Category: Social Justice

Summary

This paper seeks to identify whether the ratification of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) equal pay for an equal value of work Convention by New Zealand delivered social justice to the women in the New Zealand society. It has been shown that before the ratification of the ILO convention, there were various instances in the history of the country attempts had been made to eliminate the gender-based pay gap. The first Act to show a serious intention towards eliminating pay discrimination against women was the Equal Pay Act 1972. The Act achieved considerable gains in reducing the percentage points in the gap between what women and men earned. This was achieved through the combined efforts of the Department of Labour and the Human Rights Commission. Most of the challenges were from the arbitration court that still utilized conservative methods in the interpretation of equal pay thus systematically oppressing women.

The ILO Equal Remuneration Convention 100 was finally ratified in 1983. The few years that followed were marked with limited activities in regard to the implementation of equal pay in the labor market. This revival of efforts was triggered by Clerical Workers Union which took a case to the arbitration Court in 1985. Though the Court failed to rule in the favour of women, the activities to push for equality were carried on. Subsequent campaigns culminated in the creation of the Coalition for Equal Value for Equal Pay (CEVEP). The CEVEP was instrumental in creating awareness and negotiating with politicians until the government decided to take major steps that culminated in the Employment Equity Act 1990. The act was short-lived as it was repealed by the new National party government.

New Zealand would remain conspicuously silent on equal pay matters for the next 12 years. Major efforts to reduce equal pay were only revived in 2003, following pressure from the ILO to which New Zealand is a signatory.

Different policy frameworks have been advanced to address gender pay but little progress has been made. The gender pay gap has stubbornly refused to go away in spite of all the efforts put in place by the concerned ministries. And thus in this respect, social justice is yet to be done or delivered to women.

Introduction

The term social justice is used to refer to the idea of ensuring that a society is founded on the “principles of equality and solidarity that takes into account the implementation of justice for every member of the society through; understanding and valuing human rights and the recognition of dignity” of each and every human.¹ Several studies provide literature on ever present inequalities that are seen in the New Zealand society and other countries. These are often tight to individuals or groups’ experiences in regard to economic, social and cultural rights. They also show how the denial of one right goes further to mean denial of other rights as well. For instance, the attainment of good health and housing is related to the economic rights. Thus any form of denying economic rights affects an individual’s right to proper health and this constitutes a social in justice. In New Zealand and most other countries across the globe, societies have shifted from the traditional model where a woman’s place was at home to look after the children. Women are now competing for jobs that were previously dominated by males. In face of the changing circumstances, different societies have adopted mechanisms through which equality can be reflected between men and women. Countries that are signatories of international bodies such as the United Nations and International Labour organisation (ILO) have been forced to formulate policies to reflect the changing roles of women in the society. Thus any form of discrimination against women now constitutes an injustice. The clamour for equal pay has a long history in New Zealand and other countries. Equal pay is one from through which social justice can be delivered.

Equal pay is basically used to refer to equal remuneration for an equal amount of work for the different members of the society. The term is however most often used to refer to equality as it pertains to women and men in the labour market. Most countries around the world have formulated laws that require both women and men working in the public and private sectors to be paid equally for equal work. New Zealand has had a long history of advocating for women’s rights, for instance, it was the first country in the world to allow women to vote. The issue of equal pay in New Zealand has been around since 1950s. The period has been marked by inquiries, formulation of laws and attempts to ensure that equal remunerations is fully adopted in New Zealand. The primary purpose of this paper is to establish whether the equal pay convention that was ratified by New Zealand in 1983 went on to ensure the delivery of social justice to women in the New Zealand Society. The paper will trace all the major events in regard to the employment opportunities and pay equity from the earliest time as possible, through history in order to get a clear picture as to whether the ratification of the ILO convention on equal pay for work of equal value by New Zealand has delivered social justice to women.

Definition of Terms

• Equal pay- Equal pay is generally understood to mean a rate of remuneration for work in which there is no element of differentiation between male and female employees based on sex—where the work of male and female employees is substantially similar and calls for the same or substantially similar degrees of skill, effort and responsibility and is done under similar conditions.
• The Equal Pay Act 1972, the Employment Relations Act 2000 and the Human Rights Act 1993 all contain provisions relating to gender pay discrimination and provide complaints-based mechanisms for employees to seek redress for gender pay discrimination claims. The Equal Pay Act applies to employees in both the both private and public sectors. Public sector employees are also covered by the Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960.
• Pay equity- Pay equity means gender doesn’t affect what people are paid. It means women receive the same pay as men for doing the same work and for doing work that is different, but of equal value. The value of work is assessed is assessed in terms of skills, knowledge, responsibility, effort and working conditions. Other considerations in setting remuneration can include market rates, productivity and performance.
• Employment equity- Employment equity is about fairness at work. It means identifying and removing the barriers that prevent women from fully participating at work. Almost half the women workers in New Zealand are in occupations that are more than 80% female, and the female-dominated occupations tend to be lower paid. Women are still under-represented in higher-level jobs.
• Equity and equality- Equality refers to being equal or the same; equity refers to being just, fair or impartial. In the employment equity context, equity refers to proportionality between differences in relevant characteristics of people and jobs and how they are treated.
• Job evaluation- Job evaluation is a systematic process to establish the ‘size’ of a job relative to others.

Source: Department of Labour, International Labour Conventions Ratified by New Zealand, International Services and Legal Group, Wellington 200

Equal pay in New Zealand prior to the ratification of the 1951 ILO convention

The idea of equal pay first propped up in New Zealand in the 1890s following the successful campaigning for universal suffrage by women. In September 1893, the women scored a first major by gaining the right to vote, however, attainment of equal pay for them was still a mirage away. The society was then deeply engrossed in the belief that woman had no real role in any working; their place in the society was to stay at home and tend to children; and even if they could work, there productivity was never to be compared to that of men. Thus in those days women were employed for less, offering cheap labour which in turn offered a considerable threat to men who were competing for the same jobs.²

Earlier statistics carried out in 1893 showed more than half of students in the New Zealand universities were female. More than 45,000 women were employed representing a significant proportion of the adult women population. Due to the increasing concerns about the exploitation of women in the female dominated professions such as teaching and dressmaking, earlier calls for equal pay were spearheaded by women organisations such as the National Council of Women (NCW).

The New Zealand Public Service Association (NPSA) was established in 1913. In the following year, the association passed and adopted a rule requiring that females with equal competence and who are doing similar work to their male counterparts be offered similar benefits in terms of pay and privileges.

This was not implemented in the service sector in the years that followed. Infarct in 1919, arbitration was passed in the court setting the minimum wage for men only.

The great depression that was witnessed in the 1920s did away with any achievements through increased wage cuts, skyrocketing levels of unemployment and even the abandonment of women’s employment in the public and private sectors of New Zealand. In 1927, the labour party included the search for equal for women as one of its major policies. In 1936 an industrial arbitration and amendment act set the first initial minimum wage for women, though it was at 47% of their male counterparts. In the same year conventional belief with an award decision was held to enable male breadwinners to offer support for their wife and up to three children in reasonably standard of comfort. ³

Vast opportunities for women in the work force were created following the outbreak of the Second World War. In 1942, single women were directed into the essential professions. By the year 1944, every woman who was able bodied was required to be employed somewhere. The Second World War played a major role in ensuring that women got social approval to take part in the essential occupations. Even married women in New Zealand were actively taking part in the workforce. A survey conducted in 1944 indicated that up to 228,000 women were part of the workforce, with additional 8,000 working in the armed forces.⁴

This saw the creation of a sub-committee which was tasked with delivering questionnaires to their members. A minimum wage act in 1945 did not change the pay rates for women and men in New Zealand. However, it also did not have any provisions for the protection of the roles played by males as breadwinners. The clamour for equal pay was boosted by international agencies, for instance, the United Nations charter of 1945, the declaration of human rights in 1949 and the international labour organization (ILO) convention of 1951 which all recognized the principles of equal pay for women and men for equal work.⁵ The arbitration court of “New Zealand set a new minimum wage for women at 70% that of males in 1949. In 1953, new wage increases saw the court setting lower limits for women as compared to their male counterparts”.⁶

The equal remuneration convention, 1951

This convention was meant to establish the principle of equal pay for equal work for men and women. ⁷ A few terms are defined in the first article of the equal pay convention:

• Remuneration- the term remuneration was used to refer to the basic, ordinary or minimum wage or “salary or any additional emoluments whatsoever payable directly or indirectly, whether in cash or in kind, by the employer to the worker and arising out of the workers’ employment” ⁸.
• “Equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value refers to rates of remuneration established without discrimination based on the sex of an individual”. ⁹

The second article of the convention stipulated that appropriate techniques should be used to determine the correct rates of pay which must then be applied to males and females in a way that it is consistent with the principles of equal pay. The principles of equal pay may be implemented via the following means: the laws and regulations of a country; structures that are legally established to determine the wages; all inclusive agreements by all stake holders, for instance, between employers and employees; and lastly through the combination of the above different mechanisms.¹⁰

The third article of the convention stipulated that if actions are taken by a nation to implement the provisions in the Convention then the required measures will taken to ensure the evaluation of jobs based on the activities to be accomplished. The techniques to be used in the job evaluations will be selected by the bodies that have been established to determine the rates of pay, or, in case the rates are decided upon by an agreement between the different parties then all the parties should be involved. Thus the differences in the rates of pay should hence be based on the different responsibilities of a given job as determined by the evaluation and not with regard to the sex of the employee. If all this is undertaken then the principles of equal pay will have been implemented by the given country.

The fourth article of the convention stipulated that every member should appropriately cooperate with the organisations of employees and workers to ensure that the provisions of the convention are implemented ¹¹.

A defining moment came in 1956 during the test case of Jean Parker who was employed at the Inland Revenue Department. The case created a widespread interest to the issue of equal pay and the employment conditions for women, particularly in the public sector. The rates for men were much higher as compared to those of the women. However, women were less qualified even when compared to junior males. Jean Parker’s case attracted such attention because the PSC had directed the IRD to cut down her responsibilities and salary. This saw the PSC taking a lot of criticism from women workers who campaigned vigorously for the PSC to reverse its decision. A provisional agreement was reached later that same year which led to the freezing of the PSC decision and reinstating the previous position held by the complainant.

In the year 1957, the two major parties, the Labour part and the National party included equal pay as one of their major campaign platforms for the elections. A council for equal pay involving the different stakeholders was created to address the equal pay issues. The labour party won the elections and in 1958 established the equal pay implementation committee. Following the completion of the working party report by the government service equal pay act was thus passed in 1960.

The National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women (NACEW) was established in 1967under the labour department Act 1954.¹² One of the major responsibilities of the NACEW was to establish a committee to inquire how equal pay is being implemented both in the public and private sector in New Zealand. A report completed by the “committee in 1971 that equal pay should be extended to apply to all rates of remuneration through an equal pay Act, which was expected to go further in preventing gender based pay rate discrimination”.¹³ The report also raised concerns about the few professions under which the female sex worked. The women in New Zealand mainly worked as nurses, teachers, secretaries, domestic workers or sales personnel ¹⁴. The committee’s report suggested that the narrow range of professions within which women worked was mainly due to societal prejudices that underestimated the value of a woman’s labour.

New equal pay legislation was formulated and enacted in the year 1972. The implementation of the new act was to be done over the next few years. A series of reports were produced by the Government to monitor equal pay in New Zealand. Such reports included: “Progress for Equal pay in New Zealand (1975) and Equal pay implementation in New Zealand (1979)”. ¹⁴ The reports, especially the Equal pay and implementation in New Zealand (1979), applauded the role played by the Human Rights Commission in ensuring that public awareness on equal pay.

By the year 1978, the minimum rates for both men and women had been standardised to for all to be paid a minimum of 1.62 US dollars an hour. Considerations for unemployment and sickness were brought on board in the year 1979.

In spite of all this efforts, there were increasing frustrations in the implementation of some principles of the Equal Pay Act 1972. Part of the difficulties was blamed on the Arbitration Court that had a conservative way of interpreting equal pay. This coupled with limited scrutiny by the Labour Department ensured that women in the New Zealand society did not reap all the benefits of the equal pay legislation that had been passed in 1972.

Ratification of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Equal Remuneration Convention 100 and its implementation by New Zealand

The ratification of the equal pay ILO convention by New Zealand was done in 1983. The terms of the ILO convention 1951 stipulated that equal work should be paid equally regardless of the gender. New Zealand as a signatory of the ILO was thus required to ensure that the ILO equal pay convention was fully adopted. The few years that followed were silent but it was clear that equal pay for equal value of work for both sexes had not been implemented fully. This was mainly blamed on the laxity of the department of labour and the complacence of the Arbitration court which was seen to maintain the status quo in the interpretation of the 1972 Act.

The increased frustration prompted the Clerical Workers Union (CWA) to take the initial measures to demand for the rectification of the situation. The CWA took a case to the court to ensure that employers are forced to negotiate equal pay with employees and other stake holders. In response, “the court stated that the awards referred to in this case have been implemented following the 1972 Act and” since then a satisfactory level of compliance had been achieved.¹⁵ The case was thus dismissed on these grounds.

The court’s action did not deter women’s effort to achieve equal pay to their male counterparts. For instance, in 1985 it was common knowledge that women were being offered 22% less pay for equal work performed by men. Employees of “different motor companies took an industrial action after the court’s ruling and this was followed by a seminar on equal pay that was held at the Victoria University of Wellington in April 1986”.¹⁶ The seminar marked the beginning of the nation wide campaign for the realisation of pay equity. A subsequent meeting held on 28^th May of the same year resulted in the establishment of an organisation referred to as Coalition for Equal Value for Equal Pay (CEVEP). ¹⁷ The CEVEP moved fast to consolidate support from support from the grassroots in the New Zealand community. The intended support mainly from unionists, academic circles and bureaucrats was meant to pressure the government to find ways in which the ineffective equal pays law could be modified to address the challenges that were being faced.

The CEVEP was undertaking various measures such as the production of newsletters, meetings with politicians, media releases and later the strong relationship with organizations working for human rights ensured that the awareness for equal pay reached as far as possible to different interested groups.

The nation wide campaigns saw the labour government respond by establishing a survey of equal pay in New Zealand. The study was conducted in three phases and was started by reviewing of the existing literature on equal pay. The report on the first phase was tabled in March 1987, and the second phase report was produced six months later.

During the celebrations of the International Women’s Day in March 1988, the Government of New Zealand announced the creation of a Working group that would conduct further research on the equal pay and equal employment issue. In the third phase, the working group produced a report that was titled Towards Employment Equity. The report was instrumental in the establishment of a provisional statutory framework.

The equity employment Act was intended to provide a solution to the past and present discrimination challenges that were being experienced by women in the workforce. The Act became effective two months after being passed. However, celebrations for the Act was short lived as it was soon repealed by the National party Government that was elected in December 1990. The pay equity provisions were later included as part of the Employment Contracts Act legislation of 1991.

The 1991 ECA legislation saw the Equal Pay legislation of 1972 being relegated to being a section in the minimum code. The ECA greatly constrained the link between unions and their members, as a result, the clamour for equal pay lost momentum and the unions now concentrated on minor cases. This kind of scenario persisted for more than 12 years. As it is said the equal pay agenda was tucked at the back of party policies after the controversial ECA legislation.

Failure of pay equity policies and the subsequent renewal of the efforts

The ministry of women affairs released a discussion document in 2002 that was meant to revive the momentum towards the achievement of pay equity. ¹⁷ This saw the appointment of an additional commissioner in the Human rights organisation to spearhead the implementation of equal employment opportunities which had a pay equity subsection. In the year 2003 a task force was established with the sole role of ensuring that an action plan is determined to ensure equal pay and employment is achieved in all the areas of the public sector. The renewed push for pay equity by the New Zealand Government was most probably as a result of international pressure. New Zealand as a country is actively involved in international affairs; the country has taken steps in the ratification of conventions regarding equal opportunities for women that are stipulated by international organizations. The various legislative pieces undertaken by the country strongly prohibit the gender based discrimination in employment and stipulate that both men and women who are employed in the same jobs should be paid equally.

In the few past years, New Zealand has taken in a lot of criticism for not complying with the ILO convention that demands men and women be paid equally for equal work. This principle takes into account the societal fact that leads men and women to be employed in different occupations, with tasks accomplished by women being rewarded at lower rates in comparison to tasks performed by men. ¹⁸

Since the last attempt by the labour government to ensure equal pay through the passing of the Employment Equity Act was short lived, there have been efforts to carry out the same in recent years. This is however against the back drop of a changed employment relations systems and various modifications in the existing legislative frameworks.

Existing gaps in pay equity

Evaluations conducted in the year 1977 showed that the gender gap had reduced by 6 percentage points. However, for the 25 years that followed the gap has only narrowed by a small 9% points.

A “survey carried out in June 2003 showed that the average hourly earnings by women were at 87.1% those of men”.¹⁹ The yearly figures that have been established since the year 1997 showed that gender and ethnicity earnings gap are still very much present. The Maori women earnings stood at 89.2% of their Maori male counterparts, while the pacific women earned 99.2% of the pacific men’s average. ²⁰

A study carried out by the department of labour identified four factors that may be contributing to the prevailing gender pay gap. The identified factors include:

The first factor was the children who depend on their parents in the households.

This factor was estimated to be responsible for 10% of the gender pay gap The second contributing factor was identified as the parity in the education level between males and females. This factor contributed between 0-10 percent of the gender pay gap. The third factor identified was the differences in the number of years spend in the workforce. The factor was thought to contribute to between 15 and 50% of the gender pay gap. The last factor identified by the department of labour was occupational segregation between the sexes. This was estimate to contribute to between 20-40% of the gender pay gap.

These findings do not explain the entire gender pay gap. Since then, there have been some achievements in reducing the gap as it pertains to the first three contributing factors. However, there is a policy vacuum that can enable that can effectively address occupational segregation.

Policies that have been enacted in the new millennium such as enhanced childcare provision and the legislation on payment on parental leave are expected to reduce the gender pay gap by some points. As much as there are children who depend on their parents in the household, the sharing of responsibilities in the house may also reduce the percentage of the gap contributed by this factor.

The achievements attained by women in education since the 1980s has also steadily contributed to the reduction in the gender pay gap in this respect. This not withstanding, the results of the 2001 census showed that there was parity in the earnings between women and men at all levels of education. The women earned less than their male counterparts even though they had same educational qualification. After leaving learning centres and spending approximately five years in the work environment, the gender pay gap across all fields was seen to average approximately $10,000 every year. ²¹ This gap was attributed to the factor that most women graduates are usually young and therefore the childbearing breaks significantly affect them. It was further established that the investment in education by women was not profitable as compared to their male counterparts. This was due to the fact that women were likely to pay their education debts more slowly from their lesser earnings.

In New Zealand there are small wage differences for men and women in similar work groups. Thus the gap can be closed as the women gain more years of work experience. However, this is not true for other countries. Researches contacted in other countries indicate that this gap usually lessens to stabilize at the middle age, and this is often seen at various levels of education.

Studies indicate that educational attainment levels continue to be a major “contributing factor in the wage gaps seen among the Maori and Pacific populations, however, in both groups their are no visible differences in the educational attainment between men and women” ²². Uniformity is seen in the Maori and pacific genders up to the tertiary level of education. However, as soon as the males and females in the two groups join the labour market, the gender and ethnic disparities begin to emerge. Among workers who are employed on full time basis, it is seen that women in the Maori and Pekeha communities who have attained tertiary education earn significantly less than the males who are working on full time basis and have attained tertiary education.

It has also been established that the Maori men are seen to earn lesser than their Pekeha counterparts. The Maori women also earn significantly less than their Pekeha counterparts. This finding was attributed to the fact that the Maori women have a tendency to be concentrated in the female occupations that are paid less²⁸. This is also true for the males, whereby the Maori men are mainly concentrated in the lower paying but nevertheless male occupations.

Most existing policies are aimed at addressing the work-related differences that are seen between men and women. The formulated policies are slowly showing some gains by narrowing gap between female and male pay rates. A study carried back in 1998 “showed that equal distribution between males and female in the labour market may be achieved in approximately 75 years”. ²³ The studies carried out by the Labour Department and graduate studies indicate that there exist lower earnings in the occupations, professions and the labour sectors that are dominated by women. ²⁴ This is partly explained by the subject choice by women in schools which often lead them into lower earning careers. However, recent theories have tended to focus on the work and family balance factors but do not offer an explanation as to why it’s only the female dominated professions that are found to be worth less than those that are male dominated ⁴⁰. For a long there has not been a policy in place to address the association between professional differences and lesser pay for women. ²⁵

A recent survey conducted showed that the gender pay gap is still a thorny issue in New Zealand. The government of New Zealand through the ministry of women affairs recognizes that the causes of the gender gap are so complex and there seems to be no simple remedies to the problem. In 2009, it was established that the medially hourly earning for women were at 88.7% those of men. ²⁶ This represented a gender pay gap of 11.3% since 1998 when the first gap was determined by the income survey. This shows that there has been a very small progress in the past decade. When the measurement is conducted through the full-time median hourly earnings, the result shows that the pay gap remains firmly at 12%. A world wide survey conducted in 2008 placed New Zealand among the countries with the lowest pay gap values. New Zealand’s 8% was the third lowest among the 26 OECD countries that were included in the survey. ²⁷

The Department of Labour’s pay and Employment Equity Unit (PEEU) took major steps to design and produce toolkits and a range of other practical methods through which the sate and other employers can effectively monitor employment equity in the labour market. ²⁸ All pay surveys carried out between 2005 and 2009 identified pay gaps that varied between 3 and 35%. The functions of the “PEEU were discontinued in 2009. However, the pay and employment equity toolkits are still available for employers who access them” through the Department of labour website. ²⁹

The New Zealand Government is on the forefront to ensure that equal pay is implemented through various planning processes. In May 2009, the ministry of woman affairs budget was boosted by 12% to carry out a comprehensive study on the issues that relate and contribute to the gender pay gap.

Challenges on the achievement of equal pay for equal value of work in New Zealand

Research studies carried out by the ILO and other agencies show that segregation at the place of work along sex is a factor that is deeply entrenched in the labour markets, and a leading source of market inflexibility and economic ineffectiveness. Studies indicate that if a given industry is characterised by higher concentration of women or a certain ethnic minority, a lower average pay must always come up.

Data collected over a period of time has shown that “women in New Zealand are commonly employed as sales assistants, secretaries, primary school teachers, general clerks, registered nurses, receptionists, caregivers, retail managers and general cleaners”.³⁰ The ten most common “employments for men include sales assistants, slaughterer, general managers, labourers, dairy farmers, builders/contractors, retail managers and truck drivers”.³¹ The census results for the 2001 showed that there were higher concentrations of the Maori and pacific males and females in some of the most common jobs for both sexes.

The policies formulated to address the issue of job preference by men or women or members of certain ethnic groups do not take into account the nature of the jobs.

For instance, the jobs that are undertaken by women are always considered to be of lower value than those done by men. It has been shown that many professions in which women are crowded in can be related to the traditional roles that were or are still being play by women. Some scholars say that due to the fact that the traditional roles of women are often unpaid, there efforts may always be viewed as some of their natural traits rather than professional skills relevant for the different types of work they perform.

Furthermore, the recognition of a work skill often depends on the social power of the members of the society who perform the work and this includes the strength of their unions. The principle of “equal pay for work of equal value addresses the occupational differences factor of the gender pay gap at which it’s seen to occur”. ³² The objective is usually to evaluate how a skill is valued, the required responsibilities, the effort required and other requirements of the job to ensure that the resulting gender pay differentials can be justified and not to rely on the underlying social assumptions. Gender neutral analysis conducted in other countries has shown that there is a tendency to under value many jobs performed by women. Lower pay in the occupations that are dominated by women or individuals from an ethnic minority can thus be considered to be a form structural discrimination.

Cases involving equal pay or equal employment opportunity are often used to refer to a direct case of discrimination of a certain individual by his/her employer.

Equal pay for work performed of equal value addresses a different concept all together. The segregation of jobs in the labour market according to gender, and the subsequent lower pay for jobs that are regarded as female jobs is a structural feature that works against women. Historically, the social patterns have moulded the market dynamics for the “different types of jobs to put women or ethnic minorities to a disadvantage”.³³ It is usually observed that when women invade a male dominated occupation the higher pay that characterises the job is often degraded.

In other countries, various policies that address human rights or employment issues have impacted differently on the gender related pay differentials. The common observation is that a policy that is designed to address work place issues is not always effective when it comes to addressing gender based pay differentials that are linked to occupational preferences according to sex. Equal pay for work of equal value demands that the skills, responsibilities and required efforts for a given work together with the working conditions are critically evaluated. This way comparison can be done between jobs that are typically done by men and those that are typically done by women to see whether there are any inconsistencies based on the skills, efforts and levels of responsibility. Thus an effective policy must take into account the comparison across-firms and across-occupations to see whether there is any form of structural discrimination. ³⁴

Identification of differences between discrimination arising directly and that which is structure based is also vital if wage adjustment is to be undertaken.

Correction of individual’s pay discrimination ensures that his/her wage is harmonised with that of other employees and thus eliminates the disadvantage for that particular individual in comparison to other employees. However, if the employer is offering a wage that is undervaluing the skills and responsibilities in jobs performed by women, then the female workers are clearly at a disadvantage.

The huge number of small companies in New Zealand has also contributed to the prevailing design of pay equity in the country. In a study carried out in 2002, it was established that approximately 92% of companies had less that 10 staff members but accounted for more than a third of New Zealand’s workforce.

New Zealand has also failed in the by the way it has approached the issue of pay equity in the past. For instance, the country has not considered the equal rights or the employment rights as part of the larger human rights. The policies that have been formulated to safeguard human rights and employment rights operate in a parallel manner. The two systems are seen offer some form of redress to complainants and an individual is obliged to decide whether to use the human rights channel or the employment systems channel. They are currently more focused on solving personal complaints rather than make decisions that are far reaching in the society. Thus as argued earlier, they have failed to offer social justice against the structural discrimination earnings that affects women. Employment conditions and “human rights aspects are important in addressing the equity pay through policy framework”.³⁵ Human rights philosophies take into account the necessity of respect and dignity for all members of the society, but have in most cases focused on the individual rather than address issues facing various groups in the society.

Currently, the international concerns on human rights have included policies that not only focus on the rights aspects but also on economic development. The argument is now that women as a social group are entitled to the basis human right to achieve what they desire to achieve. This view also “takes into account individual factors such as safety and health care but also advocates the provision of external conditions that are relevant for an individual to fully realize their capabilities”.³⁶

This argument makes sense to the human capabilities framework that is currently being utilized to look into the how the skills of the New Zealand work force can be enhanced. Under such framework, there needs to be an evaluation as to whether the current skills in the careers fields that a peculiar to women are being under-evaluated and thus not rewarded fully.

Current efforts to address pay Equity in New Zealand

There are several mechanisms put in place by the Department of labour and the Ministry of Women affairs to address the issue of gender pay equity in New Zealand.

The pay and employment equity review process

The department of labour has designed a four step review process that is intended to help organisations to determine if the reward and the undertakings in the different categories jobs are susceptible to gender influence, and to identify whether there are any inconsistencies between the treatment of men and women in regard to respect and fairness.

The review process is designed to gather both qualitative and quantitative data to determine how a given organisation is performing as far as equal pay is concerned.

The review process is also designed to identify opportunities through which the pay for women can be progressed and employment equity achieved in various firms. The process is transparent and includes the efforts of various stakeholders such as unions, employers and employees.

The review process is outlined as follows: The first stage is the preparation. In this stage, a project manager is identified and the process set in motion by the formation of a representative committee. The manager in charge of the project is tasked with preparing the base data that is needed to role out the first meeting of the committee. The “base data is built by analysing and distributing the staff surveys and running the Pay and Employment Equity Analysis Tool (PEEAT) that makes use of the pay role data”.³⁷ Members of the committee are trained under the supervision of the project manager using the provided training packages. The staffs of the firm under review are adequately informed about the need for the review and why they should participate.

The second stage consists of four steps that are followed to produce the report. Each of the steps followed makes up a chapter in the report that will be produced. The first step or chapter one expounds on the gender situation of the organisation under review and highlights major gender issues. The second chapter mainly offers an explanation on the major gender differences observed^. The third chapter takes the route of moving towards gender equity by designing a solution for the problems that have been revealed. The last chapter or step four describes and analyses the process that was followed to conduct the review.

The third stage of the review process is the implementation. This takes place after the firm has produced the review report and formulated a strategic plan to oversee the implementation of employment and equity pay for women. The momentum of implementation is maintained by regular reporting to the CEO and the employees ².

Equitable Job Evaluation Systems

As defined earlier job evaluation can be regarded a systematic process that is employed to determine the size of a job in relation to other jobs. The current systems utilized by the department of labour can be used to identify disparities in the remuneration rates within and between organisations. Job evaluation is recognised internationally as an important tool for the determination of gender disparities that exist between jobs.

The equitable job evaluation systems was designed and developed by the department of labour using a qualified team that is conversant with matters regarding job evaluations and gender equity. It was specifically designed to address the factors that are likely to give rise to gender discrimination in the workplace.

The equitable job “evaluation system is composed of: A factor plan together with the weightings; a fully explained user’s guide that that is required to help in the implementation, application and administration of the system”.³⁸ The system also includes a questionnaire that is utilised in the collection of the data needed to address all the inequality factors. Finally, the equitable job evaluation systems provide education and training modules that give the necessary skill to those who collect and evaluate data. It enables them to be adequately informed of what constitutes gender discrimination.

Working partnerships

Partnerships of employers, employees and unions are thought to bring together comprehensive views that are necessary in the realisation of gender based pay and employment equity.³⁹

The group always identifies ways through which comfortable interactions are maintained in order to develop and achieve common understanding on the issues regarding pay equity. The aim is to create a conducive environment through which members can freely air their views in order to pin point areas where there are problems.

The group is thus required to agree on a joint purpose in order to formalise the reasons as to why the partnership meetings are being held or carried out. They group should then develop a clear “understanding about the parameters, uses of the information, the communication strategies, constituencies and mandates”.⁴⁰

Some of the roles of the groups need to be discussed and agreed upon by the members. The group needs to appoint a facilitator of meetings who member the project manager or any other suitable person.

Conclusion

The primary purpose of this paper was to establish whether the equal pay convention that was ratified by New Zealand in 1983 went on to ensure the delivery of social justice to women in the New Zealand Society. The paper has traced all the major events in regard to the employment opportunities and pay equity from the time before and after the ratification of the equal pay convention in order to get a clear picture as to whether the ratification of the ILO convention on equal pay for work of equal value by New Zealand has delivered social justice to women.

It has been established the issue of equal pay for equal value of work remains a thorny issue in the New Zealand society up to date. Women still earn less than their male counterparts irrespective of the fact that they are equally qualified and produce work of similar value.

The government of New Zealand through the Department of labour and the ministry of women affairs has really put in a great deal of effort to address the equal pay for work of equal value. However, the efforts have yielded very little in a very long time.

There still needs more policy actions to effectively address the gender based pay gaps in New Zealand. It cannot be assumed that the established structural inequalities will resolve themselves. The current efforts will go a long way in addressing the issue but the policy gap needs to be filled to have a long lasting solution to the occupational discrimination faced by women in New Zealand. However, if comprehensive overhaul of the existing policies is not undertaken then it will take a long time for the desired outcomes to be realized.

This paper has indeed shown that the ratification of the ILO equal pay for work of equal value convention by New Zealand has not fully addressed the issue of equal pay for women and thus it can be said that social justice has not been fully achieved by Women of New Zealand in this aspects

Bibliography

Books

Baker, M, & F Nicole, Does comparable worth work in a decentralised labour market? Working Paper No.7937, National Bureau of Economic Research, Department of Economics, University of Toronto, Toronto, 2000.

Burns, J, & M Coleman, Equity at Work: An Approach to Gender Neutral Job Evaluation, State Services Commission and Department of Labour, Wellington, 1991.

Burton, C, R Hag, & G Thompson, Pay Equity and Job Evaluation in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1987.

Figart, D, & P Kahn, Contesting the Market: Pay Equity and the Politics of Economic Restructuring, Wayne State University, Detroit, 1997.

Gordon, L, & M Morton, Women: Well educated and poorly paid: Gender pay discrimination in the Public Service, Women’s Studies Conference, Christchurch, 2000.

Kristin H, Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights, and the Right to Self-Determination, Brook house, Wellington, 2000.

Maani, S, Secondary and tertiary educational attainment and income levels for Maori and non-Maori over time, Department of Economics, University of Auckland, Auckland, 2000.

McCann, M, Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1994.

Journal Articles

Anker, R, ‘Theories of occupational segregation by sex: An overview’ International Labour Review, vol. 136, no. 3, 1997, pp. 315-339.

Anderson, G, ‘The role of international labour standards’ Employment Law Bulletin, vol.2, 2002, pp.21-23.

Blackburn, R, J. Browne, B Brooks & J Jarman, ‘Explaining gender segregation’ British Journal of Sociology, vol. 53, no. 4, 2002, pp. 513-536

Fellmeth, A, ‘State regulation of sexuality in international human rights law and theory’ William and Mary Law Review, vol. 50, no.3, 2008, pp. 797.

Hakim, C, ‘Lifestyle preferences as determinants of women’s differentiated labour market careers’ Work and Occupations, vol.29, no. 4, 2002, pp. 428-459.

Hartmann, H, & S Aaronson, ‘Pay equity and women’s wage increases: Success in the States, a model for the nation’ Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, vol. 1, 1994, pp. 69-87.

Hill, L, ‘The politics of pay equity’ Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 9, no.2, 1993, pp. 87-113.

Jivan, V, & C Forster, ‘Challenging conventions: in pursuit of greater legislative compliance with CEDAW in the Pacific.’ Melbourne Journal of International Law, vol.10, no.2, 2009, pp.655.

Kellerson, H, ‘The ILO Declaration of 1998 on fundamental principles and rights: A challenge for the future’ International Labour Review, vol. 137, no. 2, 1998, pp. 223-227.

Kidd, M, & T Goninon, ‘Female concentration and the gender wage differential in the UK’ Applied Economic Letters, vol.7, 2000, pp. 337-340.

Kovach, K, ‘An overview and assessment of comparable worth based on a large scale implementation’ Public Personnel Management, vol. 26, no. 1, 1997, pp. 109-122.

Liu, D, & E Boyle, ‘Making the case: The women’s convention and equal employment opportunity in Japan’ International Journal of Comparative Sociology, vol. 42, no.4, 2001, pp. 389-404.

NeJaime, D, ‘Winning through losing.’ Iowa Law Review, vol. 96, no. 3, 2011, pp. 941.

Phillips, A, & B Taylor, ‘Sex and skill: Notes towards a feminist economics’ Feminist Review, vol. 6, 1980, pp. 79-88.

Trachtman, J, ‘The WTO cathedral’ Stanford Journal of International Law, 43.1 (2007): 127+. LegalTrac.

Westbrook, J, ‘A global solution to multinational default.’ Michigan Law Review, vol.98, no. 7, 2000, pp. 2276.

Wilson, M, ‘Contractualism and the Employment Contracts Act 1991: Can they deliver equality for women?’ New Zealand Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 19 no. 3, 2003, pp. 256-274.

Wilson, M, ‘Making and repeal of the Employment Equity Act’ Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 1993, pp. 68-87.

Reports

Barnett, J, & P Briggs, Occupational Sex Segregation: A New Zealand Investigation, Report for the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Wellington, 1998.

Department of Labour, Human Capability: A Framework for Analysis, Wellington, 1999.

Department of Labour, International Labour Conventions Ratified by New Zealand, International Services and Legal Group, Wellington, 2008.

Department of Labour, New Zealand Report on ILO Convention 100: Equal Remuneration, 2000-2002, Department of Labour, Wellington, 2002.

Gosse, M, The gender pay gap in the New Zealand public service, Working.

Griffin, K, & T McKinley, Towards a human development strategy, Occasional Paper 6, UN Development Programme, Geneva, 1992.

Gunderson, M, ‘The evolution and mechanics of pay equity in Ontario’ Canadian Public Policy, 37, 2002, pp. 117-131.

Human Rights Commission, New Zealand Action Plan for Human Rights: Priorities for Action 2005-2010. Human Rights Commission, Wellington, 2005.

ILO Committee of Experts, CEACR: Individual observation and specific request on Convention No.100, Equal Remuneration, 1951: New Zealan,d ILO Committee of Experts, Geneva, 2001.

Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Next steps towards pay equity: A background paper, Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Wellington, 2002.

Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Next steps towards pay equity: A discussion document, Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Wellington, 2002.

Moyle, j, & C Henry, Research on the wages and Costs of Education and Training, Ministry of Women affairs, Wellington, 2006.

Paper No.15, State Services Commission, Wellington, 2002.

Internet Sources

CEDAW Committee, Statement to Commemorate the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Adoption of CEDAW: the failure of CEDAW to achieve even de jure equality was due to ‘discriminatory social norms, cultural practices, traditions, customs and stereotypical roles of men and women. CEDAW, 2004. Web.

NZ Council of Trade Unions, Submission on ‘Next steps toward pay equity. NZ Council of Trade Unions 2002. Web.

Footnotes

1. Anker R ‘Theories of occupational segregation by sex: An overview’ International Labour Review, vol. 136, no. 3, 1997, pp. 315.
2. Anderson G ‘The role of international labour standards’ Employment LawBulletin, vol.2, 2002, at 23.
3. Blackburn R, J Browne, B Brooks & J Jarman, ‘Explaining gender segregation’ British Journal of Sociology, vol. 53, no. 4, 2002, at 514.
4. Burns J, & M Coleman, Equity at Work: An Approach to Gender Neutral Job Evaluation, State Services Commission and Department of Labour, Wellington, at 34.
5. Burton, C, R Hag, & G Thompson, Pay Equity and Job Evaluation in Australia, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, 1987. At 87.
6. Gordon, L, & M Morton, Women: Well educated and poorly paid: Gender pay discrimination in the Public Service, Women’s Studies Conference, Christchurch, 2000. At 23.
7. McCann, M, Rights at Work: Pay Equity Reform and the Politics of Legal Mobilization, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1994. At 102.
8. Phillips, A, & B Taylor, ‘Sex and skill: Notes towards a feminist economics’ Feminist Review, At 12.
9. Gunderson M, ‘The evolution and mechanics of pay equity in Ontario’ Canadian Public Policy, 37, 2002, At 74.
10. Hartmann H, & S Aaronson, ‘Pay equity and women’s wage increases: Success in the States, a model for the nation’ Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy, vol. 1, 1994, at 69.
11. Hill L, ‘The politics of pay equity’ Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 9, no.2, 1993, At 87.
12. Figart D, & P Kahn, Contesting the Market: Pay Equity and the Politics of Economic Restructuring, Wayne State University, Detroit, 1997.
13. Gosse M, The gender pay gap in the New Zealand public service, Working Paper No.15, State Services Commission, Wellington, 2002, At 76.
14. Kristin H, Devising an Adequate System of Minority Protection: Individual Human Rights, Minority Rights, and the Right to Self-Determination, Brook house, Wellington, 2000, At 107.
15. Barnett, J, & P Briggs, Occupational Sex Segregation: A New Zealand Investigation, Report for the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Wellington, 1998. At 28.
16. Wilson M, ‘Contractualism and the Employment Contracts Act 1991: Can they deliver equality for women?’ New Zealand Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 19 no. 3, 2003, At 55.
17. Wilson M, ‘Making and repeal of the Employment Equity Act’ Women’s Studies Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 1993, At 87.
18. Department of Labour, Human Capability: A Framework for Analysis, Wellington, 1999. At 17.
19. Kovach K, ‘An overview and assessment of comparable worth based on a large scale implementation’ Public Personnel Management, vol. 26, no. 1, 1997, At 578.
20. NZ, Council of Trade Unions, Submission on ‘Next steps toward pay equity. NZ Council of Trade Unions 2002, At 37.
21. Hakim C, ‘Lifestyle preferences as determinants of women’s differentiated labour market careers’ Work and Occupations, vol.29, no. 4, 2002, At 450.
22. Moyle j, & C Henry, Research on the wages and Costs of Education and Training, Ministry of Women affairs, Wellington, 2006. At 117.
23. CEDAW Committee, Statement to Commemorate the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Adoption of CEDAW: the failure of CEDAW to achieve even de jure equality was due to ‘discriminatory social norms, cultural practices, traditions, customs and stereotypical roles of men and women. CEDAW, 2004, At 48.
24. Maani, S, Secondary and tertiary educational attainment and income levels for Maori and non-Maori over time, Department of Economics, University of Auckland, Auckland, 2000.At 34.
25. Department of Labour, New Zealand Report on ILO Convention 100: Equal Remuneration, 2000-2002, Department of Labour, Wellington, 2002. At 27.
26. Liu D, & E Boyle, ‘Making the case: The women’s convention and equal employment opportunity in Japan’ International Journal of Comparative Sociology, vol. 42, no.4, 2001,At 57.
27. Kidd M, & T Goninon, ‘Female concentration and the gender wage differential in the UK’ Applied Economic Letters, vol.7, 2000, At 348.
28. Griffin K, & T McKinley, Towards a human development strategy, UN Development Programme, Geneva, 1992. At 27.
29. Kellerson H, ‘The ILO Declaration of 1998 on fundamental principles and rights: A challenge for the future’ International Labour Review, vol. 137, no. 2, 1998, At 228.
30. NeJaime D, ‘Winning through losing.’ Iowa Law Review, vol. 96, no. 3, 2011, pp. 941. Westbrook, J, ‘A global solution to multinational default.’ Michigan Law Review, vol.98, no. 7, 2000, At 2276.
31. Trachtman J, ‘The WTO cathedral’ Stanford Journal of International Law, 43.1 (2007): 127+. LegalTrac. retreaved 25 April, 2011. Fellmeth, A, ‘State regulation of sexuality in international human rights law and theory’ William and Mary Law Review, vol. 50, no.3, 2008, At 43.
32. ILO Committee of Experts, CEACR: Individual observation and specific request on Convention No.100, Equal Remuneration, 1951: New Zealand ILO Committee of Experts, Geneva, 2001. At 87.
33. Human Rights Commission, New Zealand Action Plan for Human Rights: Priorities for Action 2005-2010. Human Rights Commission, Wellington, 2005, At 116.
34. Baker, M, & F Nicole, Does comparable worth work in a decentralised labour market? Working Paper No.7937, National Bureau of Economic Research, Department of Economics, University of Toronto, Toronto, 2000. at 56.
35. Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Next steps towards pay equity: A discussion document: A background paper, Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Wellington, 2002, at 16.
36. Jivan V, & C Forster, ‘Challenging conventions: in pursuit of greater legislative compliance with CEDAW in the Pacific.’ Melbourne Journal of International Law, vol.10, no.2, 2009, At 655.
37. Department of Labour, International Labour Conventions Ratified by New Zealand, International Services and Legal Group, Wellington, 2008. At 23.
38. Fellmeth A, ‘State regulation of sexuality in international human rights law and theory’ William and Mary Law Review, vol. 50, no.3, 2008, At 797.
39. Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Next steps towards pay equity: A background paper, Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Wellington, 2002, At 45.
40. Department of Labour, Human Capability: A Framework for Analysis, Wellington, At 23.

Social justice is a serious concern in the United States, as some vulnerable groups are still deprived of various opportunities (Ardelt & Friedman, 2015). It is necessary to note that much has been done to ensure equality when it comes to health care. For instance, Medicare can be regarded as one of the most important initiatives that help many people including such vulnerable groups as the elderly (Ardelt & Friedman, 2015). Nevertheless, elderly people of color are less satisfied with the care provided (as compared to white older adults), and they are less likely to use all the services available to older adults (Wiesel & Weinberger, 2015). Some of the major values of a democratic society include equal access to available resources and equal treatment of people irrespective of their backgrounds. This paper includes a brief overview of the literature available on the social injustice experienced by the elderly with a focus on ethnic minorities and available resources and services. This paper also discusses a few ways to minimize this injustice.

Review of the Literature

Wiesel and Weinberger (2015) explored older adults’ experiences associated with the use of healthcare services. The authors stress that elderly ethnic minority groups are characterized as having limited knowledge of available services, low expectations, and an inability to advocate their own needs (Wiesel & Weinberger, 2015). Thus, elderly patients of color often receive a limited number of services that are insufficient to meet their health needs. When this occurs, two basic ethical standards are violated: people are not treated equally, and people are not respected since their individual needs are not met.

Some Jesuit values that are not followed in these circumstances are Cura Personalis and men and women for others. Although certain efforts have been made to ensure equality in health care, some initiatives associated with these efforts are seen negatively younger generations who think that they care for the elderly is excessive while thousands of American children are behind the poverty line (Ardelt & Friedman, 2015). These researchers stress that the elderly benefit from the federal subsidies provided within Medicare. One problem is that the provision of funds does not ensure equality in the health care system. This is an injustice because elderly minorities are not receiving adequate care. It violates provisions 4 and 5 of the nurse’s ethical code.

Apart from the ethical standards mentioned above, the injustice in question is associated with the violation of another value. Teaching is inefficient or even non-existent. There can be no agents of change when people are unaware of proper practices, standards, regulations, and so on. The Elder Justice Act (EJA) stipulates training to improve healthcare services provided to the elderly (Kleba & Falk, 2014).

Application to Nursing

The existing injustice causes numerous inconveniences to the affected populations and contributes to the development of disparities in society. However, this injustice can be minimized through the adherence to ethical standards and regulations aimed at ensuring social justice. First, it is essential to focus on the training of healthcare professionals. Researchers such as Rosen et al. (2016) and Kleba and Falk (2014) emphasize the importance of proper education and training. EJA is an excellent platform for the development of effective incentives. Some on the job training and certain courses have proven to be effective, but they are still insufficient as even those who receive training often fail to use the most appropriate strategies. Rosen et al. (2016) found that only slightly over 12% of nursing professionals of a nursing home used appropriate strategies to address the needs of their patients. It is critical to include social injustice into the nursing curriculum. Students should know the peculiarities of the populations in question and should be aware of practices and services available to those patients.

Importantly, healthcare professionals should be committed to educating patients. Nurses spend more time with patients as compared to other healthcare practitioners. Some parts of this time should be devoted to patient education and the provision of the most relevant information. Nurses should make sure that all patients know about the available services and resources. Nurses can provide leaflets with certain information appropriate for different groups (differentiated by a health condition, gender, age, ethnicity, and so on). Nursing professionals can be specifically helpful when it comes to long-term care as they have time to develop proper relationships. Nurses should be trained accordingly (Wiesel & Weinberger, 2015). These healthcare professionals should obtain up-to-date information concerning the existing opportunities of such a vulnerable group as the elderly. Of course, there can be no bias or prejudice. Nurses should treat all patients equally irrespective of their age, ethnicity, gender, and other (Kleba & Falk, 2014).

It is impossible to provide all the necessary information to patients – nurses are overloaded with tasks and, more importantly, it can be difficult to understand the needs of every patient. Wiesel and Weinberger (2015) offer the use of a specific framework for assessing patients’ needs. These researchers argue that this framework can help healthcare professionals identify the services that can be the most beneficial for the patient. Therefore, it is possible to use this framework or to develop some tools on its basis. Some of the Jesuit values that apply here are Cura Personalis and men and women for others.

Conclusion

It is fair to say that the existing regulations, incentives, and practices aimed at the development of a truly fair healthcare system are not sufficient some groups are still treated differently than others. It is essential to incorporate social justice into the curriculum, improve on-the-job training, and develop the appropriate organizational culture in healthcare facilities. Elderly minority groups are vulnerable, as these populations often fail to use some benefits of the healthcare system, governmental programs, and regulations to meet their healthcare needs. The major barrier to the equal use of services is the lack of knowledge.

In simple terms, elderly minority groups do not know about opportunities or resources available to them and are reluctant to ask healthcare professionals for help (Wiesel & Weinberger, 2015). There are several ways to improve this situation. Nurses can be the major agents of change, as they spend a considerable amount of time with patients. Nurses have the necessary information concerning healthcare services, and they often develop appropriate relationships because patients trust them and follow their advice. Nurses should feel empowered to bring changes to the healthcare facilities, which can be achieved through training and the use of effective leadership. Therefore, the existing regulations and programs (such as Social Security and the EJA) should be expanded. More attention should be paid to the training of healthcare staff, which will be provided through formal education and on-the-job training.

Rubric Scholarly Paper: Social Injustice in the Geriatric Population

Paper Grade: % = Points (15 possible)

Comments

Guidelines for Grammar Grading

References

Ardelt, M., & Friedman, H. L. (2015). Social justice issues in gerontology and psychology. In C. V. Johnson, & H. L. Friedman (Eds.), The Praeger handbook of social justice and psychology (pp. 191-223). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Kleba, P., & Falk, N. (2014). The Elder Justice Act. American Journal of Nursing, 114(9), 65-68.

Rosen, T., Lachs, M., Teresi, J., Eimicke, J., Van Haitsma, K., & Pillemer, K. (2016). Staff-reported strategies for prevention and management of resident-to-resident elder mistreatment in long-term care facilities. Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect, 28(1), 1-13.

Wiesel, T. W., & Weinberger, M. I. (2015). Psychosocial issues in an elderly minority population. In J. C. Holland, T. W. Wiesel, C. J. Nelson, A. J. Roth, & Y. Alici (Eds.), Geriatric psycho-oncology: A quick reference on the psychosocial dimensions of cancer symptom management (pp. 145-151). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Introduction

The US health care is often regarded as an example of various atrocities of the capitalistic system. However, social justice within the healthcare system is a debatable topic that needs a comprehensive approach. Fourie (2012) notes that social justice is not confined to the distribution of resources although this area is central. Social justice can be achieved when all groups have equal attitudes towards the way resources are distributed. This goal can hardly be achieved.

Main Body

For instance, the level of poverty in the USA is on the rise, and many people simply have no funds to purchase their health insurance (Almgren & Lindhorst, 2012). They also have no employment opportunities that could ensure the availability of health insurance for them. At the same time, it is not fair that some people have to pay for other patients as hospitals cannot provide their services for free. One of the possible solutions to this issue is the development of a mixed system where private and socialized medicine are combined.

The majority of people should have health insurance, but those who do not have enough resource can be treated at governmental healthcare facilities. These hospitals will provide care addressing such health issues as acute issues, infectious diseases, and the like. Private healthcare facilities will provide a wide range of high-quality healthcare services. In this case, people who have insurance will be able to receive proper care while those who have no funds will also be treated. Clearly, the issue is not confined to ethics or morality as it is associated with hazards to public health (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2016). Some untreated health issues can result in the spread of infectious diseases or even epidemics.

In my opinion, social justice is not confined to socialized medicine or communism. It cannot be fair that some people pay for certain services while others receive the same services free of charge. The right to wellness is indeed mentioned in the US Constitution, and many people focus on that when advocating for socialized medicine (Almgren, 2017). Nevertheless, it is expected that all people will try to contribute equally to the development of the society.

Of course, some have the necessary resources while others live in poverty. Poverty is not a result of people choice or the lack of commitment and diligence. Various factors have an impact on people’s socioeconomic status. However, it is not fair to provide the same services to all irrespective of their contribution to the society.

One of the possible solutions is the development of a system that provides the necessary minimum to people in need and offers a wide range of service to insured people. Poor people will be treated in free healthcare facilities funded by the government and charities. I believe this can become the first step towards social justice in the healthcare setting, and no magic wands are needed. The wand is necessary to make all people share similar views on the matter and be satisfied with a specific distribution pattern.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is possible to note that social justice can become a characteristic feature of the US healthcare system. It is necessary to develop a mixed system that will include different options for different groups of people. However, even in this case, true social justice will not be achieved as this complex issue needs a more comprehensive approach.

References

Almgren, G. R. (2017). Health care politics, policy, and services: A social justice analysis (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

Almgren, G. R., & Lindhorst, T. (2012). The safety-net health care system: Health care at the margins. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

Fourie, C. (2012). What do theories of social justice have to say about health care rationing? Well-being, sufficiency and explicit age-rationing. In A. Den Exter & M. Buijsen (Eds.), Rationing health care: Hard choices and unavoidable trade-offs (pp. 65-86). Portland, OR: Maklu.

Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2016). Public health nursing: Population-centered health care in the community (9th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

Provision of quality health care does not only encompass the medical practice but also includes human values such as social justice. Supporting those people who are living in low-income areas and who are under the increased risk of injuries becomes a priority for a community nurse that has a goal to improve the lives of many people and make sure that underserved areas are provided with an appropriate level of healthcare. My personal experience in working in the Durham Region Health Department DRHD, I reflected based on the nurses’ experiences and the data they collected have supported my beliefs that quality healthcare should be evenly distributed across all social layers to ensure equal treatment and care for all.

Description of the Experience

I did not have hands-on experience, but I will be discussing the information I gathered from a nurse, who has worked with people in Oshawa and information I collected from the Durham Public Health website. After reviewing what the public department has done in association with the promotion of social justice in the low-income region of Durham, Oshawa, has been rewarding in many ways. As related to my practice, understanding how DRHD provides support for underserved individuals who have restricted access to healthcare opened my eyes to many problems that people experience in their everyday life, not only with regards to healthcare.

For example, the unemployment rate in Downtown Oshawa is 15.5%; the teenage pregnancy rate is 111.1 per 1,000; 42.6% of children aged less than six years old live in low-income households while the overall percentage of residents in low-income households is 28.1%. Furthermore, the median after-tax income in this area is $32,500 and is the lowest in Durham Region (Calis, 2016). These figures speak for themselves; such statistics were the key factor that contributed to the exploration of social justice concepts and ideas in my practice.

The most meaningful component of this experience related to seeing how the nurses communicate with people, identify the main healthcare-related issues, bringing the existing inequities to light, and discovering the ways in which social disparities could be eliminated. A rewarding experience for me was the understanding how the DRDH public health nurses’ teach low-income households about their rights to quality healthcare as well as how they can administer first aid in critical situations.

According to the report of OSHA (2014), construction workers have an extremely high rate of occupational injuries, so it is important to address the risks they experience at work and develop a cohesive action plan for preventing injuries in the workplace. Sadly, when it comes to workers from low-income households, they often have a lower life expectancy, quality of life, and worth health compared to the individuals with a higher income; for them, salaries are the concern prioritized to health issues (The Health of the Low-income Workforce: Integrating Public Health and Occupational Health Approaches, 2011).

Analysis of the Experience

According to the research for World Health Organization conducted by Prah (2010), the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights guarantees the “the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health” (para. 1). This principle influenced the way I felt when reviewing the Durham website in Oshawa because I noticed that not everyone had been granted the right to enjoy the highest standard of health. While the government provides its citizens with emergency services, many low-income individuals that require treatment are not eligible for compensation because of the absence of insurance.

Overall, the low-income population is known to face inequalities in terms of access to healthcare services (The Health of the Low-income Workforce: Integrating Public Health and Occupational Health Approaches, 2011). In fact, accessibility is one of the five primary health care principles, and in the case of the underserved populations, it is unfulfilled. The provision of accessible health services is necessary to minimize the health risks of the low-income households and improve their quality of life.

If I were to educate families on what they could do to address the problem of social injustice in healthcare, I do not think many of them would respond well and may state that without financial help no one would listen to their needs. In my opinion, this thought would be prevalent among people because of their past experiences with health care and when they could not access it in time and remained underserved (AAFP, 2016).

While the process of learning more about inequalities in healthcare in the low-income region and understanding how public health nurses teach the community about how to overcome them was rewarding in many ways, there is still doubt whether the local government will adhere to the proposed changes (Gostin & Powers, 2006). Some members of the community may be very receptive to the information and care provided to them, although they may doubt that there would be some changes for the better.

Therefore, the community should cooperate with the local social justice agencies to acquire support in raising awareness about the inequities in healthcare and demanding equal healthcare standards for all, regardless of income. The statistical data on the low-income area of Oshawa informed me a lot about the problems communities encounter on a daily basis.

Personal Areas for Development

According to the article written by Grace and Willis (2012), social justice is asserted as a responsibility of the nursing professionals, who should educate themselves about implementing social justice in practice, following the essential dimensions of well-being, and promoting equal standards for providing high-quality healthcare for all representatives of the community. By exploring the Durham Public Health department’s website and reviewing the data they have, understanding the Oshawa area had a great impact on my personal and professional development because I saw that the ethical principles taught to community nurses are rarely reflected in reality when it comes to the underserved and low-income areas.

Ethics and social justice are problems of secondary concern when families struggle with earning money, have no shelter, or are forced to work in dangerous conditions to earn at least a minimal income. The idea that everyone has a right to equal treatment and a high standard of life becomes impossible to accomplish without the financial help from the outside (Canada Health Act and Its Principles, 2007).

It has become instrumental for me as a nurse to acquire more knowledge about enhancing my understanding of social justice within the context of healthcare as well as raise awareness about how can the ethical guidelines lead me to taking up other social justice endeavours (Canada Nurses Association, 2009). I would like to work with a community that struggles to live a decent life. This experience will teach me a lot about what is really valuable in life – not financial aids, but the ability to live comfortably while being treated with respect.

I think mothers want their children to be provided with appropriate accommodations in school as well as free healthcare; seniors need more community-based services that will assist them. These communities should have recognition, care, support, and equal treatment with regards to access to healthcare services.

Conclusion

The experience of understanding how public health nurses work with low-income communities in Durham Region has provided me with extensive knowledge about key problems people face. There is an increased need for offering equal access to healthcare for all members of the public, especially low-income individuals at risk of injuries. Implications for future practice are associated with finding ways to address the needs of low-income communities and cooperating with key stakeholders to raise awareness of the most significant problems and subsequently seeking support.

References

AAFP. (2016). Underserved Populations Struggle with Poverty, Disparities in Health Care. Web.

Calis, K. (2016). Knowing the neighbourhoods: Seven low-income neighbourhoods a priority in Durham Region. Web.

Canada Health Act and Its Principles. (2007). Web.

Canadian Nurses Association. (2009). Ethics in practice for Registered Nurses. Web.

Gostin, L., & Powers, M. (2006). What does social justice require for the public’s health? Public health ethics and policy imperatives. Health Affairs, 25(4), 1053-1060.

Grace, P., & Willis, D. (2012). Nursing responsibilities and social justice: An analysis in support of disciplinary goals. Nursing Outlook, 60(4), 198-207.

OSHA. (2014). Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Web.

Prah, R. (2010). Health and social justice. Web.

The Health of the Low-income Workforce: Integrating Public Health and Occupational Health Approaches. (2011). Web.

When asked about the importance of the work of a public health leader I would try to communicate the social justice perspective and values. Thus my answer must contain not only certain clichés that would help me persuade this market-justice leader in the community but also some presentation of my work. Should I specify the principles of everyday day work? I do not think it is necessary to come into the open till the end. Public health deals not only with medical assistance, medical insurance, and all that things.

The problems that exist in the modern world can really harm one’s health: horrible ecological conditions; different viruses that cannot be treated in an ordinary way and involve inpatient treatment; the active way of life presupposes contacts with other people and cause different injuries and traumas. People can get some injuries not only during their free time but also because of safety engineering violations.

As people cannot be protected in full measure from the interrelations with other people who can harm them in this or that way; can be a carrier of some virus or disease. Thus public health deals not only with the guarantee of a long healthy life but also regulate and control the death rate, try to expand the life interval, and other things that the policy of public health contains. Some people think that public health is not very important, but medicine can play a crucial role in the security of the country.

The first principle I am going to discuss is the principle of primal leadership, described in a similar article. This principle tells about the influence of the leader’s mood on the mood of all people around him/her. The essential is that people are more likely to be under the impact of a good, cheerful, and energetic mood. The sad mood and depressed feelings are not so obvious to affect other people’s moods.

A smile or laughter can make everyone around a smile or even laugh. “A leader needs to make sure that not only is he regularly in an optimistic, authentic, high-energy mood but also that, through his chosen actions, his followers feel and act that way, too” (Goleman 44). Thus the primal leader is in some way responsible for the mood and actions of his followers.

The next principle I am going to analyze is the principle of rethinking political correctness, as it is very important not to confuse lack of professionalism with racial prejudice or the absence of political correctness. “A white manager fears she will be perceived as racist if she gives critical feedback to her Latino subordinate. A black engineer passed over for promotion wonders whether his race has anything to do with it, but he’s reluctant to raise this concern lest he is seen as “playing the race card” (Ely 79). The aspect of political correctness will always be of crucial importance in a multinational country, where every member of society can be charged with political incorrectness. Employers should be attentive while working with a multinational team.

And the last principle that seems very interesting for me while regarding the issue of social justice perspective is the principle of social justice. As “It captures the twin moral impulses that animate public health: to advance human well-being by improving health and to do so by focusing on the needs of the most disadvantaged” (Gostin 1054), it is not just the matter of a common term of justice. The most important aspect of this principle is that the policy of public medical service depends greatly upon the decisions made by public health leaders.

Works Cited

Ely, J. Robin, and Debra E. Meyerson, and Martin N. Davidson. “Rethinking Political Correctness”. Harvard Business Review. 78 (9), 78-87. 2006.

Goleman, Daniel, and Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee. “Primal leadership: The Hidden Driver of Great Performance”. Harvard Business Review 79 (11), 42–51. 2001.

Gostin, O. Lawrence, and Madison Powers. “What Does Social Justice Require For The Public’s Health? Public Health Ethics and Policy Imperatives”. HEALTH AFFAIRS 25( 4), 1053-1060. 2006.

The Individual Section

HIV/AIDS has become pandemic in the twentieth century. It has been one of the primary concerns of medical institutions across the globe. In the twenty-first century, it has become a social and even political issue that is addressed by governments and non-governmental organizations. Admittedly, this disease (or rather its spread) is fostered by economic and social inequality. Disney (2004) claims that poverty and social injustice lead to the spread of HIV/AIDS among underprivileged people in all countries. Australia is no exception and there are many infected people, especially among indigenous people (Armstrong & Hayman, 2012). Altman (2008) claims that globalization is another factor that contributes to the spread of the disease as a variety of traditions and behavioral patterns can appear in different countries.

It is important to add that western societies have considerably changed since the identification of the HIV virus. First, there was a great fear as people were afraid of the virus and did not understand what it was exactly. Then there was a complete exclusion of infected people. The disease was a kind of stigma and infected people were subjected to discrimination and alienation. People were told about a variety of precautions and healthy sexual behaviors have been promoted since the end of the twentieth century (Walsh, 2011). People also believed that they had to avoid any contact with infected people. However, things have changed significantly and many understand that infected people deserve respect and assistance (Parker, 2002). Numerous initiatives and programs promote ideas of tolerance and assistance. I believe we have advanced considerably in social justice when it comes to HIV/AIDS. At present, many are eager to participate in numerous programs and initiatives aimed at helping infected people. Moreover, officials pay quite a lot of attention to the rights of infected people. Now employees cannot fire infected people, and people cannot be rejected because of their diagnosis. Of course, there is much to be done as there is quite a lot of prejudice in society. Many are still afraid to have any contact with infected people, but we are moving in the right direction.

The Discussion Part

Admittedly, the existence of such diseases as HIV/AIDS has changed the way people think about health and illnesses. HIV/AIDS spreads easily and knows no boundaries. Infected people continue living their lives but, at some point, they suffer from painful symptoms and die. The disease can affect anyone and there is no cure. Anyone can get infected and no one can feel safe. All these peculiarities of the disease made people change their views and change their attitudes towards infected people (Altman, 2008). This disease made people understand that the issues of social justice are essential. It becomes obvious that there are far too many people to ignore them. Besides, anyone can be infected and is a potential alien. This makes people more tolerant. They understand that infected people should be treated equally. Moreover, many infected people are regarded as victims of bad environment and economic inequality. The disease made people extend the boundaries of social justice. Now health care system is expected to address a lot of issues associated with social justice. Disabled people and poor people obtain more opportunities to access high-quality treatment.

It is necessary to note that any community and any country have quite specific issues of social justice to address. As far as Australia is concerned, it is essential to develop the society and make indigenous people integrated into it. Admittedly, the rate of people with HIV/AIDS among indigenous people is very high due to poverty and lack of opportunities and lack of education. Thus, the Australian government should launch a variety of incentives aimed at educating indigenous people in terms of healthy lifestyles and safe sexual behaviors. There are many issues of social justice in the international arena. Governments of all countries should pay special attention to educating people and making them understand the importance of healthy lifestyles. However, it is also essential to diminish poverty and financial inequality in all countries. Equal opportunities will help people develop proper behavioral patterns and start living healthy lives. Governments should understand that it is time to unite and address such issues as poverty and inhumane conditions in the developing world.

References

Altman, D. (2008). AIDS and the globalization of sexuality. Social Identities, 14(2), 145-160.

Armstrong, R. & Hayman, N.E. (2012). Self-determination: More than politics. The Medical Journal of Australia, 197(1), 7.

Disney, J. (2004). More challenges for public health in the fight against poverty. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 28(6), 508-509.

Parker, R. (2002). The global HIV/AIDS pandemic, structural inequalities, and the politics of international health. American Journal of Public Health, 92(3). Web.

Walsh, C. (2011). Using animation for HIV outreach in Thailand. HIV Australia, 9(1). Web.

Currently, it has been discovered that African American women are more likely to give birth to babies with low weight, as compared to American women of non-Hispanic origin. However, the researchers and physicians fail to provide a unanimous assumption concerning the reasons and preconditions of these differences. In the video, Richard David and James Collins have determined that racism, inappropriate social policies, and chronic stress are major social factors that lead to the delivery of low-weight babies among African American women.

Understanding racism implies considering various risk factors and dimensions of social influence. At this point, the scholars have discovered that higher education and income status are not always the case for explaining the higher death rates of low birth-weight children. Specifically, although women with higher education are more occupied with professional career, the chronic stress derives from the displays of unequal opportunities for minority groups.

Awareness of the fact that African Americans constitute the ethnic minority is the primary condition for moral and social pressure imposed on women (Spector, 2013). Additionally, chronic stress has negatively influenced premature development of pregnancy among all women irrespective of race. However, ethnic minorities have higher probabilities to suffer from stress disorder.

Racial discrimination is often represented as an institutionalized phenomenon, and there is a misconception about the fact that racism is in the past. In fact, the governmental reforms adopted in the past have experienced sever obstacles (Spector, 2013). According to the scholars, “in the 1980s, economic growth stagnated, and government began cutting back social programs. The impact on infant death was dramatic” (David & Collins, n. d., p. 4). With regard to these issues, it should be stressed that changes in civil rights regulations have a direct impact on the ratio of infant deaths among African American as compared to non-Hispanic population. Stress can also become the reason for restricted flow of blood to the plant, which creates obstacle to fetal growth and difficulties in premature delivery.

Currently, one should not deny the fact that racism pursues African American women throughout their lives, leading to psychological trauma and disorders. Constant pressure, therefore, contributes to wearing out human organism and diminishing the chances for delivering a health infant. Even daily encounters of African American women with instances of racism influence their moral and physical state. In this respect, although education provides equal educational opportunities, black students are still limited in their professional choices. Lower salaries paid to African Americans constitute another stress factor causing problems with health. Hence, the narrator concludes, “the impact of racism and stress on pregnancy outcomes is becoming hard to ignore” (David & Collins, n. d., p. 7). These factors are results of inappropriate racial policies.

In conclusion, it should be stressed that civil rights violation, unequal distribution of employment opportunities and chronic stress as a result of racial discrimination have had a potent impact on the infant premature delivery among African-American women. Hence, because of racism, black community perceive that they are often treated as minorities due to the past reforms and public policies introduced by the government. Therefore, unequal distribution of job opportunities causes stresses, leading to greater problems with blood supply to fetus, which leads to higher risks of low-weight baby. Overall, although racism is not recognized officially, it is still considered as an institutionalized phenomenon.

References

David, R., & Collins, J. (n. d.). Unnatural Causes: When the Bough Breaks. Web.

Spector, R. E. (2013). Cultural Diversity in Health and Illness. US: Prentice Hall.

Social justice is a relatively broad concept, the interpretation of which often depends on the political and economic views of an individual. In my opinion, a just healthcare system is designed to compensate for social inequalities and provide an adequate level of care for the disadvantaged and marginalized communities. This concept is based on the essential principles that define democratic society, where individuals are treated equally regardless of their race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation (Bhugra, 2016). Unlike socialized medicine, which pertains exclusively to government regulations, social justice can be achieved through community involvement. Nurses and other healthcare professionals play a key role in this process, as they have the power to remediate social inequalities through their work and advocacy efforts.

The US healthcare system is often criticized for its unfairness. African Americans suffer the consequences of centuries of discrimination and segregation and continue to be the least healthy ethnic minority in the country (Noonan et al., 2016). Overall, the accessibility of medical services for underserved communities remains one of the most pressing issues in American society. Even though several attempts have been made in the past to make the system more balanced through the introduction of Medicaid and Medicare programs, they have also led to the emergence of new social justice issues (Almgren, 2017). The social stigma associated with the Medicaid recipient status provides another basis for discrimination against underprivileged groups.

The prospects of a major health care reform remain vague due to polarized opinions on the topic among Democrats and Republicans. However, if such reform were introduced, and disadvantaged members of society had adequate access to medical services at all times, it would lead to several noticeable changes. For example, there would be no issues with overcrowded emergency rooms, as members of low-income households would have access to the full range of medical services. Therefore, the statistics on emergency room visitors would accurately represent the US ethnic demographics rather than serve as an indicator of economic disparities between different groups of people.

References

Almgren, G. (2017). Health care politics, policy, and services: A social justice aalysis (3^rd ed.). Springer.

Bhugra, D. (2016). Social discrimination and social justice. International Review of Psychiatry, 28(4), 336-341. Web.

Noonan, A. S., Velasco-Mondragon, H. E., & Wagner, F. A. (2016). Improving the health of African Americans in the USA: An overdue opportunity for social justice. Public Health Reviews, 37, 12. Web.

The paper demonstrates a reasonable understanding of the issue, but its coverage is lacking in several aspects. The author manages to identify sources relevant to the topic – namely, five scholarly articles from peer-reviewed journals and two books apart from that. However, the sources are not current – the newest ones are from 2014, and the majority have been published in the early 2010s. Given the lag between the submission of the article and its publication, it means that these sources most likely reflect the situation with the recruitment of foreign-educated nurses (FENs) by the end of the 2000s. As such, even though the paper satisfies the numerical requirement for the number of articles, the latter do not contain accurate information because their data is obsolete by approximately ten years.

The paper lists and briefly describes all of its sources in the “Literature Review” section, outlining their content and demonstrating how they may be relevant to the issue discussed. However, it only cites three of these sources in the discussion proper – that is, the paragraph stating the author’s position about importing nurses as a viable solution to the nursing shortage. For instance, Goodman (2005) is not quoted in the discussion at all. Hence, the author fails to a minimum of five scholarly articles while analyzing the issue and accomplishing the paper. While the sources are presented, the author only engages with some of them in the analysis. Thus, the text uses some of the selected articles to support some of the ideas regarding the issue.

The author states a clear position regarding the issue by claiming that solving the nursing shortage through the recruitment of FENs is a viable solution. However, the paper fails to provide a well-considered analysis of the pros and cons. It largely focuses on the benefits, including better access to healthcare for the population of the importing countries and higher salaries for FENS, increasing the remittances they can send home. However, the author barely touches upon the cons. Admittedly, the paper mentions the fact that FENs may face discrimination and prejudice, which is further complicated by their cultural adaptation. This is in line with the recent findings of Viken et al. (2018). However, the author does not consider the fact that an increased percentage of employed FENs corresponds to a worsened patient experience (Germak et al., 2017). Similarly, the author fails to mention that importing FENs from other countries undermines the accessibility of healthcare in said countries, which themselves may experience even worse shortages of nurses (Elhadi et al., 2020). Hence, the paper states a position but does not properly discuss the pros and cons related to the issue.

Developing of Social Justice

The author selects a suitable definition of social justice and properly cites it. It also addresses one important aspect of the issue in terms of social justice by pointing out that FENs are likely to experience racism and discrimination. At the same time, the paper does not discuss the relation of social justice to the global community. If anything, it deliberately disregards the global aspects of the issue by ignoring how the practice of importing FENs may actually worsen the nurse shortage in the providing countries (Elhadi et al., 2020). As a result, the paper does not go beyond providing and citing an operable definition of social justice and shedding light on some non-global ways in which it relates to the issue.

The author reflects on how the work influenced their future as a leader and provides several considerations that can have an impact on the professional future in this capacity. It also analyzes the research from the perspective of nursing leadership, particularly when discussing the role of leadership in countering possible discrimination and racism faced by FENs. This analysis is not particularly deep since it is only one short paragraph that applies to one aspect of the issue as related to nursing leadership, but it is present nonetheless. Apart from that, the paper also briefly discusses the role of nursing leadership.

The paper presents some of the main points of the work in the introduction section and also summarizes most of them in the conclusion section. However, the summary only includes the major claim that importing nurses is beneficial for both sender and recipient countries and does not mention the arguments developed in the text. The paper manages to adhere to the APA formatting in a slight majority of cases, but numerous deviations are present. When citing the works by their authors’ last names in the “Literature Review” section, the author does not include the date of the source publication in parentheses. Source titles in the references page are consistently capitalized instead of only using capital letters for the first words in the title and subtitle. In some cases, “and” is used instead of an ampersand when listing multiple authors, and sometimes the author uses full names instead of the initials or puts the initials before the last name. Dates for the sources mention months as well as years, which is not required by the APA for printed periodicals. As such, the paper’s formatting requires considerable improvement.

References

Elhadi, M., Msherghi, A., Alkeelani, Alsuyihili, A., Khaled, A., Buzreg, A., Boughididah, T., Abukhashem, M., Alhashimi, A., Khel, S., Gaffaz, R., Saleim, N. B., Bahroun, S., Elharb, A., Eisay, M., Alnafati, N., Almiqlash, B., Biala, M., & Alghanai, E. (2020). Concerns for low-resource countries, with under-prepared intensive care units, facing the COVID-19 pandemic. Infection, Disease, & Health, 25(4), 227–232.

Germack, H. D., McHugh, M. D., Sloane, D. N., & Aiken, L. H. (2017). U.S. hospital employment of foreign-educated nurses and patient experience: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Nursing Regulation, 8(3): 26–35.

Goodman, B. (2005). Applied leadership. Overseas recruitment and migration. Nursing Management, 12(8), 32-37.

Viken, B., Solum., E A., & Lyberg, A. (2018). Foreign educated nurses’ work experiences and patient safety – A systematic review of qualitative studies. Nursing Open, 5(4), 255-468.

In the U.S., the established system of healthcare provision is designed similarly to business organizations. Therefore, it uses similar principles in the financing, considering patients as clients, which can be perceived through such systems as insurance policies. However, health care is also often related to the idea of social justice – a term that describes the allocation of resources and benefits to people according to their needs and abilities (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2016).

The concept of social justice is not similar to such notions as communism or social medicine. In the latter, people are regarded as equal regardless of their socioeconomic status. For example, Cesur, Güneş, Tekin, and Ulker (2017) provide an example of free primary health care in Turkey, describing it as easily accessible, universal, and completely free for all members of the nation. On the other hand, social justice includes other types of care distribution, including a system based on persons’ resources and merit (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2016). I believe that the sphere of healthcare should focus on the area of social justice that increases the support for all people who need it.

The healthcare system where people have limited access to services based on their economic and social attributes is unfair. Many persons in the U.S. cannot receive preventive care or go through some life-saving procedures because of their status, race, occupation, and location. For instance, Kasper, Greene, Farmer, and Jones (2016) note that poverty is often related to race in the country. This phenomenon can be explained by the national history of racism and segregation where people from Black, Latino, and other minority communities could not have high salaries or enter the job market at all.

The process of limiting whole communities from accumulating generational wealth resulted in their inability to adapt to the new system of market-based relations quickly. Therefore, poverty, homelessness, poor living conditions, and discrimination remain significant obstacles to healthcare for some communities. Here, the main injustice of the current healthcare system lies in the limited ability of healthcare workers to serve all individuals with urgent needs (Wear, Zarconi, Aultman, Chyatte, & Kumagai, 2017). Such professionals as nurses can advocate for more accessible care and a better environment for people with socioeconomic obstacles.

The belief that the health care system needs fixing is addressed in a variety of healthcare research studies. According to the World Health Organization (2017), people have a fundamental right to health. Therefore, countries have to ensure that their residents have access to all services and items that promote or maintain health, including water, food, housing, and medical care. Furthermore, as all people should be able to manage their health to achieve the highest standard of well-being, they should all be treated equally by health providers. This is the main idea that should be implemented in the system, leading to many changes. Wear et al. (2017) suggest that equal treatment may help individuals who currently struggle with disparities and injustice based on race, gender, and status.

Kasper et al. (2016) state that this change can prevent major diseases by paying increased attention to impoverished and underserved communities. The effect may resemble the findings of Cesur et al. (2017), who highlight the decreased rates of mortality among infants, children, and the elderly. It is vital for healthcare providers to advocate for the recognition of people’s obstacles to healthcare.

References

Cesur, R., Güneş, P. M., Tekin, E., & Ulker, A. (2017). The value of socialized medicine: The impact of universal primary healthcare provision on mortality rates in Turkey. Journal of Public Economics, 150, 75-93.

Kasper, J., Greene, J. A., Farmer, P. E., & Jones, D. S. (2016). All health is global health, all medicine is social medicine: Integrating the social sciences into the preclinical curriculum. Academic Medicine, 91(5), 628-632.

Stanhope, M., & Lancaster, J. (2016). Public health nursing: Population-centered health care in the community (9th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

Wear, D., Zarconi, J., Aultman, J. M., Chyatte, M. R., & Kumagai, A. K. (2017). Remembering Freddie Gray: Medical education for social justice. Academic Medicine, 92(3), 312-317.

World Health Organization. (2017). Human rights and health. Web.