Category: Social Science

Language is a critical tool in the humanities and social sciences. It would be impossible to study communication arts, history, philosophy, religion and the classics if one will deprive himself of this tool. Language is the key that opens the door in the study of humanities. However, the same thing can be said when it comes to the social sciences.

It would be impossible to understand human society, how it was formed and how it is being sustained without the use of language. It is the code breaker that will allow a student of the social sciences to understand the complex communication systems used by human beings. Language is the backbone for both humanities and social sciences.

Benedict Anderson had a brilliant insight when it comes to the purpose of language and its link to the creation of social classes. He said that printed language is the reason why democratic nations were formed out of kingdoms ruled by tyrants. At the same time he also implied that prior to the rise of nationalism verbal language was used primarily to build communities.

With regards to the rise of nationalism he was convinced that it would have been impossible to achieve it without a way for the common people to connect beyond family or tribal loyalties.

Anderson argued that in the past there was no other means of establishing communities but through the rituals associated with kinship, clientship, and personal loyalties (Anderson, no date).

These rituals can only be accomplished by the use of verbal communication and therefore the expert use of language to bind people together in marriage, treaties, and other forms of personal transactions. It is language that facilitated the knitting together of families, friends and neighbors. Language is the primary tool that brings people together.

It is important to master the verbal language and even the written language as a means of communication. But language should not be limited to the building of communities and societies. Language must be fully maximized because it can provide more than a set of symbols and sounds for communication purposes. Language is the only thing that can express what is deep within the spirit of man.

Walter Benjamin said that storytelling is the best way to experience life to the full (Benjamin, 2003). Storytelling is different from the usual use of language such as a means to organize a community to compel them to action.

Storytelling compels the soul of the storyteller and the audience to soar in regions inaccessible by the physical body  a place beyond this present reality. It can only be accessed by the spirit of man. The means of transport is the use of language.

Time on the other hand does not contain symbols or even sounds. It does not have anything that can be perceived by the five senses  taste, smell, hearing, sight, and touch. It is some sort of an idea that can only be imagined but there is nothing tangible about it. This is perhaps the reason why some philosophers tried to argue that time does not exist.

However, the invisible does not mean that it is not real and it is not present in this world. It may be that the invisible cannot be captured by human hands and human strength but nevertheless it is as real as the invisible air and the invisible power that binds atomic particles together.

This is perhaps the reason why at the end, critics of time like Jose Luis Borges were forced to accept that time is real and that time is needed by all especially when it comes to the study of humanities and the social sciences.

It is impossible to begin to understand the complexity of the humanities without the element of time. It is difficult to fully understand what Borges tried to say when he quoted Shakespeare. If he meant to say that Shakespeare shared his enthusiasm to negate time then he is wrong. The works of Shakespeare is one of the proofs that time exists.

This is because there is no way to understand his sonnets and his plays without the element of time. This is obvious when one studies the eternal Romeo and Juliet it is impossible to miss the terms Act I, Act II, and Act III and so on and so forth because this is a way to delineate time. It is contrary to what Borges tried to prove that there is no linearity in life (Borges, 1947).

At leas it is linear in the plays of Shakespeare. It would have been impossible to enjoy or even to understand Romeo and Juliet without the use of time because events had to be in proper sequence. The scene where the Montagues and the Capulets tried to kill each other must come first before the scene wherein Romeo fell in love with Juliet.

The scene wherein the messenger took a long time to deliver the message to Romeo must come first before Juliet took her own life. The sequence of events must be in order to make sense of the love story. But without time these events floats into the air, without order and no one has the power to bring it to a discernible pattern.

It is also impossible to understand the social sciences without the element of time. History is possible through a chronology of events. In other words a linear succession of events explains the present because of the things that occurred in the past.

The United States of the 20^th century is an impossible concept without the occurrence of the American Revolution that in the 18^th century. The United Nations would never have been created without the horror of two World Wars. The social scientists could never create a solution to the problems that he encountered without using the tool we call time.

It is part of the measuring rod that determines success and failures. Time tracks movement, without it there will be no action that resulted in meaningful work and in turn those activities resulted in a body of work that benefited people. There is no way to understand the evolution of a society without time. It is much easier to refute Borges refutation of time rather than to find a way to support his claim.

It is easier to criticize his analysis on how to negate time than to seek a philosophically accepted framework to defend his ideas. Even Borges at the end has to concede that perhaps his desire to refute time is borne out of desperation. He is perhaps fearful of his impending demise and so he tried his best to make time go away but alas there is no escaping time.

Human beings are obligated to evolve into a higher state. It is their destiny to become better, stronger, faster, and wiser. There is no evidence to show that mankind is regressing. There are societies that demonstrate its capability to resist change but they only succeeded in resisting but not in the total apprehension of change.

There are only a few tribes and communities that can actually say that they prefer to stay the same and that they are doing their best to maintain what they currently have. The rest of mankind proves the opposite. It can even be said that there is an eagerness to change, to improve and to enhance what is at present.

The majority looks at the future because it is there where their hope lies and they know that a better version of themselves can only be achieved through movement. It is only possible through human progression.

Humanity must move forward, it cannot afford to look back. A society must learn to use everything that it possesses in order to reach the next level of progress. It is good to treasure memories of days gone by but an obsession with the past will only pull that particular community backwards instead of moving forward. Mankinds destiny is to become a better species and by doing so he will be able to transform the planet.

Visit a classroom and listen to what children say. Go to a place where the children are not yet tainted with malice and sarcasm and they will tell you that they want to be an instrument of positive change.

This is the reason why they dream of becoming a doctor, an engineer, nurse, police officer, and fireman because deep within  without anyone telling them  they know that they have a mission to fulfill.

Unfortunately, when they are all grown up and exposed to the rough and tumble world they began to doubt if they are really destined for something bigger than trying to pay the bills or working hard for someone who does not appreciate their efforts.

Mankind must make commitment that there is no other way to go but to move forward. Progress is its savior. Technological breakthroughs had proven to be a major catalyst of change and indeed made life easier. It is now easier to grow food, store them, and transport them as compared to the hunter-gatherers of ancient times.

It is now easier to acquire clothes and build homes as compared to a tribes struggle to acquire materials and process them. However, technology has also proven to be the source of todays problems such as pollution, deforestation, garbage, climate change, overcrowding etc.

Nevertheless, this does not mean that technology should be blamed and that it is time to take a step backwards and revert to the medieval mindset of yesteryears. This simply means that mankind must keep moving forward because as human beings continue to clamor for change and for self-improvement then they will be able to solve these problems. It is not technology per se that is the culprit but the lack of knowledge.

The knowledge that we have is enough. Scientists, explorers, and mavericks must rise up to take up the challenge of pushing the boundaries of progress and change.

Future progress assures mankinds survival but also its improvement as human beings. This is made evident when it comes to the humanities and social sciences. In the study of the humanities a person who seeks improvement will have a better capacity to absorb, appreciate, and teach the profound lessons contained in the humanities as a subject matter.

This means that personal development will enable man and woman to unlock the secrets of philosophy, religion, history, and even the classics so that it can be used to improve the community in particular and the world in general.

Aside from using the humanities as a tool to build better and stronger communities there is another way to improve the lives of people and it is through the correct application of the wisdom and knowledge that can be gleaned from the study of social sciences. However, social scientists must also long for the same thing and it is the desire for growth and progression in their field.

It is not enough for them to know a certain amount of information and then proceed to change the world. Social scientist must discover new methods and new techniques of doing things and this can only be achieved if they learn how to increase their capacity. There is therefore a symbiotic relationship between the study of the humanities and social sciences and human progress. One needs the other.

Works Cited

Anderson, Benedict. Old Languages, New Models. Borges, Jose Luis. A New Refutation of Time. Walter, Benjamin. The Storyteller.

Parental involvement in their children education

Introduction

Researchers have carried out various researches regarding parental involvement in education of their children, with many reports implying that increased levels of parental participation in the childs education can improve the students academic achievements.

Generally, children are mainly educated by their parents and teachers throughout their lives. Parents play a very important role in education, by partnering with teachers and students to enhance running of the education systems effectively. In order to assist the parents to become aware of the effectiveness of their partnering in education, teachers should involve dialogue with the parents early enough to discuss about the parents hopes and aspirations for their child.

Their understanding of the child needs and their suggestions about the ways that the teachers can help allow the teachers to be able to highlight their limitations and invite parents to participate in their childs education in definite ways (Nieto, 1996). For the child to perform well academically, it requires substantial support from parents.

Parents involvement in education of a child takes several ways including good parenting, provision of a secure and stable environment, intellectual stimulation, parent-child discussion, good models of constructive social and educational values and high aspiration relating to personal fulfillment and participation in the school events, work and governance (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003. P.5). Therefore, the parents involvement normally touches on the school life and the individual assistance offered to the child at home and at school.

Parents and the school are very vital in the roles they play in the childrens education and their impact can be greater through partnering in their duties, since there is no clear line to show where the parents input stops and the teachers input begins in children education (UK Department for Education and Skills, 2003).

Statement of the Problem

What are the impacts of parental involvement on the educational progress of the children? For many researchers and educational experts, increased parental involvement in children education is always associated with positive students achievements; however, others disagree about what really makes the involvements to influence the students performance positively.

For the antagonists, they believe that studies to justify increased parental involvement lack scientific rigor, are mainly based on assumptions, the positions they support are not tenable, and many programs and policies supporting parental involvement are explicitly based on the evidence that does not exist. In addition, they may lead to ambiguity in regards to what parental involvement programs and policies actually are able to accomplish (Educationalliance, 2010). Based on the above situation, this paper will review researches to check the impact of parent involvement at home and at school in their children schooling.

Literature review

Parental involvement programs are mostly crafted to be composed of several means of training and participations for parents to work with schools and teachers. Parent involvement normally begins with contacts (phone calls, visits) in which the teachers update parents on the student progress and seek parents assistance.

The second stage of parent participation involves home learning activities. Parents largely use the following methods to aid students learning. First, reading activities in which parents listen, correct, and praise their childrens reading; secondly, teacher advised discussions about television programs that parents and children watch together; and instructional techniques designed for parents to help with homework (Moles, 1982, P.45). Many of the surveys conducted in this area have indicated that both parents and teachers support increased parent involvement in their children education.

Although parent involvement is widely favored, it is faced by some challenges including: first, teachers and parents conflicting family commitments and time constraints. Others include parents and schools conflicting perception of learning priorities, teacher low expectations of parents efforts, parents inability to handle their students family problems, and finally, a history of negative communications between the home and school (Moles, 1982, P.45).

Parents involvement in their childrens education has always received much support with schools, teachers, and institutional systems coming up with programs and patterns for encouraging parents involvement in the education of their children.

After reviewing research findings, it was concluded that a joint and well organized effort by parents and teachers is very important to handling more successfully the problems of discipline, motivation, and the development of good work habits at home and in school by working with parents (Gallup, 1978).

Parent participation on students achievement is much encouraged at preschool. According to Bronfenbrenner (1974), having reviewed several of early intervention programs, it was concluded that the active involvement of family is very vital to the success of the programs, and it strengthens and helps to maintain the effects of school parent involvement programs.

Sometimes, there are mixed reactions to parent involvement in education, with schools and teachers tending to support some parental participation well, and at the same time not being contented with other parental participation. According to Williams (1981), after analyzing the evaluation of a variety of parent involvement by elementary teachers in a six state regional survey, it was concluded that the teachers were not very supportive about parent participation in curriculum development, instruction, or school governance.

Ideally, parent support was justified and at the same time enhanced through teachers assistance despite limitation of opportunities by schools for both to co-work effectively. In a similar study conducted on the same setup of the principals, Williams (1981) observed that principals valued parent involvement in childrens home learning for several reasons: it aids schools by strengthening school learning, and is within parents capabilities; but they also felt that parents lack adequate training to prepare them for an active role in childrens home learning.

Studies have been conducted to assess how poorly educated and low- income parents are affected in their parental involvement. Due to challenges faced by these parents, some schools have developed programs to aid them in assisting their children schooling.

For example, the Parent Plus program in Chicago brings such parents into the school one day a week to learn how they can help at home with current school work and expand their homemaking and community-related skills (Moles, 1982, P.46).

Further, to understand the impact of parents involvement at school and in the home learning for their children, this paper will look at research conducted by Sui-Chu and Willms in 1996 to check how parents supported their children school progress.

Chu and Willms got their data from the US National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) based on a sample of around 24600 8^th grade students in a stratified sample drawn from 1500 schools, with the evidence being collected from student and parent questionnaires and was gauged using standardized attainment tests in mathematics and reading (Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996). The table below shows the items contained in the questionnaire.

Source: Sui-Chu and Willms. Web.

Reponses to the questionnaire items were scored and the scores analyzed to look for major patterns. A principal component analysis with varimax rotation identified four factors with Eigen values greater than 1. Four main factors were assessed to describe most parental involvement activity: two types of home involvement (home discussion of school activities and home supervision) and two types of school involvement (school communication and school participation).

Finally, the data was analyzed to check the relationship between forms of parental involvement and social class of the families. For analysis, multilevel regression analysis fit for hierarchical linear model (HLM) was used, as shown in the following section.

Findings

According to Sui-Chu and Willms (1996), the following results emerged from the study. First, there was a variance of 55 percent in the set of 12 variables; intra-school involvement, rather than inter-school involvement was found to account for 90 % of the total variation, however, the distribution was relatively uniform across the schools; and lastly, the level of parental involvement was directly proportional to the level of social class exhibited.

Source: Sui-Chu and Willms. Web.

Discussion

The results indicated that, levels of communication and levels of parental involvement in the home were relatively uniform across all schools, thus it was not possible to identify reliably, schools that were particularly effective or ineffective in culturing higher levels of parental involvement.

Most researchers argue that successful schools use practices that foster greater communication with parents, encourage parents to assist children at home with their schoolwork and planning, and take parents to act as volunteers or participants in school governance; all aimed at high level schooling outcomes (Sui-Chu and Willms, 1996, P.137).

These results therefore imply that these schools are more of ideal examples but they are very limited. The home-school communication collaboration may be hindered by parent cooperation, with many parents facing competing demands of work and family life, come from different cultural backgrounds, and feel mistrust and anxiety when dealing with school staff; while many teachers face competing demands at school and at home, are not trained on how to handle parents, and may experience hard times when relating with culturally different families (Moles, 1982, P.45).

Due to different priorities and perspectives of families and schools, concerns for ones own child compared with responsibility for group progress, mostly generate conflict over means of attaining common goals (Lightfoot, 1978).

Though social class seems to affect parental involvement, the overall measure of family background explained only about 10 percent of the variations in parental involvement across the four types of involvement; thus, these results do not support the notion that poor or uneducated families are not well involved in schooling of their children.

According to study carried out by Vellymalay (2010) to investigate the relationship between parents level of education and parental involvement in their childrens among the National Medium Tamil Schools in Malaysia, there were no significant differences found between parents education and level of parental involvement; the study found very small evidence linking parents with more education to high involvement.

However, these results may not agree with some studies such as the ones carried to determine whether environment can increase IQ scores. The study examined the IQs of African American children from impoverished environments who were adopted into middle class families (some white and some African American), with all of the families providing many social-educational opportunities for the adopted children. Researchers found that the IQs of the adopted children were as much as 10 points higher than IQs of African Americans raised in disadvantaged homes (Plotnik, & Kouyoumdjian, 2010, P.293).

Conclusion

In addressing the question of what are the impacts of parental involvement on the educational progress of the children, these results have clearly indicated that childrens academic achievement and the level to which the parents are involved in schools also depend on the intake characteristics of schools.

These results show that children scored much higher in mathematics and reading, when they attended schools with more social educational system (SES) and parental involvements. The research has also pointed out clearly that volunteering in participation has a double effect of improving the quality education and minimizing inequalities between social-class groups.

Therefore, it is up to school parents to create and forges ahead with meaningful parental involvement programs for the benefits of the students.

Reference List

Bronfenbrenner, U., 1974. Is Early Intervention Effective? A Report on Longitudinal Evaluation of Preschool Programs. Washington, DC: Department Of Health Education and Welfare.

Desforges, C., & Abouchaar, A., 2003. The Impact of Parental Involvement, Parental Support and Family Education on Pupil Achievement and Adjustment: A Literature Review. UK Department for Education and Skills. Research Report RR433. Web.

Educationalliance. 2010. Challenges regarding parental involvement research. Charleston: The Education Alliance. Web.

Gallup, G. H., 1978. The 10^th Annual Gallup Poll of the Publics Attitudes toward the Public Schools. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 60, Pp 33-45.

Moles, O. C., 1982. Synthesis of Recent Research on Parent Participation in Childrens Education. Resource Information Service.

Nieto, S., 1996. Positive Perspectives on Parents and Families. Web.

Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H., 2010. Introduction to Psychology. OH: Cengage Learning.

Sui-Chu, E. H., and Willms, J. D., 1996. Effects of Parental Involvement on Eighth-Grade Achievement. Sociology of Education, Vol 69, No.2, Pp 126-141. Web.

UK Department for Education and Skills. 2003. The Impact of Parental Involvement on Childrens Education. Web.

Vellymalay, S. K. N., 2010. Parental Involvement in Childrens Education: Does Parents Education Level Really Matters? School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia. European Journal of Social Sciences, Volume 16, Issue 3.

Williams, D.L., 1981. Final Interim Report Southwest Parent Educational Resource Center. Austin, Texas: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.

The article under consideration dwells upon the practice of citing sources by scholars. The author argues that citation practices have become somewhat marginalized as authors fail to provide proper references to the sources they use.

Mooney (2011) also concludes that citation practices should be modernized as this can help to foster responsible scholarship (p. 99). The author addresses a specific question providing plausible arguments and arranges the arguments in a clear and concise way, which makes the article a relevant academic source.

Notably, Mooney (2011) provides a specific question to be answered. The author claims that there is certain lack in the guidelines for citation of numeric data files (Mooney, 2011, p. 100). It is possible to note that the author addresses rather a narrow field which is one of the most important features of a successful research.

The author uses plausible evidence to support her argument. Admittedly, there are different types of citation style. Hunter (n.d.) states that mechanics of citing & vary in each format (p. 1). Mooney (2011) also admits that some domain-specific style guides provide clear examples for dataset citations (p. 101).

The author even provides a specific pattern which was revealed in some of these sources. However, it is clear that there is no coherent system which could enable researchers to have a complete understanding of patterns to cite datasets used.

Furthermore, the article in question is well-organized. The author provides subheadings (e.g. Data sharing and citations or Data citation standards) which help the reader to follow the article (Mooney, 2011, p. 100). Admittedly, the subheadings help the author to organize arguments and help the reader to focus on what is really important.

On balance, it is possible to state that the author addresses a specific problem which, to great extent, ensures the success of the study. The author also provides relevant arguments which are clearly presented. The points mentioned above make the article a relevant academic work that provides important insights into the issue.

Reference List

Hunter, J. (n.d.). The importance of citation. Web.

Mooney, H. (2011). Citing data sources in the social sciences: Do authors do it? Learned Publishing, 24(2), 99-108.

Like any other science, social science has led to discovering new ideologies and evidence through a continued exploration of hypothetical perceptions. Stuart Firestein (2013) in The Pursuit of Ignorance argued that science traces its evidence from the unknown and that the acknowledgment of what data fails to solidify fuels scientific discoveries. However, the uncovering of testable proof yields more questions making science a never-ending cycle where acquired evidence informs another question. Although it is widely acknowledged that not all solutions are discoverable through science, scientists continually strive to improve the quality of life by scaling an upward spiral of knowledge.

The human environment experiences dynamism, resulting in the need to respond to emerging issues (Michie, 2015). Using Firesteins argument as a springboard, sciences continuous discovery model is arguably evident in several contemporary social science studies and themes. Today, through sociology, social science has attempted to address critical thematic concerns such as the role of social support in breast cancer fights and the impact of social media on social life.

Evidence from social science research on Facebook use has yielded many perspectives on human social themes. The survey also associated the thematic trend of social media use with several reasons, such as the urge to build relationships. The most vital indications underscored that social media could influence a persons body image and how people present themselves in social spheres (Wilson et al., 2012). The outcomes also revealed that individuals are typically concerned about other peoples perceptions of them and that this platform is instrumental in impacting their socialization characteristics.

Cancer, especially breast cancer, has continued to be another central concern in many societies. In the modern-day world, social science plays a crucial role in identifying other alternative avenues for addressing this thematic issue. For instance, the University of Chicagos investigative research posited that women without strong social support would be more vulnerable to breast cancer (Can social support help, 2006). Ms. Sarah Gehlert, who led the study, highlighted that experimental laboratory results indicated spontaneous mammary cancers for animals, mostly when the specimen was socially withdrawn (Can social support help, 2006). These thematic discoveries highlight sciences vitality, especially social science, in addressing the ever-growing societal concerns.

The value of social science in the growing bodies of researches like those mentioned earlier cannot be understated. According to Zevallos (2009), this field of knowledge is primarily concerned with changing todays social status. For instance, investigations into Facebooks influence on user social behavior or the research on the impact of socialism on breast cancer provide instrumental grounds through which critical social concerns can be addressed. Social science inquiries remain valuable to the developing body of research because, like any scientific discovery, it forms a continuous framework through which unpredictable but significant dynamics in human life can be understood. The environments uncertainty and rapid dynamism underscore the need for a scientific model to facilitate the analysis of human actions, particularly during the era typified by the increased competition for resources.

Today, social science research and scientific thought remain valuable in communities for one main reason. As Zevallos (2009) argues, these frameworks have enabled humans to study every experience, such as childbirth practices, attitudes, and rituals related to death. Social science is also an instrumental lens through which the development of meaning occurs, and new ideas are created to address social ills and injustices. For instance, sociology plays a crucial role in actively enforcing societal changes through such aspects as politics, particularly political activism (Zevallos 2009). Furthermore, as indicated in the survey by Wilson et al. (2012), this field of knowledge has played a significant role in improving peoples understanding of the impact of social media, for example, Facebook on a persons social life. It facilitates the assessment of behavior in a natural setting and hypothesis testing. Social science has triggered the development of new concepts, such as consumer behavior, which are critical in addressing sustainability, a conceptualization that had been previously ignored.

References

Can Social support help in breast cancer fight? (2006). NPR. Web.

Firestein, S. (2013). The pursuit of ignorance [Video]. Youtube. Web.

Michie, J. (2015). Why the social sciences matter? University World News. Web.

Wilson, R. E., Gosling, S. D., & Graham, L. T. (2012). A review of Facebook research in the social sciences. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(3), 203220. Web.

Zevallos, Z. (2009). What is Applied Sociology? A Brief Introduction on Applied Sociology. Sociology at Work. Web.

Social sciences emerged when the need arose for the scientific study of human behavior and the functioning of public institutions. This explanation underlies the analysis of the main spheres of society, such as culture, social interaction, problems of social inequality, social institutions, as well as economic and political systems (Colander & Hunt, 2015). This review aims at discussing whether the social sciences can help to evaluate the history, current realities, and future trends.

Social sciences are valuable to the study of human behavior and organization. Since they aim at clarifying human behavioral realities, they can improve humanitys condition. According to Demers, people have made impressive advances in technology, the ability to create things, fight disease, compute, and communicate (Demers, 2011). However, social and political problems are the most significant and urgent, and sociological research can help to solve them. Unfortunately, not all programs work, but social sciences try to change the world (Demers, 2011). They provide information about existing problems and encourage people to suggest possible solutions. Thinkers are not always right, but they come up with particular answers, and some of them become successful.

One of the most obvious problems remains war, which is becoming obsolete. The fact that there has not been a war between the leading powers since 1945, partly reflects a deeper understanding of the problems leading to it, and social sciences have contributed to this (Colander & Hunt, 2015). On the other hand, people do not always behave rationally but act based on old myths. Even if social sciences do not help to eradicate wars, they can provide insight into the origins of war and the foundations of human conflict.

The object of sociology is humanity and the social reality that surrounds people. Therefore, social science research aims to identify problems and injustices in the human experience so that people can solve them. It is valuable for the understanding of human behavior and motives. It can help to realize the reasons for wars and other undesirable events and try to cope with them.

References

Demers, D. (2011). The Ivory Tower of Babel: Why the social sciences have failed to live up to their promises. Algora Publishing.

Colander, D. C. & Hunt, E. F. (2015). Social science: An introduction to the study of society (15ed.). Routledge.

Social science paradigms can be defined as the frames and models according to which researchers can observe the world and make conclusions about the certain institutions, processes, and interactions within the society. As a result, social science paradigms are used in order to organize the researchers observation and reasoning and provide the ways to discuss different social theories (Babbie, 2014, p. 31). All the social science paradigms provide the researcher with the opportunity to look at the question from a different perspective while referring to various important aspects accentuated by the paradigms supporters (Babbie, 2014, p. 31; Gringeri, Barusch, & Cambron, 2013, p. 762). From this perspective, the most known and used social science paradigms are the conflict paradigm, symbolic interactionism, and structural functionalism.

The conflict paradigm is proposed by Karl Marx who states that the peoples behavior within the society is caused by the desire and intention to dominate and win or to avoid any type of domination. As a result, there is the social conflict because different people try to dominate, and the other ones are oriented to avoid domination. According to Marx, the most vivid example of the conflict is the inequality and struggle observed in the social and economic classes.

For instance, the conflict is always observed when the relations of the worker and capitalist are discussed (Babbie, 2014, p. 34). Many researchers refer to the conflict paradigm while discussing the relations between different departments in one organization or between the co-workers who take different positions in the company (Babbie, 2014, p. 35). Furthermore, the conflict developed between the representatives of the small groups where close relations are observed is often more obvious and intense because of the impact of feelings and emotions on the peoples interactions (Babbie, 2014, p. 35).

Symbolic interactionism is another way to discuss the social relations with the focus on meaningful social groups. Thus, in his researches, Georg Simmel concentrates on examining different types of groups to state that people create different meanings with references to their interactions. In this case, primary groups, including relatives and friends, can influence the peoples visions and attitudes more intensively (Babbie, 2014, p. 35). People are inclined to refer to the symbolic meanings and values while discussing different events and phenomena, and these meanings are influenced by the years of the peoples interactions with each other. Thus, the reality in which people live becomes socially constructed through interactions, and the peoples meaning about their personal features and qualities is also influenced by their interactions (Babbie, 2014, p. 35).

Structural functionalism is the paradigm based on the idea that the society develops as an organism that is why all its parts should function appropriately to contribute to the development of the whole organism (Babbie, 2014, p. 36).

As a result, all the social systems can be discussed as interdependent, and the action or function of one system should contribute to the effective progress of the whole society. That is why, much attention is paid to distribution of the functions in the society in order to control its activity as the activity of the whole organism. From this point, the functions of such social systems as family, education, and economy are interdependent, and the changes in one system lead to the changes in the other ones (Babbie, 2014, p. 36). The social systems can function appropriately only when such systems as police can perform the important function of the social control (Babbie, 2014, p. 36).

References

Babbie, E. (2014). The basics of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Web.

Gringeri, C., Barusch, A., & Cambron, C. (2013). Examining foundations of qualitative research: A review of social work dissertations, 2008-2010. Journal of Social Work Education, 49(4), 760-773. Web.

Introduction

The reading response by Andrea McCarrick began by explaining the definition of social sciences through the summary of an article by Ian McLain. Social Sciences are the study of human beings in a society that explains the choices they make and their consequences (McLain, 2018). Next, an article, How Scientific is Social Science, shows that human behavior can be predictable. McCarrick draws a parallel between the previous article and a study by Kirkendall about the relationship between social sciences and politics  fear of science and its implications for society. The article by Hansen, Value and Social Sciences, explains how values matter when constructing social experiments, confirming the opinions of other responses. Lastly, McCarrick explains that the final article explains that social sciences are objective in their results.

Discussion

The reading response by Antonio Gutierrez begins by examining an article that explains how personal bias can corrupt social science research. Gutierrez agrees with the other readers by stating in his analysis of How Scientific is Social Science that social sciences are very objective and hold value. Later, he explains how Mack examined the fear of social sciences, another point many others have written about in their reading responses. Their analysis of the article Value and Social Sciences differs from the previous reading response by concluding that it showed that society would view social problems through moral values. Lastly, they analyze the main research question  what sciences are soft or hard? He explains that there is no need for a hierarchy of sciences because establishing it wastes time.

In Mats reading response to the article by Raymond Mack, they outline how social sciences were a newly emerging field that was not readily accepted. They cite the Newsweek columnist Raymond Moley and other examples of scientific discoveries that were heavily scrutinized. Later, the response discusses the political implications of social sciences, specifically in the field of climate advocacy. Mats opinion aligns with the previous two students that the values of sociologists impact the results of their data. The reader also disagrees with other readers on the article Hierarchy of Sciences by stating that it is natural for researchers to desire their field to be taken seriously. They concluded by stating that social sciences are more scientific than other fields.

The week one reading response by Rachael Ericson has a detailed summary of How Scientific is Social Science. It first covers how social sciences must be considered a science because of their empirical data collection, logical deductions, and relevance to societys results. However, in contrast to others, Ericson details how the article describes social sciences are probabilistic due to their ties to human interactions and psychology. On the topic of values, Ericson provides an example of unethical actions by oil companies. Like the rest of the responses, this paper expresses how social sciences are dismissed and feared because of their impact on politics. The article by Hanson described through its conclusion that social sciences do not need a hypothesis to be worthy of study.

Conclusion

Rylan OKeefe begins the reading responses by stating in the article by McLain that social sciences are soft science that examines human relationships. Unlike McCarrick, the reader explains how social sciences cannot predict human behavior but only make generalized statements about it. OKeefe explains how social sciences are a legitimate field of study that can sadly be corrupted by conflicting interests of the researchers, like others in their responses. Like other responses, this paper describes how unjust it is that social sciences are feared and censored because of their implications for politics and business. OKeefe does not find an issue with social research being affected by the researchers values, and they find the discussion on Hierarchy of the Sciences by Hanson.

Reference

McLain, I. (2018). What is Social Science? The British Academy. Web.

Introduction

Humanities, social science, and natural sciences are major disciplines that deal with human beings and their culture. The main similarity between the three subjects is that they study society and human relationships. However, humanities deal with the heritage and the question of what makes us human, while social sciences focus on learning different parts of peoples lives within society (Öztemiz 813). Social science is a branch of study that includes topics such as arts, classics, philosophy, history, and anthropology (Öztemiz 814). Finally, natural sciences study the natural world and objects through physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology. I have learned a lot in the course and realized that humanities involve a more critical and analytical approach while sciences are more scientific.

The Importance of Humanities

I gained valuable knowledge and understanding of these topics through this research work. The texts from social sciences made me realize that to understand the current day events, one must have a vast knowledge in social sciences. My research on humanities approved that the discipline is helpful to people who are looking to understand the human experience better. The two fields are closely related because they deal with human beings and culture. However, humanities tend to analyze human behavior in all aspects and scopes (Öztemiz 815). The texts on natural sciences used more scientific approaches to explain the discipline. An example is a scientific explanation of how the world came into existence. Various challenges, including funds and lack of enough sources for research materials on the discipline, paused a great challenge to my research work.

My research on the three disciplines changed my perception of these study areas. Initially, I never had an idea of the relationship between these three study fields. This research provided evidence of humanity being more than just about human beings. In natural sciences, perhaps there is one common myth that there is a universal scientific method with common steps that all scientist follows to solve scientific problems (Öztemiz 821). Another misconception I had was that science could solve all problems, but I realized that not all human problems could be solved through science. Viewing my topic from three different points of view taught me that writing in college has various genres, each with its specific style, content, and format requirements. For example, writing in humanities can be in the form of analyzing a poem, performance, or play. On the other hand, writing in sciences can be analytical, explanatory, or persuasive essays.

After changing my purpose and audience, I made several choices in doing my writing work in class. I added the information that readers needed to understand in my documents, changed my knowledge level, and pitched it right to accommodate the new audiences. I added examples and altered the status of my models to be appropriate to the audience. I learned that writing research works in the sciences straightforwardly explain complex scientific aspects and writing in the humanities uses long paragraphs that combine images and metaphors, and authors are active, not passive, in their voices (Öztemiz 826). However, the research must have an introduction, literature review, methods, results, and discussion in all these disciplines.

Conclusion

In conclusion, through my research work on humanity, social sciences, and natural sciences, I have gained positive knowledge on handling my academic papers through my educational journey. This research work has given me various strengths, including self-confidence, learning to work independently, critical thinking, and analytical skills. The research has helped define my academic, career, and personal interests. As a reader, thinker, and writer, my research has enabled me to expand my knowledge and understanding of humanity and the sciences.

Work Cited

Öztemiz, Seminar. Cultural Heritage Literacy: A Survey of Academics from Humanities and Social Sciences. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 52.3 (2020): 818-831.

This paper analyzes interdisciplinary approach in social science education. It looks at its merits as a teaching technique and proves the need of studying social science through interdisciplinary perspectives.

Introduction

Most sociology scholars are drawn into this discipline because it is inherently interdisciplinary by nature. Furthermore, it is almost impossible to embark on a study of the problems that humanity faces without employing an interdisciplinary approach. The people and the challenges that they face are too diverse and they require to be addressed from all possible angles. Social scholars garner satisfaction from studying the means through which human beings seek solutions to a myriad of societal problems. On the other hand, society has to stick to certain aspects of the organization to solve social problems and achieve its goals. All these societal goals require an interdisciplinary approach that encompasses all possible means of achieving viable solutions.

One social scholar observes that it is difficult to imagine studying historical content without examining the roles of persons (sociology), their motivations (psychology), where they lived (geography), the influences of spiritual beliefs (religion), rules that govern behavior (political science and anthropology), or how people negotiate for their needs and wants (economics) (Lattuca, Fath, & Voigt, 2004, p. 25). Similarly, an interdisciplinary approach to social problems might involve a substantial connection to foreign languages, arts, science, and mathematics. An interdisciplinary approach to social problems is not the sole solution or methodology that is currently available to scholars. However, this approach has proved to be quite effective in assisting scholars, educators, and society to solve their problems. The main goal among educators is to assist students to gain knowledge, develop insights, achieve problem-solving skills, be self-sufficient, and eventually develop a natural thirst for learning. All these objectives can easily be achieved through an interdisciplinary approach to learning. This essay outlines the advantages of using an interdisciplinary approach to the study of social problems.

Eliminates Close-Mindedness

One advantage of an interdisciplinary approach is that it allows social scholars to understand their preconceptions of what is and the framework by which they arrived at what is (Repko, Szostak, & Buchberger, 2013, p. 42). This awareness eliminates one of the biggest hindrances to learning, which occurs when learners enter the study process with preconceived ideas and notions. A full understanding of social problems cannot occur when other disciplines of natural learning are suppressed. For instance, cognitive science, neuroscience, human development, and social psychology are some of the forms of learning that are naturally suppressed by a close-minded approach to learning.

An interdisciplinary approach to learning helps students to overcome the burden of having preconceived ideas so that they can understand the origin of their beliefs and understandings. When approaching a social problem, a student needs to address the issue from various perspectives that possibly challenge pre-existing notions. An interdisciplinary approach to learning solves the problem of preconceived notions by helping students to identify insights from a range of disciplines that contribute to an understanding of the issue under consideration (Salter & Hearn, 2007). Furthermore, learners can look at concepts and ideas from a broad perspective. Overall, giving learners the ability to adapt an open mind allows them to integrate facts through the wideness of an interdisciplinary approach to learning. On the other hand, this approach allows educators to spend more time presenting issues rather than explaining them.

Fosters Cognitive Abilities

Another benefit of an interdisciplinary approach in the study of social problems is that it employs a myriad of individual abilities. Unlike other approaches to problem-solving, an interdisciplinary approach helps learners to employ all their cognitive abilities. Through cognitive abilities, learners can use mental processes independently and come up with viable solutions to social problems. One researcher asserts that an interdisciplinary approach enhances the cognitive abilities of problem solvers (Miller, 2002). Consequently, cognitive skills allow individuals to utilize their perspective-taking skills. The ability to put things into perspective does not only help us acquire a better understanding of the problems that surround us, but it assists us in solving them. For example, all problems are understood and solved better when the individuals who are in charge can employ various points of view. Consequently, problem solvers and learners can develop an appreciation of the differences between disciplines on how to approach a problem and their discipline-specific rules regarding viable evidence (Salter & Hearn, 2007, p. 14).

Without a broad understanding of an issue, it is difficult to solve it efficiently. An interdisciplinary approach provides a viable environment for individuals who wish to enhance their cognitive abilities. One by-product of cognitive competence is structural knowledge. Structural knowledge accommodates both process-based information and factual information. Social problems at all levels of manifestation cannot be solved without the application of these two categories of information. During the learning process, a learner who has structural knowledge can be able to integrate conflicting insights from alternative disciplines (Gaff & Wilson, 2011, p. 187). For instance, various learning methodologies seek solutions to a single problem by employing different mechanisms. In the end, it does not matter which discipline was responsible for the solution because the results are acceptable to all. The ability to understand problems through sound cognitive skills and critical thinking is one of the main advantages of using an interdisciplinary approach to the study of social problems.

Applicable to Social Intolerance

One of the main hindrances when it comes to seeking solutions to social problems is intolerance. Intolerance has contributed to various social problems in the modern world including racism, religious extremism, and sectarian violence. An interdisciplinary approach to social problems helps students understand why conflicts commonly arise over; the causes and consequences of an issue and, the ideal way for policy to address the issue of concern (Salter & Hearn, 2007). Without an interdisciplinary approach to learning, individuals who attempt to address social problems often find that they are limited in terms of their outlook-capacity. A single-disciplinary approach in the study of social problems is limited in terms of the analytical frameworks, and it is also riddled with assumptions that cannot be substantiated. Through an interdisciplinary approach, it is possible to advance the lack of agreement when it comes to social issues (Gallagher, 2013). The notion that it is okay to agree to disagree is well accommodated by an interdisciplinary approach to learning. Overall, an interdisciplinary approach in the study of social problems allows learners to understand the complexity of some issues.

Support of Morality

The use of an interdisciplinary approach in the study of social problems enables learners to understand the ethical dilemmas that accompany social issues. Consequently, ethical considerations are important when sorting through the quagmire of moral factors, equal justice, and social issues. Most independent disciplines of learning fail to account for moral issues either by nature or by design. For example, the issue of morality does not apply to the efforts of scientists when they are seeking answers to social problems. An interdisciplinary approach to social studies promotes the inclusion of all ideas irrespective of their popularity. Consequently, the ideas contained in the study of moral philosophy are accommodated by an interdisciplinary approach to learning.

Cost Factor

Another advantage of utilizing an interdisciplinary approach in the study of social problems is that this method is cost-effective. Education stakeholders can achieve substantial progress through limited resources when they use an interdisciplinary approach (Repko, Szostak, & Buchberger, 2013). Also, the use of an interdisciplinary approach lessens the burden on teachers because they have various methodologies of passing knowledge to students. Instructors can also the share of the course that is interdisciplinary, so they insert into their course the level of interdisciplinary-connection that is ideal for them given their experience with this form of teaching and the nature of the course they are leading (Lattuca, Fath, & Voigt, 2004, p. 25). All these options reduce both time and economic costs for learners and educators thereby making an interdisciplinary approach a cost-effective study methodology.

Conclusion

An interdisciplinary approach to learning continues to gain prominence within academic circles. Consequently, this method has found use as a tool for studying social problems. Through the interdisciplinary method of learning, students can recognize biases in processes, employ critical thinking, tolerate ambiguity, and recognize the part played by ethics in the study of social problems. In the future, there is a possibility that the effectiveness of an interdisciplinary approach will lead to the wide acceptance of this methodology. Over time, the interdisciplinary-learning methodology has proved to be a cost-effective way of passing relevant knowledge to social scholars.

References

Gaff, J. G., & Wilson, R. C. (2011). Faculty cultures and interdisciplinary studies. The Journal of Higher Education, 11(3), 186-201.

Gallagher, S. A. (2013). Using problem-based learning to explore unseen academic potential. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 7(1), 9.

Lattuca, L. R., Fath, K. Q., & Voigt, L. J. (2004). Does interdisciplinarity promote learning? Theoretical support and researchable questions. The Review of Higher Education, 28(1), 23-48.

Miller, R. C. (2002). Varieties of interdisciplinary approaches in the social sciences. Issues in Integrative Studies, 1(1), 1-37.

Repko, A. F., Szostak, R., & Buchberger, M. P. (2013). Introduction to interdisciplinary studies. New York, NY: Sage publications.

Salter, L., & Hearn, A. (2007). Outside the lines: Issues in interdisciplinary research. London: McGill-Queens Press.

Introduction

Social science is an interdisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore aspects of human society. The fundamental roles of research in this field of study are not particularly hard to discern given the analytical approach it takes in its attempt to explore the aspects of human society. An umbrella term used to refer to a list of the field outside natural sciences such as anthropology, history, economics, geography, and political science, this field of study employs both qualitative and qualitative research methods as its fundamental means of achieving its objectives. The purpose of this reflective paper is to explore the roles of research and its relevant applications in the disciplines of social science.

Roles of research

Research refers to the gathering of information. According to Dean (1981) the more information we have the closer we get to making our own decision. The research, therefore, is designed towards seeking solutions to problems that cannot be easily deduced without further insight into statistical data. Our abilities to make the right decisions regarding human behavior and our society, therefore, rest on the statistical data retrieved from research efforts. Most people who make decisions without gathering data from research indeed fail to provide adequate backup to support their decisions. Making the right judgments and decisions regarding human society demands not only the backup of appropriate data but also the correct analysis of the retrieved data from research.

The fundamental tenets of social research cannot stand to fulfill the aims and objectives of this field without research. In support of the positive role of data in social sciences, Dean (1981) reiterates that social scientists interpret and analyze human behavior, generally using empirical methods of research. Though original data gathering and analysis are central to social sciences research, researchers also use library and Internet resources to obtain raw data for model building or analysis, locate information about a particular model, theory, or methodology to be used in a research project, and review the literature to place new research in the context

Qualitative and quantitative research methods in Social Sciences

This reinforces the fact that social research cannot exist without the critical role of research. In addition to the above, the relevance of research in social sciences rests on the premise that social sciences largely depends on measurements, analysis, and the eventual interpretation of both numerical and nonnumerical data. Quantitative research methods focus on statistical approaches and qualitative methods are based on content analysis, comparative analysis, grounded theory, and interpretation (Strauss, 1990). These have been proven to form the core tenets of social sciences such as the collection of data in polls, questionnaires, and surveys and in qualitative researches that aim at understanding the social phenomena. Qualitative research in social sciences is always carried out in the form of live interviews and commentaries that are also aimed at understanding human social phenomena.

According to Strauss (1990), The applications of research methods could be studied in the context of business and management or in social psychology to understand a social process in that some of the basic tools for qualitative or quantitative research are related to data collection methods which can be case studies, questionnaires or interviews. This is because the effects of leadership are best studied by the application of both qualitative and quantitative research because the data involved in such cases are best received through the responses of questionnaires from participants in management positions. This fact is buttressed by Simon (1985) in stating that the methodological approach and data collection techniques are important in research and form an important aspect of study while the case study approach is especially useful in the analysis of business environments and perceptual mapping techniques are used for marketing research

Evaluation of research in social sciences

Whereas research plays a critical role in the overall study of social sciences and forms the major tenet on which the validity and accuracy of judgments and deductions in this field of study rest, it must, however, be noted that improper applications of some research methods within this interdisciplinary field may give rise to negative results. Social research studies transcend at all levels of society regarding age, physical exercise, gender, and all forms of human social aspects. The sensitivity in handling the social aspects of human beings must be upheld in the course of research to avoid flaws in applied methods. This critical analysis of the application of both qualitative and quantitative research methods in social sciences is echoed by Simon (1985) in stating that some disadvantages and possible flaws of such methods may be related to abuse or misuse of interview techniques, the inadequacy of data collection methods and reliability of data. This is based on the fact that methodological approach and data collection procedures form the most fundamental aspect of research procedures and cannot be undermined. The methodological approach and data collection techniques are important in research and form an important aspect of the study. (Simon, 1985).

The case study approach is the best research method in the business environment and perceptual mapping techniques especially in the field of marketing; however, it is surrounded by several shortfalls because the events that surround such case reports cannot be taken to be universal. In addition to the above, every business environment presents different challenges based on time and market characteristics which in most cases are unique. This, therefore, calls for the application of focus groups and surveys which according to Strauss (1990) are used as other preferred methods of data collection, especially within business environments. Interpretive research, which is a form and aspect of qualitative analysis, is also very relevant in the analysis of human social aspects. Just as in the qualitative data, it is compounded the problem of subjective bias which limits its application in several very sensitive research topics.

Conclusion

The above discussions reinforce the role and importance of various forms of research methods in the field of social sciences. Whereas social science as an interdisciplinary field of study that encompasses several broad subjects cannot exist without the role of research, the understanding of human social aspects of life involves sensitive matters that demand appropriate research techniques. The accuracy, validity, and sensitivity in the course of social research must therefore form the foundations under which all types of research on human social aspects are based. It must therefore be understood that while social science as a broad discipline rests on research methods, not all research methods are suitable for social science.

References

1. Dean, C. J. (1981). Basic statistics for social research. New York:
2. Simon, J.L. (1985). Basic research methods in social science. New York: McGraw-Hill,
3. Strauss, A. L. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.