Category: Social Psychology

In this essay I will consider the responses to the coronavirus pandemic on two main levels; Government responses (policies, rules and restrictions, decision making processes etc.) and Public responses (protests, conspiracy theorists, individual’s mental health etc.). I will discuss how social psychology can be used to rationalise group’s and individual’s behaviours, by applying theories centering around group dynamics, social norms and intergroup processes.

Government response; Group dynamics; group-think theory etc.

During the coronavirus pandemic, the UK Government has been scrutinised for acting too slowly, too late, or just taking the wrong approach in trying to control the virus (Perrigo, 2020). Through the use of social psychology, the government’s responses can be rationalised and explained. For example, the group dynamics of the government, regulatory and advisory groups can influence group processes, such as decision making, which can be mistaken or flawed when certain dynamics occur. Several politicians, scientists and journalists have reported that ‘groupthink’ may’ve impaired the government’s ability to make proper decisions in response to the virus (Heneghan and Mahtani, 2020).

Groupthink (Janis, 1972) occurs within a group when the desire for group cohesion is greater than individual’s want for a successful outcome, leading to dysfunctional decision making and adverse outcomes. Groupthink can develop when a group has strong leadership, little outside input and the desire for unanimous agreement, these are ‘antecedent’ conditions. These conditions make the group believe that they’re invulnerable, unanimous in their decision and inherently moral and rational. When a groupthink dynamic occurs, there is pressure on all members to conform, dissenting members are made to feel ostracised, and part of an ‘outgroup’ (as opposed to the main ‘ingroup’). The resulting symptoms of groupthink lead to defective decision making, failing to; effectively assess objectives, search thoroughly for relevant information and examine key risks.

In an interview with Channel 4 news, Jeremy Hunt, Chair of the Health Select Committee and former UK Health Secretary, said that “Our response was conditioned on this idea that [coronavirus] was something you can’t stop” (Channel 4 news, 2020). Having this pre-existing notion that the spread of the virus was inevitable may’ve been resultant from a groupthink dynamic.

Hunt, as have several others, cited groupthink as the reason for the UK’s slow and confused responses, also claiming that had scientific advice presented to ministers been more “transparent” the UK would have taken a different course of action during the early stages of the virus (Allegretti, 2020). The reported lack of transparency is a major barrier to effective and democratic decision making as there is no accountability, and so politicians can make decisions without having to face the consequences. This may mean that risky, or venal decisions, are more likely to be made; for example, the government may favour saving the economy rather than people’s lives. Clearly, this lack of transparency is dangerous and (Geoghegan and Corderoy, 2020).

Many government decisions have been named as being reckless and irrational, the Eat Out to Help Out Scheme (EOTHOS) has been criticised for being a cause of the ‘second wave’ of the virus in the UK (Skopeliti, 2020), whilst the failure to implement any border measures to prevent the spread of the virus was described as “inexplicable” (Metcalfe, 2020).

It’s clear that there have been many poor decisions, but what’s more worrying is that it seems the government has failed to learn from their mistakes and continue to make unwise decisions. Sir David King, former Chief Scientific Advisor, has suggested that groupthink has been the main cause of ill-thought government policies, also saying that – for Economic reasons – politicians want to avoid a lockdown, and that that’s why lockdowns had been delayed (Channel 4 news, 2020). In regard to government decision making in response to the pandemic, groupthink may’ve occurred in some UK advisory bodies including; NERVTAG (New and Emerging Respiratory Virus Threats Advisory Group) and SAGE (Scientific Advisory Group on Emergencies).

In an article discussing the UK government’s shortcomings in dealing with the virus, Richard Coker wrote that “Coronavirus can only be beaten if groups such as SAGE are transparent and accountable” (Coker, 2020, p.1). Also advising that expert advice shouldn’t always be taken so readily, saying that ‘expert’ theories may be lacking in real evidence. This news article examined the stages of groupthink that may’ve occurred in government decision making processes and gave advice on how it could be prevented in the future; through transparency, inclusivity and accountability.

Groupthink has been said to also occur in ill-defined ‘ad-hoc’ groups, whose members aren’t well acquainted and who haven’t yet worked together (Forsyth 2020). This may’ve been a particularly prevalent problem for the government in February, as groups who may not have worked closely together would’ve been thrust together and pressured to work effectively.

The government’s failings may’ve started before Covid-19 even existed though; NERVTAG recommended increased PPE and ventilator supplies in a 2017 pandemic response rehearsal – yet these were not approved at the time. Dr Phillip Lee, a former minister said that the government has been “asleep on the job” in regard to preparing for such a pandemic.

However, considering the unprecedented nature of these current events in recent times, it may be harsh to criticise the government for all of their failings, as so many variables and considerations have to be made, and under such great pressure. Although, the failure to consider and prevent groupthink occurring may’ve been the governments greatest failing.

Anti-lockdown protests UK (+US); relative deprivation theory and group polarisation

Especially likely with the widespread use of social media these days; echo chambers(?)

In response to growing frustration at government measures, several countries have seen protests occur, due to growing frustration from people being forced to continue to have to lockdown and postpone their ‘normal’ lives. Social psychology can be used to explain this response, and its underlying causes. Using theories of group dynamics, we can explain that, in group situations, decisions are more likely to be riskier or more extreme, leading to more daring behaviour.

The idea of a ‘risky shift’ was first introduced in the 1920’s, to describe the idea that groups make riskier decisions that individuals. Wallach, Kogan, and Bem (1964) put this down to a diffusion or responsibility, Collins and Guetzkow (1964) theorised that it was due to risk takers being more confident, and so more likely to persuade others to take risks, whilst Brown (1965) suggested risk taking in groups is associated with a higher social status, meaning people avoid low risk positions.

More recent thinking has explained that risky shift is actually a facet of ‘group polarisation’, and that groups don’t necessarily always take riskier decisions, but that groups make more extreme decisions; which can either be riskier, or more cautious; this is dependent on the initial attitudes presented by the group. Group polarisation occurs when discussion prompts attitudes held by the individual group members to become more extreme than they would be on an individual level (Brauer, Judd, & Gliner, 2006). The two main theories as to why this occurs are; mutual persuasion, the idea that mere discussion of arguments for/ against an action exposes individuals to the consensus opinion, and social comparison, which explains that the desire to be more extreme than the average group member motivates polarisation (similar to Brown’s explanation).

In regard to the pandemic, group polarisation may lead to the belief that the virus is a ‘hoax’ designed for one reason or another with the aim of taking away individual’s freedom.

Protests in Barcelona in late October followed the decision by the Spanish government to announce a ‘six-month state of emergency’ in response to the pandemic. Protestors chanted “Libertad” (meaning freedom) whilst protesting in the streets, Jones (2020) wrote that people protesting were part of a violent and irrational minority, and detailed the response of Spanish prime minister, Pedro Sanchez who said responsibility, unity and sacrifice are necessary to beat the pandemic.

Cite studies, refence social media, link to coronavirus

In the ‘Group Dynamics when Battling a Pandemic’ article (Parks, 2020) groupthink is given as an explanation for protests against the pandemic restrictions. The paper uses the USA to articulate this point;

The rise of rule-breakers (Davies, 2020) noted that, during the pandemic, rules are constantly changing, creating an ambiguous situation, and that this is likely to cause people to interpret rules to suit themselves, and that therefore these new rules were ineffective. Social norms is able to explain this; creating new laws is relatively easy, but the development of new social norms and etiquettes is much more difficult to create, and so disobeying laws (or interpreting them to suit ones-self) is much easier to do, as there are no ‘injunctive’ social norms to go by. The situations ambiguity may therefore explain how, or why people are seemingly ‘disobeying’ the rules.

Protestors want freedom, believe virus is a hoax, distrust in the government; intergroup bias against government

Relative deprivation and coronavirus; experience of discontent when being deprived of something to which one believes they’re entitled to; economic, political or social, leading to hostility and prejudice toward oppressors/ those with-holding desired freedoms (government). Accentuated by the wide-spread use of social media today, as social comparison with peers is much more likely to happen

People live in a perceived world and respond to events in a way that they see fit (Stekelenburg, 2013). Social psychology aims to explain why people in the same situation react in different ways, using the causes of thoughts, feelings and actions – and how these are influenced by social contexts to make sense of this. Classical models of protest name protest as a way to express objection to perceived injustice, frustration or a sense of relative deprivation (Lind and Tyler, 1988). Whilst more current explanations observe collective identity as the reason for protest (Klandermans and de Weerd 2000), Klandermans (2008). also noted the mediating role of social embeddedness in this process.

Introduction

Social Psychology, a division of Psychology that handles the backgrounds and the social interaction of someone and how it makes impact on the person thus forming the personality or character of the person. In Social Psychology, people would study on certain phenomena that effects the approach, feelings, behavior, and thoughts of a person on a matter. From a series of Social Psychological Phenomena, there are two phenomena that demonstrates beneficial studies towards the Social Psychology public. One of them is the Social Comparison Theory, where people define themselves whilst comparing to others (Festinger, 1957), is an influential that phenomena that shows the power of altering someone in a set out situation. On the other hand, there is the Consistency/ Cognitive Dissonance Principles of Persuasion Theory (Robert B. Cialdini P. , 1984), reflects on how poor people’s ability that are able to comprehend the elements that modify their behavior.

Content

For every unique individual, the self is a very important aspect and as a symbolic construct it means that is unable to be observed or felt through any experiments or researches. It outlines how someone reacts to situations and what defines them making them unique. Humans have always been known to be social animals and commonly like to live in large social groups. They would often categorize themselves in different social groups depending on races, age, gender, traits or others which they feel most comfortable in. Being in a part of a social group, we are hard to not compare with the people around us. There are two types of comparisons, the upward comparison and the downward comparison. Upward comparisons are said by (Buunk, 1997) to be able to have two effects, the main motive is valuable information on how to finish an assignment efficiently is noticeable when someone is able to complete it. The other reason is more complicated, people are able to get enthusiastic to succeeding thus copying their actions when the observed is able to do the mission (Bandura, 1986). On the other hand, the downward comparison would be lenient to the comparer and after comparing they would feel better of themselves.

It is hard to expect that children would also be likely to do such comparisons but through the findings of (Florence Dumas, 2005) showed that even children are prone to compare to children that have better results than them. Using the similar methods as older studies (Blanton, 1999; Huguet, 2001), they were able to find out that although not as obvious compared to the ninth graders, children that were as young as in grade five would still have upwards comparisons amongst their peers. The children were to choose two peers to compete with. Even if they did not have their results before hand, most of them were still able to find their level of competition. The ones that they choose really performed better than them. The results also showed that as the ages of the children increase, they are more likely to compare with their peers that are working better than themselves.

Comparing with other individuals are more normal, even in large social groups, they have the tendency to compare with other groups and would often think that they are the best versions compared to other people that are outside from their group as they would always strictly assess others and make themselves look as good as possible (Dunning D. a., 1992; Beauregard, 1998; Dunning D. K., 2003). After competing with the outer groups, they would often go into a process that is called self enhancement. There are a few types of self-enhancing. The first one is improving themselves with “Basking in reflected glory”, the development of self-esteem through the success from the group one belongs in, while the other one is being distant to something or someone that will affect their reputation. The action is called “Cutting off reflected failure”, avoid being known as the part of the team, or “Self-serving attributional bias”, the tendency of blaming losses to outside factors and wins towards inside factors/ or even recalling accomplishments and forgetting let-downs (Mischel, 1975).

The other phenomenon that would be discussed is the Consistency/ Cognitive Dissonance Principle of Persuasion, which is a very crucial theory which and is used in everyday interactions and in many fields of work especially in sales departments. There is a set of principle called the Cialdini’s Six Principle of Influence (Robert B. Cialdini, 1984). which features Scarcity (the more scarce something is, the bigger the urge to be able to own it), Reciprocation (the commitment of human nature to compensate to something or someone), Commitment and Consistency (to be able to show that we are someone responsible) , Social Proof (following the steps of someone who looks like they know what to do and commonly under circumstances of unsureness), Liking (tendency to be able to buy/ take more if the others treat them the way they like), and also Authority (the power of someone that is directly in charge).

In Commitment and Consistency principle, there are a few sets of techniques that people grasp to manipulate the thinking of others under situations and end up doing what they were not meant to do. The plans took advantage of the situation knowing dearly that intellectual disharmony which is a power for consistence people did not like the fact that they would be seemed as inconsistent.The Foot-In-Door technique is a very good example of persuasion, it persuades someone by giving them a smaller request beforehand and the people will more likely to agree to the second request which would be a bigger request that normally would not be agreed when normally asked. There is also another technique that is the exact opposite of the Foot-In-Door approach, it is named the Door-In-The-Face approach. Someone is given a very exaggerating/ almost unacceptable request after declining the first request, the requester will give a more acceptable request compared to the first one and the requested will be more likely to agree to it (Perloff, 2010; Pascual & Guéguen, 2005). Studies showed that requirements that are not big in difference would not make much of a difference, only in extreme conditions the Door-In-The-Face would be able to carry on (Robert B. Cialdini V. J., 1975). Studies that compare between the Foot-In-Door and Door-In-The-Face approach were not able to find the enormous deviation between both of the approaches made and shows they have the similar rate of controlling the power of the situation and manipulating the someone’s thinking.

Another tactic that is used to manipulate others is the Low-Ball method. This is approached by giving something or a service at a lower price point but later changing it to a higher price tag after the customers agree to buy the product or service. From experiments, it is shown that students have a 24% of getting up at 7 A.M. for a support research but when the Low-Ball technique method is used, which is not telling the students what time the research would start and waited for them to agree and tell them the time after, the percentage of the second group of students agreeing for the research increased to 56% and 95% of them really went to the meeting on that day (Robert B. Cialdini C. J., 1978). It can really be seen that under persuasive circumstances, the students are less likely to backed out from their own promise. A quite similar strategy that is the Bait-and-Switch approach as the name, uses a bait to bait in customers and then switch the products or services by pretending that it is finished and changing to a more expensive product. For both techniques to work, the offer given out needs to be attractive enough.

Conclusion

Deriving out of the discussions from above, the Social Comparison Theory that concludes upwards and downwards comparisons and self-enhancements that appear in early stages of humans shows that under situational influences, an individual’s emotions, behavior, and attitude would be affected and through the Consistency/ Cognitive Dissonance Principle of Persuasion Theory, which talks about the Foot-In-Door, Door-In-The-Face, Low-Ball, and Bait-and-Switch practices reflects that one’s cognition and behavior can be altered under situational stimuli. From both of the theories there are overlapping factors that show situational factors changing the behavior of someone and how the power of the situation could really take effect onto someone. In my opinion, the discussions represents that when there are contextual or situational aspects that are able to influence one’s thinking, humans are most likely to do the unexpected even if they do not mean to.

Mitchell (2009), defines social psychology as the field that attempts to understand how the thought, feeling, and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual or imagined presence of others. The importance of social psychology is highlighted by Delamater( 2018), who states social psychology helps Scientific researchers to understand people’s thoughts and helps to explain the causes of human behaviours.

Haslam and Smith (2012), define a classic study as one where the study is known well by all researchers outside the field of social psychology, as well as in the field. They further suggest that a contemporary study, is one that improves upon the methodology of a classic study and this leads to more understanding in the theories.

The area of social psychology discussed will be obedience. Obedience may be defined as a form of social influence obtained in response to ‘direct orders from an authority figure’ (Gibson,2019:244). This definition is further strengthened by Miller (1995), who states obedience is when an individual acts in a certain manner that is consistent with a command or rule, from a person of a higher social status.

Participants from the classic study are between the ages of 20-50 and were all white males (Milgram,1963). Nicholson (2011), argues that many researchers of the time would use the terms ‘men’ and ‘man’ when referring to all of society in general. Additionally, Coontz (2007), reinforces this point, suggesting that ‘men’ referred to essential and representative, whilst female referred to inessential. This could be a potential reason for Milgram including mostly male participants in his study, as men were superior at the time, however, Milgram did not state a reason for doing this(Nicholson,2011). Interestingly, the data regarding female subjects are not reported in this 1963 classical study. It is evident that by recruiting mostly men in the experiment, there is a gender imbalance. This idea has further been developed by Dickinson and Adelson (2012), who suggest that by having a gender imbalance in a study there is a risk of losing representatives in a population, they further argue that it is necessary to have both genders so that differences may be detected (Dickinson, Adelson,2012).

However, on the contrary, Participants in the contemporary study were of both genders and the children were equally divided by sex(Kawashima and Martins, 2015). This is in accordance with Tannenbaum (2016), who emphasises the fact that gender is a factor that should be considered in study designs as this helps to ensure research is representative and can apply to everyone.

In Milgram (1963), Participants were from New Haven, and participants in Kawashima and Martins (2015), were from the state of Sao Paulo. This suggests that due to participants being from one geographical area, in both studies, the results are not generalisable. Blair and Zinkhan (2006), highlight the importance of generalisability by implying that if the data is not generalisable, then the question of using that data in a research project arises. Blair and Zinkhan (2006), comment further on this stating the data must reflect a wider population of interest and not just one specific area.

In Milgram (1963), 40 males took part in the experiment, and in Kawashima and Martins (2015), 90 children and 26 teachers were included. Given this, it is still arguable that both studies are still generalisable due to the sample size. This is supported by Blair and Zinkhan (2006), who comment that generalisation of data can be done through the sampling process, meaning if the sample quality is good there will be less chance of non-response bias. These ideas have further been developed by Lakes (2013), who argues that sample size affects the reliability of results and can impact research findings. Lakes (2013), further reinforces this by commenting that the more generalisable the data is the more valid the results will be.

In Kawashima and Martins (2015), the consent of all participants was given before data collection began. Consent to take part in the study was given by the guardians of the children as they were all under the age of 16 (BPS). This is in accordance with the British Psychological Society (BPS), whereby it states that for children under the age of 16, consent should be given by parents or those who are legally responsible for the child. All consent forms were signed and documented, and written consent was given by participants (Kawashima, Martins,2015). This is in agreement with the BPS, where it suggests that consent from the participants whether verbally or written should be given, and children who participated were given authorisation from those in charge of them (Kawashima, Martins,2015).

Additionally, the study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC) (Kawashima, Martins,2015). This means the study was conducted in accordance with all the rules and regulations of the REC. The REC is responsible for ensuring that the safety and welfare of the researcher and participants are considered, and all research is reviewed by a competent body (BPS).

However, conversely, Milgram went against ethical protocol, as Russell (2014), argues that Milgram failed to obtain consent from participants. Moreover, this goes against the protocol of the REC, whereby it states that researchers should ensure valid consent is gained from participants. The subject is being told that the experiment is in the context of a learning experiment to study the effects of shock on memory (Milgrim,1963). However, Shanks (2012), contends that this is a deception as the real reason for the experiment was to see how far a subject would go in inflicting harm on an innocent individual, just to obey an authoritative figure. Additionally, this deception is in opposition to the BPS, as it states that deceiving participants in a study is not acceptable as it may cause harm to its recipients. The BPS further reinforces this point by stating that the code of ethics expects all psychologists to openly tell all participants as much information as possible, and no participant should be deliberately given false information.

The study of obedience took place in the laboratory (Milgram,1963). Falk and Heckman (2009), best define a laboratory experiment as a methodology used for ‘advancing casual knowledge’ (pg3). They argue that lab experiments lack generalisability and realism, they further explain that issues with lab experiments include data being unrealistic, which in turn means that the data cannot be used in the real world. On the contrary, however, Leritt and List (2007), argue that the data gained from a laboratory experiment can be generalised. They further reinforce this by commenting that the laboratory allows the experimenter to test for a specific hypothesis. Webster(2014), strengthens this point made by stating that the lab allows variables to be manipulated, which would be difficult to control in a natural setting.

In Milgram (1963), the methodology consisted of putting severe punishment to the victim for the learning experiment. Punishment was carried out through the means of a shock generator with 30 switches graded from 1-30 (Milgram,1963).

The procedure of the experiment caused severe levels of tension, including sweating, trembling, and digging fingernails into the skin (Milgram,1963). It is evident that participants were put under a lot of stress. Baumrind (1964), supports this by stating that the subject has got the right to believe that the experimenter has taken the welfare of the subject into consideration, however further argues that this is not always the case and subjects are sometimes placed in an uncomfortable situation and concludes that Milgram’s experiment is an example of this. Causing the participant’s stress goes against the BPS ethical code of conduct. This point is strengthened by Bernabe (2012), who reports that the RECs carry out a risk assessment to ensure that any risk participants may be exposed to is minimised. Bernabe (2012), discusses further that risk assessment is crucial in ensuring no participants are harmed. Bernabe’s point is in accordance with the BPS which set out to ensure that the rights and welfare of participants are considered. Furthermore, the BPS reviews all types of research where human participants are involved to ensure the safety of participants is prioritised.

The procedure Milgram used was not just critiqued for covering up the real reasons for the experiment, but also because it was unethical (Grybz,2018). The experiment caused participants an immense amount of stress and anxiety. Grybz (2018), argues that Milgram admitted himself that when placed in the laboratory, his subjects were put under high levels of pressure and were forced to engage in behaviours that were against their values. Grybz (2018), further reinforces this by commenting that it had been decided that for ethical reasons no experiment proposed by Milgram could be conducted. This is further consolidated by McArthur (2009), who argues that Milgram’s experiment would be rejected by the ethics committee if proposed today. McArthur (2009), further goes onto suggesting that this is due to the psychological harm and deception caused, as participants were oblivious to the true nature of the experiment. These ideas have been further developed by Baumrind(1964), who argues that permanent harm was caused during the experiment and this was not just due to the discomfort and deception subjects had to go through, but also because of the feeling of guilt inside the subjects when they realise they would have shocked an innocent individual if the current was on.

At certain points of the experiment, the subject may turn to the experimenter for advice on whether to carry on (Milgram,1963). When the subject did this the experimenter responded with a series of ‘prods (Milgram,1963). Prod 1: ‘please continue or please go on’ (Milgram, 1963: 254). This goes against the REC which clearly states that all participants have the right to withdraw, and yet despite the participants wanting to withdraw they were told ‘it is absolutely essential that you continue’ (Milgram,1963:374). The codes of ethics further highlight that all participants have the right to withdraw freely without any consequences, but still, participants are told ‘you have no other choice you must go on’ (Milgram,1963:254).

Procedure: The clinical Piagetian interview was used as the data collection method in Kawashima and Martins(2015). The questions asked followed a Stimulus story surrounding Carla who wanted to make a flower out of modelling clay instead of a dog. Before this, the teacher told everyone to make a dog out of modelling clay. The teacher said that because Carla did not obey her, Carla will not get help. Participants were then asked via the interview method if the teacher did the correct thing. (Kawashima, Martins,2015). This method used is an advantage as participants included children. Ormrod (1985), further discusses this advantage by commenting that this method allows children to describe the thought process, verbally rather than by written means. This makes it easier for them and is age appropriate as an alternative method would mean writing their responses; which may be difficult for 4-6-year olds. McGuirk and O’Neill(2016), further supports this by commenting that using questionnaires would mean answers would be limited as questionnaires are closed questions, whereas interviews are open-ended which means the responses would be more in-depth. Ormond (1985), further highlights that the clinical Piagetian interview method is when the interviewer presents a child with a problem and the child tries to answer it whilst describing the rationale.

Similarly, Milgram also used the interview process. After the experiment was completed, subjects were interviewed via open-ended questions (Milgram,1963). The qualitative research method was used in this study. Maher (2008), reports that qualitative research allows one to explore behaviour based on real-life and allows participants to give their own opinions. Tuckett (2012), argues that issues are raised with interviews in whether each participant has been given the same opportunity to provide their opinion on the scenario, and further suggests that issues may also occur in the way the interview has been presented. If it is not presented in a fully systematic way, results will reflect the method of questioning rather than the truth (Tuckett,2012). However, contrarily, Opdenakker (2006), argues that the face to face interview method has its advantage of social cues such as body language and this helps the interviewee get a lot more extra information.

Results from the classic study are highlighted by Shanks (2012), who reports that through his obedience study, Milgram has shown us how easy it is to manipulate individuals and make them go against their values when authority is in place.

Results from the contemporary study indicate that when authority does not live up to their duties as teachers and do not consider the rights of a child, the child does not agree with authority. Therefore, not receiving help from the teacher will result in the child not wanting to obey authority (Kawashima, Martins,2015).

This essay has critiqued both classic and contemporary studies and outlined the methodological approaches used, it will now move onto how the concept of obedience, is a topic of social psychology and its relevance to education.

Hornikx (2011), suggests that teachers are epistemic authorities that provide children with reliable information, this may be why they obey. Raviv (2003), further strengthens this, stating teachers are obeyed in schools by pupils as they trust their knowledge, and in schools’ teachers are encouraged to ensure they are an epistemic authority. Plant (2019), further argues that the teacher plays the role of the authoritative figure and has influence over the classroom, whilst the student obeys and is more likely to follow what the teacher says rather than working out their answers. These ideas have further been developed by Lakshaman (2015), who contends that the teaching profession automatically reinforces obedience, as the teacher is the authoritative figure and it is she that gets to decide most aspects of teaching, and students tend to obey the teacher as they are the expert authority.

This point is further highlighted by Dirsmith (1983), who conducted a study to test the response of students in obeying authority. Two groups were presented, Group A was dressed in formal attire and group B was dressed in a sweater and shirt. It was thought by the students the group dressed in formal attire was more knowledgeable, thus more likely to be obeyed. Similarly, in Milgram (1963), the experimenter was told to look strict and was dressed in a grey technician’s coat. Helm (1985), argues the experimenter is seen as the authoritative figure and he is also dressed in a manner that symbolises authority- a grey technicians coat in a laboratory setting- and appears to be serious throughout. The subjects straight away regard him as entitled to giving commands.

It is argued by Pace and Hemmings (2007), that teachers are given the right and responsibility to oversee the classroom and are right in expecting obedience. Authority and obedience are especially important in education, however many educational thinkers thought obedience and authority in the classroom as an ‘oppressive force’. However, despite this, having obedience is a fundamental feature of classroom life. Teachers being obeyed and being the authoritative figure in the classroom is not assumed but is gained through interactions.

This essay will now move onto discussing the changes in attitudes, towards ethical conduct in social psychology over the years.

Benjamin (2009), argues that many studies in the history of psychology have contributed to later development and changes. He further claims that due to Milgram’s obedience study, researchers are much more conscious of ethical issues in their work. The result of this has been changes in research ethics codes, and procedures are now in place to review research proposals in institutions (Benjamin,2009). Additionally, De Wet (2010), points out that research now must adhere to ethical rulings and principles, for the experiment to be carried out. De Wet (2010), further comments that all research conducted must abide by ethical requirements as any type of research has the possibility of causing harm, the harm may not be within the research itself but may cause harm later.

These ideas have additionally been developed by Jacobson (2007), who states that approval of human research had become a standard 30 years ago, Researchers in the past who used their own life experiences as material to carry out research have now been discouraged to do so by the ethics committee, as it is perceived as ‘unauthorized data collection’ (pg4). Jacobson (2007), additionally suggests times have now changed and the ethics committees now expect to see written consent and confidentiality built within the methodology of research. It is evident from both classic and contemporary studies, that standards in ethics have become more rigorous today. This point is further consolidated by Vogles (2014), who argues that after Milgram’s experiment, guidelines were developed as the study was ethically controversial. Vogles (2014), concludes that those carrying out research involving humans in today’s time must follow ethical guidelines.

In conclusion , this essay has critically examined a classic and contemporary study in relation to obedience and discussed the theoretical and methodological approaches used. It has then moved onto the concept of obedience and related it back to education in classrooms. Finally, it discussed the changes in attitudes towards ethical conduct.

Contemporary social psychology is dynamic, wherein social psychologists must understand the social interface between how society impacts individuals in their social contexts and how individuals affect society in an ever changing world, in order to progress change for the betterment.

There are many contemporary issues that benefit from being investigated further, ‘mediatisation’ (Hardt&Negris, 2012) ‘cross-cultural influences’ (Hermans&Hubert, 2006), and including one of the biggest inequalities, ‘gender.’ Gender can be explored through feminist theory, readdressing gaps in equality through social psychology.

Women have been successful towards advancing some gender inequalities within political movements, though not without great difficulty, even paying for it with their lives within the first wave feminism of the suffragette’s movement in the nineteenth-twentieth century, where women gained the right to vote (Pankhurst, 2015). In an ever-evolving world, women still struggle to be heard and accepted as equals though contemporary social psychology gives a voice to those fighting for social change by challenging the norm, ‘We can think of feminist theory as being produced precisely where social norms about gender are contested’ (Radtke, 2015). “Third-wave feminism emerged out of a critique of the politics of the second wave, as many feminists felt that earlier generations had over-generalized the experiences of white, middle-class, heterosexual women and ignored (and even suppressed) the viewpoints of women of colour, the poor, gay, lesbian, and transgender people, and women from the non-Western world.”(Routledge, 2016). Due to technological advances in a globalised society, it is easier for contemporary social psychologists to keep up to date and informed, challenging out-dated models and thinking through the contemporary development of increased use in the likes of social media, where we can make social inequalities heard more than ever before on a global platform. Change may be progressing at a slower pace than desired, and there is still much work to be done regarding inequalities in gender and socially that feminism would like to transform, readdressing power issues on an everyday level, and politically securing equal rights. “Ultimately, if feminism, broadly understood, is concerned with improving the conditions of women in society, feminist social theory is about developing ideas, concepts, philosophies, and other intellectual programs that help meet that agenda. Feminist social theory, like any theoretical tradition, is best seen as a continuing conversation of many voices and viewpoints.”(Routledge, 2016).

In contemporary society, we live in a world of inequality dealing with issues concerning power struggles, work positions and wage gap, which can be considered the norm. Some people don’t notice anything but a normal way of life to contest it, some don’t understand feminism, don’t accept feminism or don’t want to. Critical social psychology argues that this everyday living can be theory but contesters do not recognise this. It’s important to acknowledge that interpretation can be an issue within social psychology due to the influence of the researcher in qualitative and quantitative surveys. “It has been argued that qualitative methods are more appropriate for feminist research by allowing subjective knowledge and a more equal relationship between the researcher and the researched.” (Westmarland, 2004). Though critical social psychology suggests that research is believed to never be completely neutral due to an individual researcher being unable to be separate from the society they live in, their research would also be influenced by social beliefs and values, reflexivity must be acknowledged. “By acknowledging the influence of the researcher on interpretation, including in the processes of data collection and analysis, feminists have contributed to new ways of doing research.” (Phoenix & Pattynama, 2006).

Defining women as a collective can be another challenging aspect, women can be significantly different, situated knowledge, personal experiences, which reflect social, cultural and historical location and intersectionality “a perspective on inequality which argues that oppressions of race, class, gender, and sexuality cannot be understood in isolation from one another, but instead “intersect” and help mutually reinforce and shape one another.” (Routledge, 2016) make this complex topic so vast it seems impossible to measure.

There may also be greater influencing factors of importance; we have many roles and sometimes contrasting positions in life, different viewpoints and relationships with others. Also gender is not a fixed category, as many identify outside the considered norms, such as those who identify as trans, queer or non-binary and so forth. It is difficult to define what makes all women the same because in many ways we are very similar to each other and to men, yet unique. “This is a theory of the person or psychological subject as complex, divided and unfixed.”

In research terms, this theory also challenges the idea that a research participant can be approached as a universal individual who can represent all people and from whom findings can be generalised. “The goal of most qualitative studies is not to generalize but rather to provide a rich, contextualized understanding of some aspect of human experience through the intensive study of particular cases. Yet, in an environment where evidence for improving practice is held in high esteem, generalization in relation to knowledge claims merits careful attention by both qualitative and quantitative researchers.” (Polit, 2010).

Power is another topic of dispute in regards to the individual and society interface as it is difficult to measure and may not always be recognised. “An aim of research is to identify and challenge ideas and practices that support discrimination against people on the basis of their ethnic background, age, gender, sexuality, disability, and so on. Feminism is an important influence on critical social psychology because it highlights that power relations in society are related to ways of thinking and behaving.” (Tuffin, 2005). It may be argued that we are not really progressing forward in matters of equality. In a neoliberal society there is more pressure put on the few women power to prove their worth, which indicates that a larger global change needs to take place. Feminist theory and practice is relevant to critical psychology more generally because the theory and practice relate to all categories of ‘other’, “a relational theory of femininity that asserts that the category of woman is defined by everything man is not. De Beauvoir also focused on how control of women’s sexuality and reproduction has historically subjugated them to men, and was one of the first theorists to argue that gender was not an essential characteristic of people, but rather something that one becomes through socialization.”(Routledge, 2016).

In conclusion, social change is socially progressing towards greater freedoms and improved quality of life, using critique as a further means of achieving change with changing times. Feminists have changed the world and have challenged the norm in psychology to rethink the relationship between individual and social interface in new ways.

Feminist critique of psychology and an important driver for change in social psychology is using qualitative surveys and reflexivity, exploring the complexities of defining women, intersectionality, situated knowledge and unfixed categories for generalised findings and measuring power and looking at power struggles in everyday living.

However, since these roles are simply learned, we can create more equal societies by ‘unlearning’ social roles. That is, feminists should aim to diminish the influence of socialisation.

As long as gender inequality and oppression exists, feminism and feminist thought will continue to matter to millions of people throughout the world. Moreover, feminist intellectuals continue to develop cutting-edge and nuanced understandings of the social world that enrich the power and possibilities of social theory writ large.

Summary

The topic of analysis is the significance of social groups and social identity in medical undergraduates based on Ben Lovell’s research article “We are a Tight Community”. The author centres his argument in the fact that students in the medical career generally mix into separate groups that position themselves differently from other undergraduates. The arrangement of social groups not just brings a life-changing survival advantage, nevertheless, has a job in character advancement. One part of expert development is the capacity to see oneself as a part of a utilitarian group, instead of as an entirely independent specialist. The separateness of medical students in the normal college prompts the presence of a subculture, which will, in general, perpetuate after some time. Towards that end, the main aim of this study was to answer the research questions: (i) How do student medics comprehend the nature and significance of medical social groups? (ii) What factors influence the formation and maintenance of these communities? The other aim of this study is to create a theoretical framework illustrating the natural and acquired forces that affect the development and maintenance of social groups at medical institutions.

Medical students constantly grasp this subculture, yet may be seen as resistant and selective by nonmedical undergraduates. As a result, undergraduate medical students end up encompassed by their own ‘kind’ all through their developmental years. Considering that social identity stimulates a mutually supportive network, this phenomenon tends to play a key function in the domain of psychological well-being. The author notes that certain potentially protective mechanisms such as social groups and social identity are of fundamental significance since the medical student is easily prone to emotional fatigue, stress, and burnout. Furthermore, Lovell cites that the development of self-complexity tends to face the negative effect of social exclusivity. On that note, students from medical school often form social groups during the formative studies. The groups often play special roles in the development of collaborative learning, professional identity, and the acquisition of interpersonal skills. Current literature explores both the positive and negative impacts of the social identity communities. However, their subjective experience seems partially described.

This research paper relies on a qualitative study researching methodology to explore social bonding and communities’ experiences of medical students within their identity groups. In this regard, the study sampled a total of 32 final year medical undergraduate participants from two highly established teaching hospitals through semi-structured interviews. The data are then analysed based on principles of constructivist grounded theory. During the research process, four major themes emerge while exploring the results. Enforced isolation is the foremost theme that emerged and it illustrates the institutional and geographical separation of medical students from other undergraduates. The second theme, self-isolation that points towards the propensity of medics to create socially exclusive groups to capitalize on the opportunity to gain social constancy, decompress, and promote horizontal learning. On the other hand, a supportive network, which is the third theme asserts that medical communities function to offer mutual support to its members. The last theme, judging self, and others illustrate both critical and respectful methods through which undergraduates remark themselves and their colleagues. Notably, the four themes give insight into the creation and maintenance of cohesive social groups and identities and also influence each other through a consistent dynamic fashion.

Overall, this research paper equips learners in related disciplines with a conceptual construct that is essential towards elucidating the functions and importance of social communities and social identities in the medical field. In this sense, medical institutions are in a better position of supporting the welfare of their undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as comprehending both their social motivation and experiences. This is achievable through a clear indulgence of the intra-personal and inter-personal dynamics that are fundamental in this discipline.

Imperatively, the study concludes that intrinsic and extrinsic isolation tend to initiate in part, the community-forming behaviours among medical undergraduates. Ideally, these factors are influenced and maintained through the covert and overt judgment of oneself and one’s peers and through the provision of mutual support. The author concludes that since this study explores the positive and negative implications of social identity groups, it provides a room for continued research into how best to promote the development of well-adjusted and healthy medics and further intuition into the intricate social fundamentals of medics.

Critical Evaluation

Although the research paper manages to explore the oblivious motivations of populations and subgroups based on the extensive literature in relation to community-forming behaviours, it is unfortunate to note that research specific to medical students is limited. Current literature explores both the positive and negative impacts of the social identity communities through their subjective experience, which seems partially described. Nevertheless, the paper has a strong rationale underpinning the study. For instance, it is evident that the available literature makes it possible for the paper to develop a strong theoretical case for and against the creation of a socially exclusive medical undergraduate community.

Furthermore, this study is limited in that it was conveyed at two medical establishments in close land vicinity. An absence of labour constrained the example size, in spite of the fact that data saturation was achieved. Arguably, it is possible that the researcher created a mental system of medicinal students in London that may show unobtrusive contrasts and varieties in examination with that of medic students from somewhere else on the planet. On that note, the author notes that this work is only a beginning stage for future examinations where the sub-topics can be additionally explored and evaluated. Considering only final year medics gives an incomplete point of view of the phenomena under assessment. All factors considered, the perspectives and bits of knowledge of medics advance after some time, and sampling of first-year undergraduates, for instance, may well prompt various decisions, and consequently, a variety of the hypothetical constructs depicted here. Along these lines, the results of this paper must be fathomed from the idea of medic students in their final year of studies. Further examination concerning various phases of undergrad life would promote the chance to see how social groups advance over time.

The methodology used in this study, a constructivist grounded theory approach, is effective and appropriate. As aforementioned, this paper has developed a comprehensive theoretical case that directs the author towards arguing for and against the formation of isolated medical communities. Therefore, theoretical sampling, which is part of this method is effective since it mainly targets subjects that are able to produce useful data. The method is appropriate since they allow alterations in media res to monitor additional data collection.

Tentatively, constant comparison, which is a key aspect of the constructivist grounded theory approach enables the researcher to recognize patterns and connections in the data to facilitate the generation of codes and categories. This ensures that the researcher maintains focus on the developing groups and offers a reference to the data that can easily enhance the understanding of the topic at large. The fact that this study was conducted at the Royal London Hospital in the UK, a significant teaching hospital in London, in close coordination with interviewees from UCLMS and SBLMS can only mean that the findings would be clear. Indeed, these institutions offered an appropriate sample of 32 students since the two universities usually provide a plethora of social clubs and groups that are in most cases partisan to shared interests in acting, drinking and performing, to sporting and fitness activities, and to political interests. The groups are often open to both non-medics and medics alike.

After the data collection, the researchers used an appropriate analysis method, the NVIVO Version 8 coding software, to analyse the data through a coding process. This method of analysis was integrated alongside the grounded theory methodology and thereafter, produced contemporaneous memos, which helped in highlighting emergent themes, connections, and alterations of the interview structure for subsequent medics. It is worth noting that the only confounding variables for this study based on the student’s experiences were enforced isolation, self-isolation, a supportive network, and judging self and others. Ideally, the fact that the study only considered final year medics cannot provide an opportunity to explore other confounding variables. Accordingly, the study is valid and reliable because the researcher received ethical approval and effective supervision of the project from the chairperson of the Research Ethics Council in the Wales Deanery. On the other hand, it is reliable because it uses data from respondents who directly experience the influence of social communities and relate to the four themes earlier mentioned in the summary.

The research and results of the study have strong implications. Foremost, the findings and discussions of the study imply that as students recognize the preferences related to a moderately closed medical network, they keep on to self-isolate so as to protect and sustain such networks. Medics see themselves and their examinations as ‘unfamiliar’ to different students and depict a way of life that is altogether different from that of their nonmedical associates. This social hole achieves a hesitance to connect with non-medics in important dialogs about their course and its related stressors. In this way, medical understudies put more seeing someone inside their own friend gathering, sustaining the sociological segregation of the medicinal network.

From another viewpoint, these communities are encouraging groups of people, giving scholastic consolation and peaceful help. Inside this network, level learning and training happen. By installing their personalities inside the communities entirely, medic students are pervaded with their very own feeling commitment to support their companions. It, along these lines, implies that among the significant elements of a firm medic group are the solidification, spread, and enlargement of new information; even learning fortifies vertical learning.

The third point of view is that the communities furnish singular undergraduates with a scholastic setting, inside which they can pass judgment on their own capacities and accomplishments. This last point of view has both positive and negative viewpoints: inside the milieu of high-accomplishing peers, the understudy may pass judgment on themselves to be the second rate, which may prompt sentiments of despondency and low confidence. The findings show that medic students can be savagely judgemental of their friends and, by augmentation, of themselves. In any case, clearly self-judging and other-making a decision about restorative understudy will build up a shakiness, which can show as tension, ridiculous desires for oneself and mental exhaustion. Specifically, exorbitant self-judgment is connected to obsessive compulsiveness and uncertainty, which have been demonstrated to be chance variables for sorrow in restorative students.

In the previously mentioned summary, obviously, this study displays a body of evidence for and against the development of medicinal networks. The resulting content gives further detail to the two sides of these contention networks gives a commonly steady condition to youngsters who are attempted a requesting and thorough degree program. Community-oriented learning, peaceful help, and decompressing/questioning are perceived and increased in value by students, who feel they would not encounter these open doors somewhere else. Networks additionally give students chances to rank themselves close by their friends, which can fill in as a persuading factor for self-improvement. This implies that medics must in some way be able to attain equilibrium to ensure that they take advantage of the academically motivating and supportive aspects of the social medical groups while maintaining a complex self to boost their psychological resilience.

It is a pleasure to comment on this considering that it will lay the foundation for subsequent research on this topic. The study can be improved in various ways. Foremost, this research only explored the positive and negative impacts of the medical communities from current literature, which is partially defined. Therefore, future research on this topic should not only seek opinions from experts in literature but also from the opinions of the target respondents (final year medic students) (Morgado et al., 2018). Secondly, this study is limited since it only focused on two medical schools in close proximity. This might have created a mental system of medicinal students in London that may show unobtrusive contrasts and varieties in examination with that of understudies from somewhere else on Earth. Therefore, future research should additionally explore and evaluate the sub-topics under the four aforementioned themes to ensure that the constructs are universal to other undergraduate medic students in different parts of the world (Morgado et al., 2018). Lastly, this study only considered final medic students thereby giving incomplete perspectives of the phenomena. Thus, future research should conduct a broad investigation from the first year to final year medic students because this will capture all hypothetical constructs and decisions that give complete perspectives of the topic under assessment (Morgado et al., 2018).

Reference

1. Lovell, B. (2015). ‘We are a tight community’: social groups and social identity in medical undergraduates. Medical Education, 49(10), 1016-1027. doi:10.1111/medu.12781
2. Morgado, F. F., Meireles, J. F., Neves, C. M., Amaral, A. C., & Ferreira, M. E. (2018). Scale development: ten main limitations and recommendations to improve future research practices. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 30(1), 3.

Chapter one: Social Representations through stereotypes

Social representations are essential for the world. They are a society’s shared beliefs, ideas, values and assumptions and they help bring sense to the world and understanding it (Myers& Twenge, 2018 p.9). However, these representations can be harmful. For example, on the image above, the woman is a Muslim and here in American society their belief towards Muslims is that their all terrorists. It’s a very widely shared belief within America and as a result Muslims are now seen as terrorists and associated them with ISIS. This is due to the terrorist attacks on 9/11 where many lost their lives. Even within the picture above the woman says that ISIS doesn’t not represent her, the religion and the other people who follow it as such. The reason why their social representations is terrorist is before they had no impact in society, and people really didn’t have a label yet. Once the terrorist attacks came it was nothing that was ever seen in America. They needed something for it to represent, to make sense and understand why which is when it was found out that Muslims were responsible. As such their social representations became terrorists.

• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed.,
• McGraw Hill. (2015, December 22). US Muslim leaders organize in response to bias, harassment. Retrieved from https://en.irna.ir/news/81890303/US-Muslim-leaders-organize-in-response-to-bias-harassment

Chapter Two: Self Esteem and body image

Everyone has self-esteem weather it be low or high, it affects how we interact with each other and our overall mood. Self-esteem can be summed up to our overall worth and how confident we are (Myers& Twenge, 2018 p.39). But with self-esteem comes difficulties such as body image, body image is how we view our body and if its positive or negative. It’s a huge factor as society deems men attractive if their muscular and woman thin and sexy. Because of this we as individuals always have low self-esteem as our bodies aren’t deemed what we find attractive. This then can be problematic as if we don’t have high self-esteem we are bound to not do well in relationships or other things like academics, work etc. In the image above the woman seems thin but she see her body image is negative as she views herself as overweight and unattractive due to unrealistic standards of beauty.

• (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/girl-mirror-body-distorted-weight-concept-1118802293
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill

Chapter Three: overconfidence phenomenon and Trump

You ever look in the mirror and think “Man I look good” or going to school and thinking “I am going to ace this test”. That is confidence and its basically a feeling of trust to one’s own abilities and just feeling good. While it’s good to build confidence, too much is never a good thing and may be harmful instead. This brings in the overconfidence phenomenon, it’s when your are confident but your more confident then you are correct, essentially you overestimate the accuracy of whatever the belief is (Myers& Twenge, 2018 p.66, p.SI-7). This is very relevant to our president currently, Donald Trump. He has made many remarks without fact-checking and in the article below it’s a good example of the overconfidence phenomenon. Essentially, he claims that the coronavirus was created in a lab in china while scientists have said that it originates in a wet market. He’s confident in his claim and has no evidence to back it up which brings back to being more confident then correct. He overestimates this belief that virus was a bio-weapon created in a lab and refuses to admit that it may be wrong.

• Holland, S., & Alper, A. (2020, April 30). Trump is confident that coronavirus may have originated in Chinese lab. (S. Maler & P. Cooney, Eds.) The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2020/04/30/world/asia/30reuters-health-coronavirus-trump-china.html
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.

Chapter Four: Roles and teenage ad

Being a teenager can be one of the best moments of your life but at the same time the worst. There are many roles a teen has to play. What is a role? A role in psychology is best defined as a person acting in occurrence to what social position, they are in. (Myers& Twenge, 2018 p103). Whether it be work, school or home. The ad above showcases this very well. For teenagers, they are in the halfway point in being old enough to do certain actives but at the same time too young as well. The ad above discusses how your teen isn’t a baby anymore and its time to treat them according to their age. The role they are originally assigned is being your child, however now just as the ad says they’re not merely your child, but a person who has roles of their own to fulfill. Therefore, they should not just be treated in the role of a child but also as a student, an adult, an older sibling and so on. The ad above is a great example for roles as teens shouldn’t be in their role of a young child because they have important decisions to make, such as sex, as mentioned in the ad.

• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.
• (2012, October 4). Retrieved from https://www.adsoftheworld.com/media/outdoor/babycanwaitcom_teen_baby_3

Chapter Five: Norms and Masks

When you’re on the bus and a pregnant person or elderly is on it’s a norm to offer your seat. Norms are part of our lives and what bring order to the world, their are everywhere not only in the United States but in other countries. But what are norms? And what defines them? Norms as defend by Myers (2018) is a set of standards on what is socially accepted behaviors in a particular society (p.125). Now with the current situation of the pandemic its now required to wear masks. In this news article for instance the governor of New York now requires everyone to wear masks to avoid further spread. Now with the order passed masks are now part of the norm. If one is seen without a mask their breaking a norm, people will see you as an outcast and deviating away from the norm. However, those seen with masks will not be questioned, even within the article if seen without a make’s others will try to enforce it to maintain the norm.

• Lyons, B. J. (2020, April 15). Cuomo orders New Yorkers to wear masks to stem coronavirus. Times-Union . Retrieved from https://www.timesunion.com/news/article/Cuomo-orders-New-Yorkers-to-wear-masks-to-stem-15202640.php
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed.,
• McGraw Hill.

Chapter Six: Mass Hysteria and Toilet Paper

Humans can sometimes make questionable decisions when under panic. In medieval times there was an instance of hysteria where one person stepped out in the streets and started to dance nonstop. Soon a whole group of people joined in and kept dancing for many days without any breaks, many people tried to stop them, but it was pointless. The carton represents what mass hysteria is in the 21st century. But first mass hysteria must be defined to better understand the connection between the two. Mass hysteria is a type of phenomenon also known as group hysteria is a problem that spreads from one person to a larger group and causes the affected people to have irrational behaviors or beliefs (Myers & Twenge, 2018, pp.158-159, p. SI-11). Now in the cartoon it represents the current situation of panic buying. As a result, one person buying a lot of toilet paper and as a result many people are buying more toilet paper then needed and keep doing so over and over. This as the image shows is irrational behavior and will not cure the virus.

• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.
• Summers, D. (2020, March 16). Retrieved from https://tribunecontentagency.com/article/summers-dana-color-editorial-cartoon-20200316edsuc-a-tif/

Chapter Seven: Persuasion and Beauty

We as humans may deem ourselves strong-minded however were always easily persuaded by marketing, ads and each other even. While persuasion can be good it also at the same time be bad and harmful. For example, this particular story in this Woman’s Health Magazine about skincare and trying to look younger. Many of humans have a desire to look younger and this story is a great example of persuasion. But its important to know what persuasion is. Essentially Persuasion is a process in where the particular person attitudes along with their behavior are influenced by a particular message (Myers & Twenge, 2018, pp.214-217, p. SI-11). In this magazine its persuading woman, in particular, to use these methods to look not only younger but more beautiful, after all who wouldn’t want that. The person in discussion is an actress named Gwen Stefani and she claims a good waterproof foundation helped beat aging and tiredness. Additionally, staying out of the sun, encouraging a vegetarian diet and so forth. While any regular person could have told you this the fact that it comes from a famous person persuades your more to try these tips and buy the concealer to avoid aging and look young

• Paolercio, J. (2020, April 25). 5 Skincare tips Gwen Stefani follows to make 50 looks 30. Women’s Health. Retrieved from https://www.womenshealthmag.com/beauty/a32186869/gwen-stefani-skincare-tips/
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.

Chapter Eight: Social Loafing and Group Projects

There will always be people who will contribute to nothing and yet somehow reap the benefits without lifting a finger. Those who do this fall under Social Loafing, its defined as a tendency in which people will put less effort when in a group than when their on own(Myers & Twenge, 2018, pp.224-225, p. SI-11). The cartoon above represents what an individual who practices social loafing is like. The girl is angry that she has done all the work and her partner has done nothing or gave any effort for their project. While I am sure he would put more effort, he was alone he believes he doesn’t need to do as much, as the other person will make up for it. As such social loafing is best used within this cartoon as he puts less effort in the group project.

• Hobbes, C. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://twitter.com/Calvinn_Hobbes
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.

Chapter Nine: Prejudice and Asian Americans

Prejudice, a negative judgment that is preconceived towards a certain group or individual (Myers & Twenge, 2018, p. 256). Prejudice has existed since the dawn of time, no matter how far we advance we always seem to never put an end to it. Even now its existence is very prevalent now as the ones that are at the receiving end are Asian Americans. In the news article below its been reported that Asian Americans are being harassed due to the coronavirus surfacing in China. As a result, some Americans have this preconceived notion that all people who are from china or look “Chinese” are carrying the disease and as such deserve to be punished. One woman who immigrated from China to America five years ago was spat on and yelled at by a fellow American. She’s not the first to receives such harsh treatment as many other Asian Americas are treading the same way. As such this is a great example of prejudice being utilized as the notion is the virus came from china, everyone of Chinese or Asian decent has it.

• Tavernise, S., & Oppel Jr., R. A. (2020, April 10). Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese-Americans Fear for Their Safety. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/us/chinese-coronavirus-racist-attacks.html
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.

Chapter Ten: Social Learning Theory and the kind of driver being raised

As a child we always look up to our parents for guidance and learn what’s right, wrong and how to go through life. The ad above shows just how much a child can be influenced by their parent through social learning. Just like we can learn aggression from others we can also learn other types of behaviors by others (Myers & Twenge, 2018, p. 306). Now the preference of social learning theory is best defined as learning social behavior through imitation along with observations from others (Myers & Twenge, 2018, p.SI-11). In the ad above its showing the mother using her phone while driving as such her child behind her observes this behaviors and keeps a note of it in her mind. Soon after she begins imitating her mother by using a phone while the car. It’s inferred that later when she’s behind the wheel she will use her phone just as her mother did. As such the ad is a good example of social learning theory in that the child will observe and imitate whatever her mother is doing behind the wheel and do the same now and later when she receives her very own license.

• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.
• (2019, April 9). Retrieved from https://twitter.com/nysdmv/status/1115711024156565510

Chapter Eleven: Physical-attractiveness stereotype and beauty ads

Everyone desires to be beautiful, beauty in America is everything, your are treated well and are given more opportunities. This type of treatment is a result of a concept called physical-attractiveness stereotype, it means that whoever is considered beautiful is good and has desirable traits, while ugly is bad (Myers & Twenge, 2018, p.346). The ad above is a great example of this, as it shows that the before photo is ugly, undesirable and bad. People may consider she has undesirable traits and is inferior. The next photo shows a beautiful woman, in the ad its shows that she’s desirable, and has good traits. When people see this ad they’ll aromatically show a preference for the after photo and will have a distaste for the before photo.

• (2012, April 24). Retrieved from https://style.time.com/2012/04/25/sexist-silly-sublime-era-ads/slide/oldugly-youngbeautiful/
• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill

Chapter Twelve: Social-Responsibility and Zakat

Everyone has a responsibility they need to uptake, whether it be work, school or family. However, when it comes to helping others for majority of people, it may not be on the top of their priorities. The reason why is they may have other things to take care of. However, For Muslims its different as it is a requirement for Muslims to give zakat. This is where Social-Responsibility comes in as it’s a responsibility to help others in need without getting anything back (Myers & Twenge, 2018, p.382, p.SI-11). The image above shows how zakat saves lives and its an obligation. What Zakat is giving at least 25% from your earnings to those in need, there are no strings attached. And the Muslims that do so gain nothing back in terms of physical things. Its obligatory as the image above lists and states that when doing this your are able to help children not be hungry and help them in other relief crises.

• Myers, David & Twenge, Jean. (2018). Selected Material from Social Psychology, 13th Ed., McGraw Hill.
• Ramadan donation. (2018, May 17). Retrieved from https://www.humanconcern.org/ramadan-do/

Introduction

Developmental psychology is concerned with age-related changes and inexperience and behavior,it aims to describe and explain development change from its starting point to old age Developmental characteristics studied include personality, development of relationships with other people, cognitive capacity and biological changes. In all these characteristics mentioned above, for instance, the level of biological development has an effect on the cognitive capacity, this, in turn, causes problems on social interaction and so on. and Social psychology- is about understanding individual behavior in a social context. Baron, Byrne & Suls (1989) define social psychology as the scientific area that is seeking to understand the cause and reason of individual behaviour in social situations.It also looks at human behavior as being influenced by other people and from the social context in which this occurs.

Social psychologists, therefore, deal with the areas that lead us to be acting in a given way within the presence of other people and then look at the situations in which certain behavior/actions and feelings occur. Social psychology is therefore to do with the way these feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are created and how such psychological factors, in turn, will have an effect on our interactions with others. Self-concept, social cognition, social influence and attribution theory are included in social psychology also group processes aggression attitudes and stereotyping. In this writing, I will be looking two theories from the two substantive areas of psychology which are Developmental and Social Psychology.

In Developmental Psychology the theory I will be looking at is the attachment theory. A Research theory which was carried out by Bowlby on the theory of attachment explained that babies placed in a new situation and taken away from their parents or legal guardians will react in one of three ways upon reunited with the parents or legal guardians.

The aim of this study is to find out how attachment theory works in different settings of the environment.

Harlow did a study on infant monkeys by conducting two groundbreaking experiments (as well as many more after the initial two):

Harlow separated infant[baby] monkeys from their mothers just a few hours after being born and gave them to two surrogate “mothers” to raise: both supplied the infant monkeys with the milk for them to survive, but one was made out of wire mesh and the other one was wire mesh covered with terry cloth. The infant monkeys who were given the freedom to choose which mother they wanted to associate with almost always chose to take milk from the terry cloth “mother.” This finding showed that infant attachment is not simply a matter of where the milk was coming from!

For his second experiment, Harlow modified his original setting the infant monkeys were provided either the bare wire mesh surrogate mother or the terry cloth mother but both of which provided the milk the baby monkeys needed to grow. Both groups of infant monkeys survived and thrived physically, but they presented extremely unsimilar behavioral actions. Those with a terry cloth mother went back to the surrogate when presented with strange, loud objects, while those with a wire mesh mother threw themselves to the floor, clutched themselves, rocked back and forth, or even “screamed in terror.” This provided a clear indication that emotional attachment in infancy, which was gained through hugging affected the monkey’s later responses to stress and emotional regulation (Herman, 2012). The findings of the study were the following:

1. Secure attachment – these babies showed signs of distress upon separation but found peace and comfort and were easily comforted when the parents or legal guardians returned.
2. Anxious-resistant attachment – a smaller group n of infants went through greater levels of distress emotions and,when reunited with their parents or legal guardians , seemed all to seek comfort and try to resent their parents for leaving.
3. Avoidant attachment – babies in the this third group of attachment style did not show stress or minimal stress when separated from their parents or legal guardians and either ignored their parents upon being brought back to them, or actively avoided their parents.

The theory helps explain how a childhood relationship with their parents or guardians can have a profound effect on their relationships with others as adults.

This experiment can be reliable as it was done under a controlled environment and it also shows the relationship between mothers or caregivers to infants, The close relations between monkeys and humans is also strong, hence the weakness on this experiment was that there was no total number of monkeys accounted and also would have been ideal if humans were used to carrying out the experiment or study. Through this study, it will be able to analyze a couple of social problems that are present in people on a personal level. There is a few theories that collaborate the subject of social psychology. These are very intriguing and can be studied on an independent basis as well.

Attribution theory is concerned with how people describe the events and relate them to what they are thinking and their behavior. It is a cognitive perception that affects their influence. This theory was first proposed in a book called The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, written by Fritz Heider in 1958. According to Heider, humans present themselves as amateur scientists Attribution literally is defined as a grant of responsibility. Although the theory was first proposed by Heider (1958), Bernard Weiner (1972) and Harold Kelley (1967) later made a theoretical structure, which is now seen as an epitome of social psychology.

The theory divides the behavior attributes in two parts, external factors or internal factors. Internal attribution: When an internal attribution is produced, the problem of the given behavior is in the person, for example, the differences which make a person accountable like attitude, aptitude, character, and personality.

External attribution: When an external attribution is produced, the cause of the given behavior is directed to the situation in which the behavior was observed. The person who is responsible for that behavior may direct the causality to the environment or weather.

Case Study: Having just arrived in the department as a new Assistant Professor, Pauline found in her mailbox a letter that said [ “Let’s have lunch tomorrow. Faculty club at 12:30? –Fred.”] Pauline was a bit surprised that she met Fred W. during her interview, but she would not have expected him to ask her out for lunch. Pauline now tried to explain Fred’s actions of leaving the letter in her mailbox. Kelley’s attribution model would have claimed that Pauline’s choice is between a person attribution (something about Fred which caused the action) and the situational attribution (something about her or the actions which caused the action). But straight away, this is a confusing decision. Surely something about Fred must have been causing that action (his intention, his motive …) if putting the letter in her mailbox was done purposely. But of course, the situation showed into the action as well, or the situation as seen by Fred—he may have thought Pauline wanted to have some company or anticipated her to be an ideal collaborator. Either way, a reasonable answer for Pauline will never be “it was not about Fred” or “something about the situation.” What the search for person-situation attributions misses entirely is what the explainer actually does when faced with a situation like this. Pauline would simply try to find out Fred’s reasons for leaving the letter —his specific aim, beliefs, and assumptions. A theory of behavior explanation must now, therefore, incorporate the concept of actions into its theoretical repertoire. Finally, what is the historical basis for (PS)? Here, there is two major misunderstandings. To start, Lewin (1936) as one historical source of the person-situation dichotomy, meant that it as a sketch of the actual of social behavior—that scientists can start out with the imagining that behavior is a system of the person and the situation (including all their complex actions carried). But Lewin at no point argued that ordinary people saw this social behavior in this way. What is perhaps more interesting and surprising is that Heider (1958), the most widely cited historical source for (PS) did not claim either that laypeople divided the world into a person and situation causes (Malle & Ickes, 2000). Instead, Heider had argued that the fundamental distinction people ordinary people bring to social perception (Heider, 1958, pp. 100-101). One causal model applied to the domain of intentional behavior, where people assumed the involvement of an intention as the critical force that brought about the actions. The other causal model is for all other domains (for example unintentional human behavior as well as physical events), in which results in simply bringing about effects—without any involvement of the aim. This misunderstanding between Heider’s distinction of personal and impersonal causality (or intentional and unintentional behavior) on the other hand and the traditional person-situation 4 Bertram F. Malle dichotomy on the other is not just a curious historical accident 2; it had major theoretical problems. Attribution theories after Heider ignored the intentional-unintentional distinction and built models that applied to all the behaviors alike. But it was Heider’s (1958) point that not all of the behaviors are described the same way. He specifically emphasized that, whereas unintentional behaviors were explained simply by causes, intentional actions were explained by the “actions behind the intention”. But even in 1976, around the peak of attribution research, Heider’s observations made explanations of intentional age when they are trying to describe activities in the social world is between “personal causality” and “impersonal causality.” Besides not getting enough support for its two core claims, classic attribution theory and its successors has two additional limitations. For one thing, it makes explanations as a purely cognitive activity, so there is no accountability for the social functions of explanation, such as clearing something for another person or influencing the audience’s impressions. Moreover, classic attribution theory does not specify any psychological effects besides fresh information that influence the making of explanations. Specifying these factors would allow them to guess such important phenomena as actor-observer asymmetries, self-serving biases, and the like.

n Conclusion, both the two substantive areas Developmental and Social Psychology contribute to crucial areas in psychology, both areas give a wider understanding in Psychology.

Article 1: “Habit in Personality and Social Psychology” by Wendy Woods

Habit is one of the different features that human beings possess. Woods (2017) did thorough research on this topic and came up with crucial findings. The researcher mentioned that even though it would be expected for psychologists to do much more research on people’s habits, few social psychologists have researched deep into this topic. He, therefore, conducted research to fill the gap in the field of social psychology. His main intention of performing this research was, therefore, to inform the readers of social psychology more about habit, and the emerging issues as far as human habits are concerned. This article is retrieved from a peer-reviewed journal called Personality and Social Psychology Review.

According to Woods (2017), that habit refers to people’s routine of doing things and that it changes over time. In this study, the researcher hypothesizes that human habits vary depending on the rewards to be achieved. He mentions that there is a big difference between social goals and personal practice. To him, one would routinely do some actions to find a particular result /goal. So, it does not matter what the goal is, but every human’s habit directs him/her in a specific direction. His research findings showed that indeed, human habits change with the social context, and with the reared to be achieved. The research result supported his hypothesis. This research implies that people should understand the differences in people’s habits as this will make them not to expect the same practices they possess from anyone. The author has not disclosed the names of the participants in this study, hence a good illustration of ethical research. I would have felt great if I were a participant because no personal details of the people who answered the researcher’s responses are present.

Article 2: “Sex positivity and counseling psychology: An introduction to the major contribution” by Burnes, Singh, and Witherspoon

In this article, the researchers study the influence of sex-positivity approaches on the manner through which health practitioners handle their clients in the counseling rooms. It is an informative peer-reviewed article published in a peer-reviewed psychology journal called The Counseling Psychologist. The scholarly source informs the readers more about sex positivity, why it is crucial in the clinical settings, and how it can improve the patient’s lives. The scholars mention that for so long, several medical practitioners have had negative attitudes towards clients, and this has negatively impacted the clients searching for sex counseling.

The primary prediction made by the researchers is that the quality of sex counseling given by therapists depends on the psychologist’s attitudes towards sex as subject According to the scholars, it is high time for psychologists to view sex as a healthy practice which improves not only people’s physical wellbeing but also their mental and emotional states. According to Burnes, Singh, and Witherspoon (2017), several myths and misconceptions have been crafted to define sex as a topic. In most cases, such tales end up misleading even the professionals who are expected to provide proper guidance to their clients. The study encourages counseling psychologists to lead the debate of sex positivity because through them; clients would understand more about sex and how they can live a fulfilling life.

The research findings indicated that sex positivity influences how therapists tackle the sex challenges faced by their clients. The primary implication of this study is that all medical practitioners need to adopt a positive mindset towards sex. The research was done in a dignified manner, and there were no ethical concerns that would be pin-pointed from the study. I would have felt right if I contributed to any of the asked research questions.

Article 3: “Some evidence for a gender gap in personality and social psychology” by Brown and Goh

In this study, the researchers studied the gender gap as portrayed in the personality and social psychology field. The research article was published in the journal, Social Psychological and Personality Science, and entails interesting research findings worth discussion. Brown and Goh (2016) explained that the gender gap, one of the most discussed topics in psychology, affects not only people in professional or societal settings but also the field of literature. Their primary goal in this study was to determine the percentage of women and men cited in the personality and social psychology scholarly sources.

The researchers hypothesized that the proportions of men and women cited in the personality and social psychology literature were equal. Brown and Goh (2016) performed a literary search for psychology articles in one of the two significant journals dating back to 10 years up to present. In the research, they noted the names and number of scholars with their gender, who were cited in such sources. The research finding proved that the percentage of men mentioned in such literature was more compared to that of women. In this study, the research nullified the indicated hypothesis. From the study, it is evident that the gender gap is a broad topic that affects people in diverse fields. The research is essential as it provides a necessary foundation upon which more investigations on the gender gap in literature can be performed.

The primary implication of this research study is that more women are needed to research personality and social psychology. Despite the varying gender percentages, women have continued to contribute to quality research articles that touch on various topics. Even though the researchers have not pointed out the participants in the research, there are no ethical concerns so far. I would have appreciated the opportunity to become one of the participants.

Article 4: “Trauma-focused therapy for refugees: Meta-analytic findings” by Lambert and Alhassoon

Lambert and Alhassoon (2015) performed one of the crucial studies targeting the psychological disorders common among refugees. The scholarly source was published in a journal called the Journal of counseling psychology. The target population of this research was refugees. Mental disorders are among the most common topics that psychologists interact with in their daily lives. The study considered several past researchers coupled with primary research to obtain the indicated findings. The researchers, therefore, researched to find out how trauma-focused therapy would help the therapists in solving the various challenges faced by refugees.

The scholars hypothesized that many refugees were mainly suffering from trauma. Therefore, according to Lambert and Alhassoon (2015), medical practitioners should first determine whether the clients are traumatized or not. They caution on the overreliance of therapeutic approaches towards treating some of the challenges that refugees undergo. To them, the lonely lives that most refugees undergo away from their maternal homes are the primary cause of the problems they face in life. According to the research findings, refugees who underwent trauma-based counseling showed tremendous improvements as opposed to others whose trauma level was not measured. The scholars indicate that trauma is one of the challenges many people face.

The primary implication of this study is that therapists should be cautious when they deal with refugees as their primary clients. It is an informative research article with applicable recommendations that can enhance the overall field of psychology. The research followed ethical guidelines, and the participants in this research were accorded the respect they deserved. I would have no problem with the research findings if I were a participant in the study.

For part one of this assignment, we were asked to explore how social psychology contributes to our understanding of social problems. By that we will have to summarize an article from the Journal of Social Issues and reflect on the implications of the article.

The journal of social issues article has been published since 1945, while each issue has been committed to a single theme. It has a long history of experience while also immersing a plethora of important social issues surrounding a wide range of theme such as education, health, group relations, politics, poverty, religion, technology, and the workplace (SPSSI, n.d). Each article covers pertinent theoretical, empirical, and policy considerations. An article that I am reviewing is The Invisible Hand is an Ideology: Toward a Social Psychology of Neoliberalism. The article editors are Karim Bettache, and Chi‐Yue Chiu. Karim Bettache is affiliated with Monash University, and Chi-Yue Chiu is affiliated with The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Karim Bettache is a lecturer of Psychology at Monash University. His research interests strongly focus on social and political psychological constructs that may drive the marginalization of human groups such as discrimination, conservatism, or right-wing extremism. He is not shy of his scientific activism.and Chi‐Yue Chiu is the Dean of Social Science and Choh-Ming Li Professor of Psychology at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interests are in the social psychology of culture, globalization, communication, and human competencies (Bettache & Chiu, 2019). The research was conducted in 2019 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, recorded online February 14, 2019. The purpose of the research is to show how neoliberalism has progressed into an ideological ideology and has expanded its dominant influence to all areas of life, also adding to the production of psychological knowledge in the environment and the implementation of psychology in multiple domains (Bettache & Chiu, 2019). while also stating how neoliberalism gets criticized for being accused of being the centre of the problem of modern-day societies. The article also talks about how the lack of satisfaction of neoliberalism has been an inspiration of creativity of a neoliberal society can be. The articles main key is to shine light on issues related to neoliberalism, on which it has changed and will continue to change our society, to finally shed a light and hopefully guide people the right way and answer questions and thoughts on what is so social about social Psychology.

For part two of this assignment, the purpose is to monitor the journal article with other theories or real-world situations. By explaining what we can learn from the findings, and how we can apply the findings to improve the social situation.

This article investigates issues of neoliberalism, use and self‐identity more seriously. There are usually two contributions in relation to these analyses. It highlights some current issues associated with neoliberalism as an idea that brings us in doubt regarding the analytical usefulness of this term (Phelps & White, 2018). A real-world example of neoliberalism that can critic this article could be just like when the Eu neoliberal policies for Greece were in effect during the Greek debt crisis of 2007-2008, when the Eu official demanded Greece take in different improvements to gain a bailout. These improvements focused on making stronger including spending and tax improvements(Pettinger, 2018). These could be labeled as neoliberal which is a place to shine on the topic. Through these findings, I have learned that neoliberalism is a policy model that incorporates social studies, and economics—that seeks to transfer control of economic factors to the private sector. Also learning that neoliberalism is an economic theory that favours free markets and minimal government intervention in the economy. Going back to the article I do agree with what was discussed and found through the knowledge of Chi‐Yue Chiu and Karim Bettache. They articulate how the prospect of having a post-neoliberal social psychology emphasizes the value and both have their ideological roots in the classical liberalism of the 19th century, which championed economic freedom

Reference sheet

1. SPSSI (n.d.). Journal of Social Issues. Retrieved from https://www.spssi.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.ViewPage&pageId=1995
2. Bettache, K., & Chiu, C. (2019). The Invisible Hand is an Ideology: Toward a Social Psychology of Neoliberalism. Journal of Social Issues, 75(1), 8-19. doi:10.1111/josi.12308
3. Phelps, J. M., & White, C. M. (2018). Social psychology and neoliberalism: A critical commentary on McDonald, Gough, Wearing, and Deville (2017). Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 48(3), 390-396. doi:10.1111/jtsb.12180
4. Pettinger, T. (2018, January 25). Neoliberalism – examples and criticisms. Retrieved from https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/20688/concepts/neoliberalism/