problem as physical attractiveness in the media.
Next, the hypothesis that these two are correlated is tested to be proven true by analyzing the collected data available on the topic. This is followed by drawing conclusions and recommendations based on the data through logical deductions of the the future holds for people with eating disorders and how media can change or elevate the numbers, and finally performing experimental tests on the medical data to affirm findings, predictions and conclusion (Moulton & Schiferres, 1960).
What is the reason for mass media perpetuating gender stereotypes and sexually objectifying women?
The media usually perpetuates these views because when it comes down to it, “what the audience wants, the audience gets.” The media operates on what the audience wants to see because it generates rating which translate into money in advertising. The social scientific analysis involves defining how the media thinks and its role of perpetuating stereotypes to achieve ratings.
It can therefore be hypothesized that gender stereotypes are only prevalent because we indirectly allow it to permeate societal views by boosting ratings of stereotypical shows. The conclusion and recommendations based on the findings by logical reasoning can be made as to whether this will end if society stops glorifying these stereotypes as well. Lastly, an external researcher should retest the hypothesis through a series of experiments to determine the likelihood of this scenario (Scientific Method, n.d.).
Why are men not targeted as much in the media or why are the perspectives towards them mostly positive?
We mostly live in a patriarchal society. Most of the mass media do not sexually parade men on screens or magazines as objects. So why is media so imbalanced when it comes to the views of males? The researcher will identify the topic of media and gender bias. The next step is to formulate a hypothesis of the role of generational cultural beliefs on influencing perceptions of gender, which is verified through data analysis and collection.
The researcher will use this hypothesis to make conclusions and recommendations about the how this could change in the future with the rise of feminism and lastly, the social scientific analysis will involve retesting of these hypothesis and predictions to ascertain that these facts are empirically true and are applicable to society (Zeiger, n.d.).
Comparison of the research methods to those in the natural sciences
In the natural sciences, the scientific method involves these four steps:
Observing and describing the phenomenon or group of phenomena that encompass the subject matter.
Formulating a hypothesis to explain the phenomena identified in step one. For example” in physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation” (Wolfs, n.d.).
Using the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena that relate to the subject, or to predict the results of new observations from a quantitative aspect. (McComas, 1998).
Performing tests and retests of the phenomena observed through experiments. This is usually done by several independent experimenters and involves setting up proper experiments in a controlled environment (Wolfs, n.d.).
According to Barrow (1991), the main aim of scientific analysis is the predictive power of the subsequent theory, which is the “ability to get more out of the theory than you put in.”
In the natural sciences, the aim is to provide empirical evidence of phenomena based on these methods also adopted in social scientific perspectives with the difference being in the subject of study (Godfrey-Smith, 2003).
In the formulated questions above, the research methods include the scientific methods generally applied to the natural sciences. The four steps of identification of topic, hypothesis formulation and subsequent studies in form of sampling, conclusions and recommendations and finally availing research for testing is all an aspect of social scientific analysis.
A social science method does not fully rely on the natural science method as it incorporates data that may not have been found to be empirically true such as interviews on the perspectives of sexual objectifying of women. The idea that rationality can be used in verification of the topic also shows that natural science scientific methods tend to rely on consensus on how to solve grey matters in the research subject (Meyer, 1999).
Reference List
Barrow, J. D. (1991). Theories of Everything. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Godfrey-Smith, P. (2003), Theory and Reality: An introduction to the philosophy of science, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Jones, P. (2003). Introducing Social Theory. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Blackwell.
McComas, W. (Ed.). (1998). The Principal Elements of the Nature of Science: Dispelling the Myths, The Nature of Science in Science Education (pp. 53–70). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
McConell, M. (2008). Media and Gender Stereotyping. Web.
Meyer, P. (1999). An Essay in Philosophy of Social Sciences. Web.
Moulton F.R. & Schiferres J.J. (1960). (Eds.). The Autobiography of Science (2nd ed.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Perry, J.A. & Perry, E. (2008). Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Scientific Method in Social Sciences. (n.d.). Web.
Wolfs, F. (n.d.). Introduction to Scientific Method. Web.
Zeiger, P. (n.d.). Scientific Method in Social Sciences. Web.
Erich Fromm was born in Frankfurt in 1900. At the beginning of his academic career, Fromm studied jurisprudence, but later he developed a close interest in sociology and psychology. Moreover, he gained expertise in psychoanalysis and even began clinical practice (Funk, 2013, p. 5).
He was forced to leave Germany in 1934 because the Nazi Party seized control over the German government (Funk, 2013). Later, he worked at various American universities. For instance, one can mention Columbia University. Additionally, he participated in the foundation of some educational and research organizations. In particular, Fromm founded William Alanson White Institute. Furthermore, this scholar worked in other countries such as Switzerland where he died in 1980.
In turn, it is critical to discuss the theoretical contributions made by this thinker. In his works, he focuses on various issues, especially the way in which a human being perceives freedom. In Fromm’s view, this concept can be interpreted in several ways. In particular, this notion can be described as the ability to reject conventions or restrictions (Fromm, 1994). However, at the same time, it can be viewed as the opportunity to fulfill one’s creative talents.
The main problem is that people can voluntarily reject freedom. For instance, they can do it by submitting to the will of a totalitarian and violent regime (Fromm, 1994). Additionally, the desire to conform to existing standards can stifle a person’s freedom (Fromm, 1994, p. 183). In particular, individuals may be reluctant to question the assumptions or stereotypes that are often taken for granted. This behavior can be observed among employees who are often affected by groupthink. The author urges readers not to disregard these risks. In part, this warning is intended for the intellectuals living in advanced countries.
Moreover, this thinker introduces such a concept as the orientation of a character. For example, one can mention the so-called receptive orientation. It implies that a person tries to satisfy his/her need by relying on external factors. For instance, one can consider those people who continuously rely on the assistance offered by the state or charitable organizations. In turn, Fromm mentions that other individuals are dominated by the hoarding instincts. They are driven by the desire to possess material objects (Fromm, 2013). They often emphasize their prestigious status by showing that they have acquired valuable possessions (Fromm, 2013, p. 7).
This description can apply to people who lay stress on their wealth and ability to purchase expensive goods. Nevertheless, this author lays stress on the importance of productive orientation. In this case, one can refer to those people whose primary values are freedom, rationality, and creativity (Fromm, 2013). Thus, one should try to acquire or develop these qualities. In contrast, other forms of orientation can profoundly impair the cognitive and ethical development of a person.
Moreover, Erich Fromm wants to distinguish different needs that affect the behavior and choices of individuals. He notes that the need for security can make a person dismiss the value of freedom. As a rule, such people are unwilling to take initiatives, especially if these steps contradict the existing conventions. Moreover, they may not raise objections to long-established policies, even though they are no longer beneficial. Overall, Fromm raises important questions about the conflict between freedom and security. At a certain point, this dilemma can be of great concern to many people.
There are several significant contributions of Erich Fromm. In particular, he provides a new classification of personality types. He focuses on the way in which a person can perceive the external environment. Some people want to master and conquer this environment. In contrast, other individuals believe that their experiences are shaped by outside factors. This distinction is helpful for showing how people can explain their successes and failures.
Additionally, this thinker demonstrates that the rejection of freedom is not caused only by totalitarian regimes that impose their will on the community. In his opinion, more attention should be paid to the unquestioning compliance with social or cultural norms. For instance, one can consider the lifestyles that emphasize the importance of consumption. In fact, the identity and status of a person are often dependent on the goods or brands that he/she possesses.
These pitfalls should be avoided because they can make a person’s life very shallow. In addition to that, his studies enabled researchers to re-evaluate Freudian theory of psychoanalysis (Funk, 2013). Fromm managed to highlight internal contradictions of this model.
Overall, Erich Fromm’s work illustrates various questions that are essential for explaining the way in which the values and attitudes are formed. This thinker focuses on such a notion as freedom and its value for individuals. Apart from that, this philosopher explains the factors that can prompt a person to dismiss the importance of self-expression and self-sufficiency. Admittedly, many of his assumptions cannot be tested in an experimental way. It is one of the limitations that should be recognized. However, this author illustrates many existential dilemmas that a person can encounter.
Reference List
Fromm, E. (1994). Escape from Freedom. New York, NY: Holt Paperbacks.
Fromm, E. (2013). To Have or To Be? New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic.
Funk, R. (2013). Erich Fromm and the inter-subjective tradition. International Forum Of Psychoanalysis, 22(1), 5-9.
The debate about violence and indecency in pop culture within and outside of the scholarly community has been raging for several decades. On the one hand, the American Psychological Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics have issued notes directly linking media violence to aggression (Ferguson and Beresin 70). On the other hand, research on the matter is inconclusive showing that the correlation between violence and aggression varies from null to weak (Ferguson and Beresin 70). The situation with indecency is also hard to evaluate since it is unclear where freedom of speech ends and impropriety starts.
To make the situation clear, it is vital to examine violence and indecency separately. There is no scientific evidence that the representation of violence is pushing boundaries (Ferguson and Beresin 75). Even though exposure to cruelty and brutality is growing due to the increased number of media sources, it neither seems to affect the psychological health of the population nor does it reinforce new societal ideas of what is appropriate.
However, caution in the matter is suggested since the younger population is prone to the “copycat phenomenon.” Therefore, violence in the media is to be controlled, as the copycat effect is greater “when there is extensive media coverage and detailed descriptions and if the event is glamorized or sensationalized” (Ferguson and Beresin 72). Additionally, research methods in the matter are open to criticism.
The situation differs from indecency in the media since the research on the phenomenon is scarce. While there is no specific information on the matter, the older generation strongly believes that vulgarity of the pop culture is pushing boundaries. This may be explained by moral panic theory, which claims that such an opinion has no rational basis behind it. However, the copycat effect may come in place, and the moral standards of the younger generation may lower due to the indecency exposed by pop culture.
Work Cited
Ferguson, Christopher, and Eugene Beresin. “Social Science’s Curious War with Pop Culture and How It Was Lost: The Media Violence Debate and the Risks It Holds for Social Science.” Preventive Medicine, vol. 99, 2017, pp. 69-76.
It is worth noting that relativism, as well as the belief opposed to it, refers to the theoretical interpretation of practical principles (Black, 2013). Despite the difficulties associated with the conceptual approach to values, the philosophical categories established by human experience show that values are true qualities since they become consequential attributes by their essential content. The purpose of this paper is to reflect upon the relation between objectivity and values in their application to social science research.
Discussion
The main question discussed in this work centers on the query of whether values undermine the objectivity of research. Importantly, Bigge (1971) stressed that values were contextually specific. That is to say, they are usually defined by the culture of an individual; therefore, they cannot be considered universal. Nonetheless, the author argued that this notion could be verified through community-based action. Bigge (1971) made an attempt to outline a pragmatic view of the researcher’s values. In general, they should be perceived as concrete experiences of individuals. Research occurs within society; therefore, experiential learning of the general community should not be disregarded during interpretation. However, while carrying out research, the investigator should aim at making the existing sense of values more objective and deep.
Trifonas (1995) made other significant remarks exhibiting the reliability of values in research. He noted that qualitative research modes had been strongly criticized. Nonetheless, they have proved to be effective and flexible in studying socio-cultural contexts. Other investigators have mentioned that qualitative researchers do not agree with a variety of questions while sharing a mutual understanding regarding the way of decomposing the narrative data (Stefanidou & Skordoulis, 2014). This assumption is linked to the fact that new methods of data analysis continuously evolve. Trifonas (1995) explained this issue by stating that qualitative methods had “shown the promise of effectivity in fulfilling the need for initiating more subtle and responsive ways through which to explore contemporary socio-cultural context” (p. 97). In that matter, values serve as operations, which help to clarify the data in social science research.
Apart from that, when reflecting on the issue of objectivity of values, it is crucial to discuss the ways that help to make a study balanced. It has been mentioned that values can be biased due to their nature (they are defined by culture and context). Objectivity can be achieved through the methods suggested by Eisner (1992). He suggested that the investigator should strive to avoid any form of bias, focusing on the universal approach towards data. In addition, it is necessary to place a greater emphasis on the world in which individuals perform to ensure honesty and that all the aspects of the dispute have been considered. Moreover, Eisner (1992) recommended resorting to objective methods of data analysis and supporting the fair representation of things despite the researcher’s personal worldview. The important statement that can be made based on the current discussion of values is that although researchers might not admit a particular outlook, they will be engaged in designing it.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that values can be considered universal since they are clarified through community-based learning. In its turn, this form of learning inevitably occurs in the course of researching. Despite the fact that values can contain bias due to their nature, the existing body of knowledge suggests multiple ways of achieving objectivity at different stages of the research.
Questions for In-Class Consideration
Based on the reflection and the assumptions made, the three questions for in-class consideration are as follows:
What values can the researcher bring to his or her study?
To what extent can values intrude with the objectivity of research?
What can data analysis methods be considered helpful in making a study balanced?
References
Bigge, M. (1971). Positive relativism: An emergent educational philosophy. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Black, D. (2013). On the almost inconceivable misunderstandings concerning the subject of value-free social science. British Journal of Sociology, 64(4), 763-780.
Eisner, E. (1992). Objectivity in educational research. Curriculum Inquiry, 22(1), 9-15.
Stefanidou, C., & Skordoulis, C. (2014) Subjectivity and objectivity in science: An educational approach. Advances in Historical Studies, 3(4), 183-193.
Trifonas, P. (1995). Objectivity, subjectivity and relativism: The case for qualitative methodologies in educational research. Journal of Educational Thought, 29(1), 81-101.
Sociology is a social science that studies human beings in their social setting including their descent, institutions, systems, organisations and their influence on societal development.
It is concerned with understanding the structure and functioning of human society, how it changes over time and the forces that account for the changes. Sociologists thus study human beings in relation to the society and how human conduct, shapes the society and its structures and vice versa.
Sociological imagination
Sociological imagination is a critical field of criminology concerned with the relationship that exists between the beliefs of the society and the life as experienced in the society. It is the critical examination of issues against the contemporary views of the society. Individuals engaged in sociological imagination, find it pleasant to ask questions in order to get answers to what they observe.
They do not rely entirely on what the society holds as true or false rather, they question the basis of its truthfulness or falsehood. Therefore, sociological imagination is concerned with the causes and outcomes of the interaction between various components of the society such as norms, motives and current occurrences in the society.
Proponents of sociological thinking do not agree with the facts that are passed on in the society from one generation to another without testing the truth of these facts.
Social and personal problems/issues
Personal problems concern individuals and most often have no effect on the society as a whole. Social problems on the other hand, are issues affecting several people in a social setting.
The difference between the two kinds of problems is that, a personal problem affects an individual’s living style and one is supposed to deal with it for instance, incidences of obesity and unemployment among others. The social problem is one which cannot be avoided by the larger group since, all or most of the individuals are affected by it.
However, the two forms of problems originate from the same bases most of the time. Both social and personal issues might originate from both the social setting and individual mistakes. For instance, lack of employment may be caused by lack of supportive institutions such as schools in the society or alternatively, an individual’s failure to capitalize on opportunities in the society. Some of the problems are very difficult to classify such as abortion.
Structural Functionalism Theory of sociology
Structural functionalism is the sociological theory which holds that the society is a system made up of very many components or parts which interact to foster stability. Each of these parts, has its important function that cannot be ignored since, it contributes to the successful operation of the society as a system.
The major components of the societal system are; customs, traditions, norms, institutions and belief systems. These are social processes and structures which define the society by giving it form and distinctiveness.
How can we define or identify what power is? Is it something visible or invisible? Or can power be something like a force that makes things move and or stop from being in motion? Sometimes we think of it in many different ways and due to some people do associate power as the authority that we have over others, while others believe that is a measure of material possessions the people have.
However, it may be hard to exactly define the term power under one subject to represent a universal definition of all other subjects. So, what is very crucial in searching for the definition of power as well as seeking an in-depth understanding is to look up for detailed work on the topic of power from diverse subjects including social science, politics and political science, and even engineering subjects. It should therefore be noted that the meaning of the term power cannot be confined to a particular area or subject.
Furthermore, there should be no confusion of its users under the different fields of subjects in which its multiple meaning would sometimes appear to coincide in two or subject fields, while it may greatly differ in several other fields.
In the field of social science, power is broadly dealt with or seen under many sub-units. Some of us would look up for the term power in the point of personal attributes, which are more often referred to as characteristics.
Due to the unique personal characters that we all have, another group of individuals would think of it in different ways and search for an understanding of power under the individual’s methodologies of implementing strategies for a specific task and the ability to convert the available resources into final products or services. The last cohort of the people from our community/society may also take another approach, whereby it may focus on establishing the meaning and understanding of power by looking at it through the organization of the community/society on the basis of structural society’s relationship.
Even though social scientists seem to consent to one single idea of the meaning of power, social constructionists appear to differ compared to the other fellow sociologists. Deep studies on the constructionist view of power show to some extent that they shallowly addressed the power influence, and thus the theoretical work may not be adequate to resolve some of the hidden puzzling questions of the readers. In this connection, it may be assumed that constructionism partially addresses and accounts for the impacts or rather the influence of power on the society. While it is worth noting that constructionists mention several things related to the power, their work on some major factors or element of power such as the subject of materialism embodiment is partially handled.
Graphics and social illustrations. It is important to note and understand that power could be having an intimate relationship with embodiment. This was shown by Foucault and other sociologists who carried out experiment to provide some kind of evidence of the body response toward power. For many reasons, it might be hard for us to save one’s powers from such things like materials, personal character/ behavior, which in turn builds what is termed as personal behavior.
What is within, perhaps, makes what we call a person. But it should be considered that all that is within somebody may not be known. In most cases, the power within someone would make that what he/she wants to be. However, people are described not in one distinct way in their life because there is always the power to change or room of change. We therefore use language to describe ourselves depending on the circumstances in which we are found under certain time.
The words that we use differ widely to express what we are either in the basis of gender, race, ethnicity or even during explanation of our health conditions. The issues raised above were among some of matter of deep concern of constructionists Foucault for which he appeared to support the idea that power is a major factor in the driving out of discourse. On the side of Gergen, power may be a key in expressing and giving commands as it acts a warranting voice.