Category: Social Justice

Introduction

Prostitution is recognized as one of the oldest professions in the world, and the practice of renting and hiring female bodies for certain monetary compensation has existed in human community for thousands of years.

Regardless of the prolonged history of sex industry, it has been ignored until recently because of moral considerations. Blaming sex workers for their choice and regarding them inferior to other people, the community and legislators disregarded the instances of their assaults, not providing them with the necessary protection.

The negative attitude of the community and the criminalization of sex works made workers of his industry vulnerable and susceptible for the physical assaults of men in the street, their customers and even policemen.

Not answering the question whether a woman offering sex services in the street deserves being assaulted directly, most people do not care much of destiny of street workers and prefer to ignore the existing problem.

Rooted deep in the cultural beliefs on feminine victimization, social realities of disparity between the salaries of men and women and the legal framework criminalizing the sex industry or not giving it serious consideration, the problem of the increased vulnerability of street workers cannot be regulated through imposing certain policy measures only.

Undergoing the influence of the normative ideas about appropriate gender roles, the social and criminal justice responses to sex work diminish the basic human and civil rights of street workers, exposing them to the increased risks of moral and physical assault.

Discourse of feminine victimization

The feminist scholars claim that the attribution of the sexualized meanings to the corporeality of women within the legal discourse is the main precondition for silencing women’s problems and establishing the philosophy of female victimization in the public consciousness. The tendencies of silencing the problems of women in general and sexual workers in particular are rooted in the social and legal domains.

Smart (1990) noted that the legislative acts operate only partial and incorrect data on female reality and patriarchal relations, inadequately treating women’s experiences (p. 200).

The legislative discourse reflects the one-sided interests of men, ignoring the real state of affairs in the community. For instance, the family law treats married women as men’s dependents though in fact they return to the labor market and contribute to the family budget. As it was cited in Binion (2002), Cornell (1998) noted that women’s legal identity is bound up with the social perspectives on their traditional roles of wives and mothers due to the community patriarchy (p. 174).

In the context of phallocentric culture structured for complying with the needs of masculine imperative, the discrimination and inequality are the concepts becoming parts of not only superficial systems, including those of imposed by social and legal institutions, but also parts of the women’s unconscious and their gendered identity of victimization (Smart 1990, p. 202).

Along with feminist approach, the problem of silencing the problem of violence towards the street workers requires adopting a humanist approach for considering the main preconditions for the occurrence of the problem and the tendency to ignore it.

As it was cited in Quillen (2001), Nussbaum as the proponent of humanist feminism argued that the women’s dignity should be protected on the basis of equality of women as human beings without overemphasizing the gender-based differences (p. 92).

There is evidence that prostitution as one of the oldest professions has existed for at least 6 000 years since the human society was divided into different social classes and the patriarchal relations were established (Brown 2009).

The existing legislative discourse and practices within which the cases of violence towards the street prostitutes are silenced and ignored are rooted in the patriarchal relations and social misconceptions concerning the sexual identity of a woman and the profession of a prostitute.

The instances of violence towards street workers

Emphasizing the rising levels of street violence, the Australian media tends to silence the instances of violence towards the street prostitutes, not recognizing the rights of these women for the equal rights and safe working conditions due to their profession and social status.

The street prostitutes are one of the most disadvantaged social groups susceptible to victimization due to their social marginality and relative invisibility (Grattet & Jenness 2001, p. 697).

The main reasons for this vulnerability can be found not only in the consciousness of the criminals counting on the low degree to which the society and the criminal justice system care of what happens to a prostitute, but also in the legislative framework which allows considering a victim as unworthy of law enforcement.

The accurate statistics of the instances of violence towards street workers is missing because women are frequently afraid of approaching the police because of the possible fines and the reasonable lack of belief into the police protection.

Middendorp (2010) noted that in St Kilda which is recognized as the centre of the street sex work in Melbourne hardly a day can pass without a prostitute being robbed or seriously assaulted.

Being the most visible manifestation of the prostitution in the country, the street prostitutes count for not more than 2% of the industry but undergo additional risks due to their hazardous environment (Middendorp 2010).

Most women working in the street are physically and/or socially disadvantaged because they are frequently homeless and suffering from mental illnesses, drug and alcohol addiction (Caiazza 2005, p. 1610; Cornell 1998, p. 46).

Moreover, the sex workers are frequently abused by their dysfunctional customers, and this circumstance further complicates the issue. There is also evidence that even policemen can handle women suspected of prostitution inappropriately (Brown & Heidensohn 2000, p. 51).

In general, the established patriarchal relations and the culture of feminine victimization preconditioned the dynamics of sex industry. As a rule, women rent their bodies for earning their living because due to their personal circumstances they cannot find another way for surviving.

However, it is always demand that determines supply, and these are men accustomed to patriarchal relations, disrespecting women in general and prostitutes in the first place which makes them treat female bodies as commodities and hire them for satisfying their sexual needs.

The debates of the ethical considerations of prostitution and its negative implications for the public morality resulted in criminalizing it and making the sex workers vulnerable and susceptible to assaults.

Analyzing the cases of violence towards street workers which remain ignored, it can be stated that these are the public contempt and the criminal justice framework criminalizing their activities which undergo the influence of the normative ideas about appropriate gendered behavior of women and do not allow street prostitutes to speak out being assaulted and protect their rights.

Facing the inevitable

Taking into account the fact that the practices of criminalizing prostitution did not decrease the activities, but caused the violation of the basic human and civil rights of the street workers, it can be stated that disregard of the problem does not allow solving it.

The rights of sex workers need to be protected like the rights of the workers of other industries. The assumption that street prostitution can be eliminated through appropriate policing is only a myth because the legal restrictions are unable to prevent the individuals from wanting to purchase sexual services (Middendorp 2010).

Existing for at least 6000 years, prostitution can be possible only under the conditions of treating female bodies as commodities and general disparity between the incomes of men and women (Brown 2009). Thus, the gender-based ideology of feminine victimization and disrespect of female body are established deep in the public consciousness even though ignored due to ethical considerations, but cannot be solved through enforcing certain legal acts.

Until recently, the conceptualization of sex industry was inevitably linked to raping, limiting the prostitutes’ opportunities for receiving the same protection in case of sexual assault as other women receive because it was hard to persuade the jury that a prostitute can be raped.

Further complicating the issue, not only actual involvement into the sexual industry, but also prior history and even victim’s reputation could be taken into consideration by the jury. The situation changed only after the rape law reform taking place in late nineties when the admissibility of evidence exploring the individual’s sexual reputation in the course of the proceedings was limited (Sullivan 2007, p. 132).

Additional factors contributing to the changes in the existing legislative framework include the rise of the feminist activism and the shifts in the public attitudes towards rape and prostitution.

A clear understanding of the dynamics of industry and the main underlying causes of the problem were necessary for making the first steps in transforming the existing legislative framework from victimization towards criminal defense (Westervelt 1998, p. 2).

The phenomenon of sexual services in general and the street workers in particular should not be regarded as the consequence of women’s sexual liberation, but should rather be treated as one of professions, and the civic and labor rights of its representatives need to be observed as well as the rights of people working in other spheres.

Social response to violence towards street workers in Australia

As to the legislative system of Australia, the problem of criminalization of sex work is solved differently in different states. Prostitution is regarded as illegal activity in SA, Western Australia and Tasmania, but is legalized in NSW.

There are certain licensing programs regulating sex work in Queensland, Victoria and ACT (Kelton & Swallow 2011). The activities of public organizations play an important role in changing the Australian legislative acts and practices concerning the protection of street workers from violence and assaults.

For example, in May 2011 about 50 people organized a rally near the Parliament House at South Australia, demanding the decriminalization of all types of sex work and services in South Australia (Kelton & Swallow 2011). Considering the sex services as illegal, the legislative bodies diminish the rights of sex workers significantly.

Claiming that the current legislation on sex services bound by acts from 1930s to 1950s is outdated, Ari Reid, the manager of the Sex Industry Network admitted that the current legislation has to be reformed and Labor MP Stephanie Key was intended to introduce a bill into the Parliament for decriminalizing sex industry in SA (Kelton & Swallow 2011).

The main features to be considered in the enforcement of the bill include ensuring the equal rights and responsibilities for sex workers and separating brothels and centers of street workers from schools and places of worship (Kelton 2011).

Criminal justice response to violence towards street workers in Australia

As to Victoria, where the licensing programs are intended to control sex industry, the regulation is performed in accordance with legislative acts and laws.

Victorian legislation contains the following legal documents aimed at regulating sex workers’ behaviour, Sex Work Act 1994, Sex Work Regulations 2006, Sex Work (Fees) Regulations 2004, and Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008. The main idea of these documents is to make the prostitution legal and safe profession.

Sex Work Act (1994) is created with the purpose to control sex work in Victoria. The latest amendments were inserted on January 1, 2011. Sex Work Regulations document (2006), with amendments incorporated on December 1, 2010, is aimed at listing transmitted diseases and requirements imposed on those who work in the sex industry, implementing “safety matters relevant to the suitability of licence applicant” and “controls on the advertising by sex work service providers”, and informing about “participants to be given to the Authority by small owner-operated business” and “the form of registrar’s certificates” (p. 1).

Sex Work (Fees) Regulations (2004) are aimed at prescribing fees which are to be paid in accordance with the central document, Sex Work Act (1994). Finally, the main purpose of Public Health and Wellbeing Act (2008) is to make sure that the citizens of Victoria are aware of the health issues which may cause great problems in the future.

These legislative acts are aimed at helping people perceive the profession of sex workers and do not create them additional problems. The understanding from the side of the society may help reduce the rate of violent acts and prejudiced attitude in the relation to prostitutes. People should know that this profession is protected with the law.

Analyzing the legal implications of the above-discussed acts, it can be stated that regardless of certain progress in regulating the sex industry which is made in Victoria as compared to other states where sex services are criminalized, there are certain inconsistencies in current regulations and further improvements are required for handling the existing problem of high rates of violence towards street workers.

Conclusion

The problem of the rising level of violence towards street sex workers has been silenced for a long period of time due to the legal framework criminalizing sex industry.

Undergoing the influence of the normative ideas about appropriate gendered behaviour, the social and criminal justice responses to street workers were negative. The reputation or even suspicions of involvement into the sex industry could be regarded as evidence influencing the decision of the jury.

The rise of the feminist movement and the public activity of sex workers struggling for their labour and civil rights have fostered the shifts in public consciousness and attitudes towards sex industry.

The licensing programs controlling sex industry in Victoria can be regarded as a significant step forward on the way of decriminalizing the industry. However, particular inconsistencies which can still be found in the current legislative acts require further improvements of the legislative framework.

Reference List

Binion, G. 2002, ‘Political Theory – At the Heart of Freedom: Feminism, Sex and Equality’ The American Political Science Review, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 174.

Brown, J. & Heidensohn, F 2000, Gender and policing: comparative perspectives, Palgrave Macmillan, Prahran.

Brown, V. 2009, ‘Prostitution from the female viewpoint?’, Direct Action, iss. 10. Web.

Caiazza, A. 2005, ‘Don’t bowl at night: gender, safety, and civic participation’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 1607-1631.

Cornell, D. 1998, At the heart of freedom: feminism, sex, and equality, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Grattet, R. & Jeness, V. 2001, ‘Examining the boundaries of hate crime law: disabilities and the dilemma of differences’, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, vol. 9, no. 13, pp. 653-698.

Kelton, G. & Swallow, J. 2011, ‘MP Steph Key pushes to decriminalise prostitution in SA’, Advertiser. Web.

Kelton, G. 2011, ‘Let’s give our sex workers modern rights’, Advertiser. Web.

Middendorp, C. 2010, ‘Is it OK to bash women if they are selling sex?’, Age. Web.

Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008, no. 46. Web.

Quillen, C. 2001, ‘Feminist theory, justice, and the lure of the human’, Signs, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 87-122.

Sex Work (Fees) Regulations 2004, version no. 003, S.R. no. 129. Web.

Sex Work Act 1994, version no. 070, no. 102. Web.

Sex Work Regulations 2006, version no. 010, S.R. no. 64. Web.

Smart, C. 1990, ‘Law’s Power, the Sexed Body, and Feminist Discourse’, Journal of Law and Society, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 194-210.

Sullivan, B. 2007, ‘Rape, Prostitution and Consent’, Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 127-142.

Westervelt, S. D. 1998, Shifting the blame: how victimization became a criminal defense, Rutgers University Press, Piscataway.

The Most Appealing Ideas

In Readings for Diversity and Social Justice, the authors focus on the exploration of a number of social justice issues such as racism, sexism, antisemitism, ableism, classism, and heterosexism. The ideas discussed in the book are very important in the contemporary society that faces increasing diversity rates. In a globalized society filled with representatives of different cultures, socioeconomic backgrounds, and social groups, clashes between people are rather common.

This tendency occurs due to the differing perspectives on diverse phenomena, groups, and individuals. It is appealing that the authors of this book recognized the persisting problems almost two decades ago when the book was written and decided to address them by means of targeting large groups of readers.

One of the most interesting ideas expressed by the authors is the recognition of differences between such social justice problems as ageism, ableism, sexism, and heterosexism in terms of diverse ethnicities. In other words, the authors specified that the experiences of these problems differ significantly for white individuals and people of color. In that way, the authors noted that racial and ethnic differences tend to produce impact on lives of communities in the entirety of their aspects, and thus can aggravate other social justice issues.

Another idea that I found appealing is that due to the variety of divisions and a high level of fragmentation in the modern multicultural and multinational societies, every single person can be seen as privileged in one way, as well as targeted in another way. As a result, the fight against prejudice and for equal opportunities is something to which everyone can relate. This is a common fight, so no one should exclude themselves from it.

The Implications of Ideas in the Book for Me as an Educator

As educators living and working in one of the most multinational countries of the world, we have to face diversity every day. Interestingly, the issues of diversity and inequalities started to be widely discussed only a few years ago even though the United States has been a melting pot of versatile cultural and social groups for centuries. This book signifies that it is finally the time to discuss openly the issues of diversity and controversies it brings.

The authors encourage every reader to reflect on their inner biases, track back their histories, roots, and causes, and follow the kinds of outcomes they could produce. Practically, this is one of the main implications of the ideas expressed in the book. The authors call for their readers’ critical thinking skills that can help carry out self-analysis aimed at the identification of possible stereotypes that can cripple their personal and professional lives. This is the case for educators in particular because the knowledge we share in classrooms stays in children’s heads and can make an impact. A prejudiced teacher can hurt students who belong to vulnerable groups or empower the others to hurt them.

In that way, for educators, the ideas of the authors imply that many of the current social justice problems may stem from childhoods of modern adults as the time when they failed to receive appropriate education from their teachers and parents, and thus grew up to carry around and apply harmful stereotypes damaging to some groups. Knowing about these issues today, we, as educators, can start implementing necessary changes in order to promote ethically effective moral values that can free our society from damaging biases and hurtful stereotypes.

The Ideas That I Challenge

The authors of the book under review raise a variety of very important and pressing questions in order to address some of the persisting issues in the contemporary society – the issues of social justice. I believe that the provision of equal opportunities is a necessity that is complicated by the process of globalization that boosted diversity and increased the level of fragmentation in the populations of most modern countries.

I agree that some groups and individuals are deprived of equal opportunities in different ways, and this tendency needs to be reversed and resolved in order to establish the structures in which superficial characteristics of people would not be major aspects impacting their ability of inability to succeed in personal and professional lives.

At the same time, there is one idea presented and discussed by the authors that I would like to challenge. In particular, the authors noted that, according to their perception, the term “oppression” is the most suitable one to use in reference to the deprivation of equal opportunities in the modern diverse societies. In my opinion, this term is rather harsh and does not reflect the realities precisely. However, I believe that this term was chosen as an attention-grabber that would not likely to become ignored.

Yet, alongside this quality, this term also tends to exaggerate the problems by means of associating minor issues with actual crimes against human rights. For example, it is commonly states that the contemporary women in the United States are oppressed by male domination. It can be noticed that this expression does not only exaggerate the issues faced by American women but also diminishes the problems experienced by women in developing countries who are actually oppressed, deprived or rights, and physically abused.

Introduction

In the history of mankind, the concepts of democracy and social justice have become very prominent only in the last two hundred and twenty-five years. The French Revolution and the American War of Independence contributed much to this turning point. In England, as in almost all European countries, the unlimited monarchy was the order of the day. From Magna Carta to modern times it took several centuries for the British to evolve democratic norms and they now form the basis of governments everywhere. Even then the transition from feudalistic privileges of a few to at least equal application and protection of the law for all required many struggles.

The French Revolution loudly proclaimed the ideas of Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity to the whole world as universal ideals to be achieved and practiced. The founding of the United States of America was based on the principle that all men were created equal though it took a hundred years to abolish slavery and another hundred years to bring about legal acceptance of equality among races. If this is the situation in advanced nations of the world, the plight in the newly emerging states in Africa, Asia, and Latin America can easily be imagined as to how difficult would it be to bring about social justice where people had for centuries lived under one form of oppression or the other.

Democracy and problems of social justice

A democracy guaranteeing to its citizens the political rights and participation in the government has undoubtedly its merits. But mechanically voting in the elections and very formally participating in the democratic process is not enough. What made democracy gain a universal acceptance is its sense of justice, that too, social justice. It is true that absolute equality in all respects among the members of a democratic society would be very difficult to attain. Human beings are not endowed alike and there are differences in many respects. But the perpetuation of privileges for some and denial of opportunities to others would make democracy a mockery. Social, economic, and political justice should be the ultimate concern for anyone genuinely interested in the promotion of welfare and happiness of all. We will not worry here about the different economic theories or welfare concepts but will analyze some aspects of social justice and how they could pave the way for the true realization of human values.

Historical circumstances bring about people together for the common objective of better living. The evolution of various factors in nations, therefore, varies from place to place. We have, however, racial, linguistic, gender, and economic injustices in some form or other everywhere. They inflict wounds upon the less privileged sections of the people in getting a good education or employment or even good standard of living, leave alone political power or influence.

Should merit be sacrificed for equality?

A society or a nation could make progress only if it is governed by the meritorious. There can be no two opinions on that. In order to possess leadership at any institutional expression of the state or economic organization, the right education is the surest path. Therefore, the question of equality assumes significance. In the name of equal opportunity, should we encourage then filling up of posts in government offices or in the educational portals percentage representation of different sections of the people in the state or strictly adhere to merit alone? Should university admissions freely accept affirmative action?

There are two principles, the non-discrimination principle, and leveling of the playing field principle, which is freely debated. (Roomer John E.1998). The first one would not brook interference with the merit as the sole basis because lowering the efficiency of the institutional expressions would lower the outcome in many respects. As opposed to this many have argued that age-old discriminations which have been perpetrated against some sections of the society could be eliminated only by providing a level-playing field whereby opportunity is afforded

to disadvantaged sections to come up. In other words, affirmative action would redress the age-old imbalance. However, Dr. Mark Corey says, “Few would quarrel with at least a modicum of social welfare to provide the necessities of a dignified life for such social casualties. But it is a perversion of welfare in the guise of the sweet reason that offers the biggest challenge to the merit principle at present. It is the movement whose present culmination has produced affirmative action, involving the introduction of equal employment opportunity (EXEO) imprecisely expressed.” (Human Rights in Australia, 1985)

Chris Armstrong points out, “Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: first, they are to be attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; second, they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society.” (p.28, Rethinking Equality, 2006). So the concepts of Equality and Justice would seem to present conflicts for citizenship and democracy. If discrimination were to be practiced, inequalities could continue. If inequalities are sought to be eliminated by providing special preferences to the less privileged it could violate the principle of equality! On this dilemma, naturally, there are serious discussions on the issue and the final word has not yet come about. It is in this background that attention must be paid to ‘affirmative action’.

Affirmative Action

“In its modern form, affirmative action can call for an admissions officer faced with two similarly qualified applicants to choose the minority over the white, or for a manager to recruit and hire a qualified woman for a job instead of a man. Affirmative action decisions are generally not supposed to be based on quotas, nor are they supposed to give any preference to unqualified candidates.” (Dan Frocking, 1998). Accordingly, in educational institutions, one student is to be preferred over the other by virtue of some accepted norm. The question is do we not deliberately inflict harm on the left-out by denying the opportunity to learn for no fault of his other than an accident of birth?

It must be borne in mind that equality of opportunity is not equal opportunity for all. The latter is naturally untenable in many situations. To afford fair opportunity for all on some selected norms is one thing. To afford everyone an opportunity to do a particular thing is certainly different.

A European Commission report also stresses the need for affirmative action in some form or other to give relief to disabled members of society. It sounds sensible and logical that some gesture must be made by society to lessen the burden of some of the disabled at least to some extent. And there is also this gender discrimination. Of the 187 nations or so there are hardly 15 or 20 real or nominal heads of state and government who are women! These two are largely in the most advanced European Nations. Then the the plight of women to come up politically and educationally and therefore socially, too, in emerging nations can easily be imagined! Would not ‘affirmative action’ to some extent lift the womenfolk out of this mire of permanent stagnation?

According to Loretta Cape heart and Dragon Milovnovic, an affirmative act is based on substantive rationality. So too is comparable worth, which concerns challenging work practices whereby the only distinguishing factor is the position title, where the actual functioning is the same.” (p.35, Social Justice).

Conclusion

Now we have to arrive at a reasonable conclusion as to the necessity and extent of affirmative action. Equity, fair play, and justice should not be treated as empty rhetoric. A society genuinely interested in the welfare of all should look at the obstacles for the disadvantaged in many respects and find amicable solutions without detriment to the efficient working of universities and general administration. For centuries many sections in the society had lived under discrimination and neglect in many forms. From the Age of Reformation and Renaissance to arrive at political equality, it took some two hundred years and another hundred and fifty years or so to give substance to the principle of equality of mankind. To carry forward further this principle of equity and fair play it would appear that some sort of affirmative action is needed. We do not find much evidence for privileged people and those who exercise authority voluntarily coming forward to share the same with others. That is how revolutions were inspired. We cannot afford to have civil wars everywhere to share the fruits of economic and social justice.

If the true spirit of nationalism, democracy, and justice are any guide to enhance human values, there is nothing wrong with having affirmative action to help sections within a nation advance educationally and socially. One could go to the extent of saying that there is a moral obligation on the part of people who are educated, enlightened, and with a commitment to overall growth and prosperity of the nation to come forward and do as much as possible to help the weaker sections. And it is not just the better placed alone who have to sacrifice a little. Those who are to reap the gains of affirmative action should remember that ideally, they must have all opportunities to equip themselves with the required knowledge and not claim any special privileges merely because for centuries their ancestors were denied many opportunities. Efforts must be collectively made to give full help during the formative years of learning to increase the vision of the underprivileged so that affirmative action does not have to be a permanent feature in educational institutions. The tremendous growth of technology and social consciousness should be directed to increase the learning capabilities, knowledge, and perception of the weaker sections of the society so that in the reasonable future all citizens shall have acquired enough grooming to compete on absolutely equal footing. This is not just a distant ideal but a goal that must be vigorously pursued. And economically advanced nations should serve as models to the rest of the world in bringing about this ideal situation as early as possible.

References

Armstrong, C. 2006, Rethinking Equality: The Challenge of Equal, Manchester University Press.

Capeheart, L. Social Justice, Theories, Rights and Movement, Loretta Rudgets University Press, 2007.

Clayton, M. Andrew Williams, 2003. Social Justice, AndreBlackwell Publishing.

Dr. M.Cooray, M,. Human Rights in Australia. Froomkin,D. 1998.

Jensen, R. , 1998 White Privilege shapes the US, first appeared in the Baltimore Sun.

Rawls, 1999. A Theory Of Justice, Harvard University Press.

Roemer, J.E., 1998. Equality of Opportunity, Harvard University Press.

Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2001: Affirmative Action.

U.S.Commission on Civil Rights, 2003 Press Releases (SUPREME COURT DECISIONS TO UPHOLD PRINCIPLES OF AFFIRMATIVE ACTION ARE A VICTORY FOR ALL AMERICANS).

Background information

Towards the end of the 20th century, black women from the US formed different movements to campaign for social justice. Due to numerous social issues such as class, racism, and sexism, black women began campaigning for justice and fair treatment in society (White, 2011). Led by Alice Walker, Patricia Hill Collins, and others, black women’s movements called for the liberation of a black woman (Collins, 2000).

According to these feminists, the liberation of a black woman would be the first step towards freedom from oppression, issues of class, racism, and sexism (White, 2011). In this research paper, I will provide a personal story about a black woman and describe how she has changed society. I will also highlight how the black woman’s work and experiences have influenced me.

The black feminist movements saw the liberation of black women from slavery and discrimination as freedom for all women (White, 2011). In fact, black women had to fight the rigid male domineering system as well as the general discrimination from white Americans (White, 2011). African American women who worked in plantations as slaves faced numerous challenges such as gender stereotypes, sexism, and discrimination (White, 2011). According to White (2011), Black women had many responsibilities both in their homes and in society, which denied them their true sense of womanhood. To liberate themselves, Black women formed activist groups to help them gain their position in society.

My personal experience

Ethnicity study has helped me to understand issues that are pronounced issues in real-life situations. A good example is the role of phonetic variation within the racial category. By studying ethnicity, I have understood how cultural stereotype affects and influence social perception, especially among Black Americans. In addition, I have understood “color complex” issues. There is a hidden topic of racial discrimination among African Americans, which plays a big role in cultural stereotypes and social perception. On the other hand, the numerous challenges that black American women have faced and their achievements have helped me to understand and appreciate them.

A number of Black women have inspired my life greatly because of what they have achieved despite the numerous struggles that they have undergone. Tyra Banks is one of my role models. I believe that feminist activists such as Alice Walker and Deborah Gray White, among others, have highly contributed to the empowerment of modern Black women.

Tyra Banks has been an influential media personality despite being an African-American. Mainly, Tyra Banks has Eurocentric features enabling her to influence both Blacks and Whites. This is because variation in skin tone affects social and psychological outcomes. Among African Americans, there are two categories of skin tone: light-skinned and dark-skinned Blacks (Russell, Midge, and Hall, 1993). Blacks with lighter skin and Eurocentric features are more preferred than those with Afro-centric features are.

Tyra Banks, as a black woman, has made great achievements in life despite her ethnicity. As ambitious as she is, Tyra Banks has worked hard to establish herself as a model despite challenges faced by African Americans. She says that it was not easy to get a modeling agency to enroll her as a model in the early stages of her career. She recalls how a modeling agency representative turned her down by telling her, “We already have a Black model.” This is discrimination. However, after this incident, Tyra Banks did not give up.

Tyra inspires me with her passion for reaching out to other women and bringing social change. Through her career, Tyra Banks has redefined womanhood and taught other women to appreciate their bodies and skin color. At some point in her career as a model, Tyra Banks gained more weight than what is acceptable in a modeling career. However, the agency advised her to reduce weight, which she refused. Instead, she looked for a company that was ready to hire a curvier woman. She went to Victoria house of Lingerie, where she sold more bras and panties than any other model. I admire this feature of self-esteem.

Like Alice Walker, Deborah Gray, and Collins, Tyra Banks continues the legacy of black women since she is ready to campaign against racism, sexism, and discrimination. In fact, she has domineered in many fields. The reason why Tyra Banks has been successful in her modeling career and subsequent talk shows is that she posses Eurocentric features. According to Maddox (2004), low-prototypic individuals have more influence than high-prototypic individuals do. In society, a light-skinned Black enjoys a high status more than a dark-skinned Black does (Russell, Midge, and Hall, 1993).

According to Collins (2000), “racist and sexist ideologies, if they are disbelieved, they lose their impact.” Tyra has “disbelieved,” enabling her to overcome sex and gender discrimination. Indeed, she has been at the forefront of fighting against discrimination, sexism, and racism. Through her television shows, Tyra campaigns against discrimination of Black women based on race. As an experienced model, she has struggled a lot to portray Black women as beautiful.

In one of her stories, she narrated how she became successful in an industry that only White women dominated. According to Tyra, Black women were only seen as “good models” when they wore certain clothes, which matched their skin color. For Tyra, accepting to compete with White women marked the first step in fighting racism. This portrays hard work and self-confidence.

Tyra Banks has helped me deal with a weight problem. As I grew up, I had difficulty appreciating myself; I did not feel beautiful, and I disliked myself due to overweight. However, Tyra provided tips on how to lose weight in a healthy way enlightening me. Indeed, I can confidently say that Tyra Banks is a positive influence in my life. Today, Tyra encourages me to have the intrinsic motivation that will enable me to achieve my long-term goals. In addition, she inspires me to work hard to reach my dreams. She also helps me appreciate myself as a woman because I know I can achieve anything in life.

As a Black woman, Tyra Banks continues to influence me through her passion for fighting racial and cultural stereotypes. In one of her interviews, Tyra Banks was quoted saying, “when I mean Black women are beautiful, it is their short hair, their full lips, their dark-skin and their broad noses that I love” (IMDP, Inc, 2012). This is clear that she has overcome cultural stereotypes. As a white woman, I appreciate Tyra Banks’ passion for empowering other women through her programs. Regardless of color, she is a great influence in my life and continues to inspire me to live a healthy life, appreciate myself, and respect others.

As Collins (2000) puts it, “the struggle for a self-defined Black feminism occurs through an ongoing dialogue” Tyra Banks continues empowering women through her interactive programs. A good example is the American Top model, in which she uses her knowledge and passion for inspiring and empowering other women. Following her life story closely, I continue appreciating her work as a black woman. Indeed, her passion for empowering women has really influenced me.

In conclusion, I can say that the struggle of black women towards liberation from racism, sexism, and discrimination in society has been able to gain major achievements in modern society. Women such as Alice Walker, White Gray, and Patricia Hill have contributed a lot to the liberation of Black women through their campaigns over the years (White, 2011).

On the other hand, Tyra has campaigned for women, and since she has Eurocentric features, both Whites and Blacks have evaluated her positively, making her an influential figure. This is just a matter of social perception. If Tyra banks had more afro-centric features, probably she would not have been successful due to the cultural stereotype associated with dark-skinned African Americans. This is because, in generally, dark-skinned blacks are associated with negative traits (Maddox, 2004).

As a black woman, Tyra continues the legacy of other activists by representing black women in different fields. Regardless of her race, Tyra Banks continues to inspire my life and of many other young women through her numerous programs (IMDP, Inc, 2012). Although I am a white American woman, I have identified with Tyra Banks as a woman. To improve women’s participation in different spheres of life, there is need to do more campaign. This is because a small number of women have occupied public domain compared to men.

Reference List

Collins, P. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge.

Collins, P. (2006). From Black power to Hip, Hop: Racism, nationalism, and feminism. Philadelphia: Temple University press.

Guy-Sheftall, B. (1995).Words of fire: An anthology of African-American feminist thought. New York: New Press.

IMDP, Inc. (2012). Tyra Banks. Web.

Maddox, K. B. (2004). Perspectives on Racial Phenotypicality Bias. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8 (4) 383-401.

Russell, K., Midge, W., & Hall, R. (1993). The color complexamong African Americans. New York: A division of random house, Inc.

White, D. (2011). Aren’t I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South. New York: W.W Norton and Company.

The subject of frontline clinical and supervisory practice in mental health setting is slowly moving away from the biomedical and positivist framework and towards post-modernist perspectives rooted in social justice. According to LeFrancois, Menzies, and Geoffrey (2013), the root of oppression in modern mental health settings comes from the insistence on using socially-approved and constructed definitions of sanity.

Since it is the dominant parts of the hierarchies defining what is to be considered sane and what is not, clinical and supervisory practice can be used as a tool against them (LeFrancois et al., 2013). These findings correlate with the writings by Joseph (2013), who concurs with LeFrancois in that social work and supervision, in its current interpretation by most social workers, is oppressive and discredited towards women, people of color, and members of the LGBTQ. Based on these findings, it could be concluded that

Social justice leadership is meant to become the remedy and the ideological, political, and medical opponent of the dominant positivist biomedical paradigm. Morley (2003) highlights the fact that frontline clinical and supervisory practices not only have the most effect on individuals in questions, but also the most interaction. Therefore, they have the potential to become the locomotive of change for patients and the industry.

The implications for social justice leadership and frontline supervision are that social care and social work have to be the first to realize the flaws and inconsistencies of the positivist biomedical framework and start promoting social justice values and post-modernist approaches within their own ranks. The absence of critical thought in the widespread acceptance of sanist and positivist approaches is to be fought against by viewing, contrasting, and assessing alternative points of view that could answer the questions that the current dominant paradigm cannot. Postmodernist and critical assessment of practices and approaches is to be endorsed in order to gain trust of patients and promote social justice values. The attitude towards the patients is to be changed as well, from the supervisor seeing their role as corrective, towards nurturing, empowering, and supportive, with respect to a patient’s voice and worldview.

References

Joseph, A. J. (2013). Empowering alliances in pursuit of social justice: Social workers supporting psychiatric-survivor movements. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 24(3), 265-288.

LeFrancois, B. A., Menzies, R., & Geoffrey, R. (2013). Mad matters: A critical reader in Canadian mad studies. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press.

Morley, C. (2003). Towards critical social work practice in mental health: A review. Journal of Progessive Human Services, 14(1), 61-84.

Nowadays, many different acts and laws define social justice, including gender equality, observance of rights of sexual minorities, beliefs, and ethnicity issues. According to Hammack (2018), social justice is based on definitions of human behavior and social relationships and categories. Why does it happen today that the rights of some people are violated, and injustice takes place, and what to do about it?

Social justice is the basis for the existence of people on earth; humanity will destroy itself without it. Austin (2013) pointed out that justice is a kind of contract between two people who sacrifice some of their freedoms in exchange for social order. It is essential to understand that injustices happen when one person’s freedom does not end where the freedom of another begins. In other words, it is an infringement of liberty and human rights or social injustice.

The solution to this problem seems simple, although it turned out to be challenging to implement. If there is (for whatever reason) social inequality in a society, it must be corrected to serve the interests of the most oppressed groups of the population. Regardless of social status, place of work, skin color, gender, age, etc., every person should have equal rights and freedoms like anybody else, including freedom of speech, assembly, and conscience. The principle of equal opportunities – access to positions and government positions should be open to everyone without restrictions. In addition, to maintain social justice, people should be aware of the concept of critical social justice. This approach refers to theoretical models that initially recognize that society is unequal (Sensoy & Angelo 2017). It helps to solve the problem from its essence, which leads to an adequate reflection on the question.

References

Austin, M. J. (2013). Social justice and social work: Rediscovering a core value of the profession. (Vol. 1). Sage.

Hammack, P. L. (2018). The oxford handbook of social psychology and social justice. Oxford University Press.

Sensoy, O., & Angelo, R. (2017). Is everyone really equal? Teachers College Press.

Society is built on many presumptions about people’s nature, most of which become obsolete with time. Such assumptions lead to the mistreatment of a sizable portion of the population. The belief in the incurability and inherent danger of mental conditions is a prime example. The deficit of social justice in this sphere is described in LeFrançois, Reaume, and Menzies’s book Mad Matters. It relates to the social justice leadership in clinical and supervisory practice in mental health settings by challenging the modern tenets of managerialism and neoliberalism.

Managerialism is the dominant approach to management in the service industry. It presupposes prioritizing competencies at the expense of social justice (Fook, 2002). Mad Matters showcases social activists fighting this viewpoint and their achievements. Boston’s Disabled People’s Liberation Front influenced power structures in the US. The Ontario Coalition on Human Rights acted similarly in Canada. These organizations managed to change legislation concerning mentally challenged people (LeFrançois et al., 2013, p. 27). In practice, it meant that new guidelines required clinical facilities to forgo the stigmatization of mental patients. Subsequently, supervisors of such establishments checked that the treatment of the aforementioned patients was corresponding to their rights.

Neoliberalism is the view that judges success in economic terms. Its exclusion of social justice from the equation contributes to the oppression of mental patients (Pollack & Rossiter, 2010). Mad Matters shows the growth of social activism, advocating the rights of mentally challenged individuals. Motivated by the success of feminist and gay liberalization movements, Mental Patients Association (MPA) openly resisted neoliberalism. It began the unprecedented practice of unbiased clinical treatment of mental patients, which was funded by the government (LeFrançois et al., 2013, p. 58). Therefore, by changing the agenda of the Mental Health Commission of Canada, MPA influenced leadership in mental healthcare.

Altogether, it should be evident that neoliberalist policies and managerial practices harm mentally challenged people. Increased emphasis on professionalism and economic value discards social justice. Mad Matters describes organizations influencing the legislation and policies on mental patients. Not only did these people start to receive adequate healthcare services, but their treatment was also controlled by supervisors. Their success in combating neoliberalism and managerialism showcases the relation of Mad Matters to the advancement of social justice in mental healthcare.

References

Fook, J. (2002). Social work: Critical theory and practice. New Delhi, India: Sage.

LeFrançois, B. A., Reaume, G., & Menzies, R. J. (Eds.). (2013). Mad matters: A critical reader in Canadian mad studies. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press Incorporated.

Pollack, S., & Rossiter, A. (2010). Neoliberalism and the entrepreneurial subject: Implications for feminism and social work.Canadian Social Work Review. Web.

The video is a TED conference speech by Charles L. Robbins about social justice and its relevance in this century. The author seems to pose a rhetorical question to the audience about whether society needs to talk about social justice. To put the issue in perspective, he references the civil rights movement of the 1960s and juxtaposes it against the fact that the US had a black president. From that point on, he talks about social justice issues affecting minorities today. The speaker highlights the various minority groups such as people of color, immigrants, women, children, and the LGBT+.

For African Americans, he addresses racism, poverty, and the consequences of a flawed criminal justice system. He also talks about gender discrimination, the wage gap, female genital mutilation, abortion, gender-based violence, and sexual assault affecting women. In addition, issues affecting LGBT+ people are raised, such as assault, discrimination, bullying, and homelessness. The speaker also addresses poverty and guns as pertinent social justice matters. Finally, to illustrate the sheer irony, the speaker talks about the wealth of the US and the implied unwillingness to address the issues.

Social justice is a pertinent issue in the modern-day age. While it is true that much progress has occurred since the era of the civil rights movement, humanity cannot get complacent about the challenges affecting many today. The rise of right-wing extremists in the Trump era has demonstrated that even the most liberal countries are never too far away from fascism. Noteworthy, Black people have been through a horrific time in the US, from slavery to Jim Crow. While these issues may have passed, the consequences of the injustice linger to this day, evidenced by the wealth gap, disparities in education, healthcare, and an unjust justice system. African Americans are just one minority group, but the issues cut across all other marginalized groups.

Social justice is one of the hottest topics in today’s community. It acts as one of the most important indicators of the effectiveness of social development of society, the fundamental basis of human development. The main requirement of justice as an ethical category is respect for the rights and dignity of people. A special kind of justice is social justice, the subjects of which are large social groups, society as a whole, and humanity. Social justice is a system of social institutions, which by its structure, constantly provides a satisfying majority of society members distribution of political, legal, economic, and other rights and material values.

Justice is defined in the light of two key ethical values: fundamental ethical equality and impartiality, projected onto the nature of interpersonal relations and social institutions. It can be said that the recognition of the varying degrees of realization of fundamental ethical equality between individuals in social relations creates markedly different conceptions of social justice.

People strive for social justice because everyone is born with the same rights and responsibilities, with the right to vote and to choose. The desire for justice is an inherent feature of modern man. Humanity is progressing every day and becoming more humane. That is why the question of social justice at this stage of development is so relevant.

The professional activity of a social worker is based on three fundamental provisions that define the ethical features of work:

• Respect for the person, recognition of his unconditional value, regardless of the real achievements and behavior of the individual;
• The recognition that man is a unique social being who realizes his uniqueness in his relations with other people and depends on them for his development;
• Recognition that man has an inherent ability to change, improve his life, to grow, and hence the desire for freedom of choice and decision-making.

At the micro level, the life situation is influenced by the immediate social environment. A social worker can provide social protection for his or her client only if he or she has a good command of methods for individual work with people. At the meso level, the client interacts with other people and small groups within society (family, collective, peer group). In this case, the social worker should have a good command of the methods and techniques of working with the group. At the macro level, the client interacts with big organizations, systems, and groups and faces big social problems that are difficult for him or her to solve alone, so the social worker must help find the best ways to solve problems.

As a specialist in social services, this code helps me to focus and find the cause and the solution to the problem: “The imperative to engage in policy advocacy at three levels stems from policy shortcomings in each of the eight sectors where most social workers are employed”(Jannson, 2015, p.2). To better understand a client’s problem, one must be prepared to look deeper into the problem to find the root cause. Therefore, this interaction on three levels should be studied and applied in social work. This code clarifies that vulnerable populations have the same right to protection as others.

Using the eight policy sectors, I will think more deeply about each and find a different approach. For example, in criminal justice, a person needs social adjustment. After a long prison stays, a person becomes unaccustomed to normal society, so there are often relapses. The solution could be to provide the person with employment and sessions with a psychologist.

Reference

Jansson, B. S. (2015). Social welfare policy and advocacy: Advancing social justice through 8 policy sectors. Sage Publications.

Introduction

The deaf youth in the United States although faced with numerous challenges are striving to achieve social justice in several ways as discussed in this paper. For instance, the Deaf Youth USA is dedicated to social justice through media and activism by organizing workshops where discussions are held on how to strengthen the fight against marginalization. Several workshops have been held where racism topics are discussed to create an anti-racist culture among members so that the organization moves forward stronger and fully inclusive.

Main body

The discussions are usually difficult, nonetheless; the problems must be acknowledged so that in the process, the organization grows stronger (Dale-Hench, p. 1). To achieve this objective, fascinating and inspirational stories are shared both community and personal stories. The youths could invite guests from organizations such as deafbay.com and CAD to the camps where they talk about the respective organizations and how youths who are deaf can participate actively.

In addition, it is important to make the youths believe that before they can change the world, they have to change themselves first. To change positively, the groups have to be taught how media can distort reality (Dale-Hench, p. 1). The youths have to be enlightened on how to capture the mind of audiences using two elements namely beauty and message. The youths have to learn to embrace beauty by opening to receive the messages passed across by other youths. Importantly, the youths could initiate discussions on why they object to racism and critically argue against, or for their propositions. The discussions could be made simple to accommodate all the age groups.

The youth groups have to write manifestos that pave way for youth activism, voluntary service, and giving back to the community. Normally, youth activism is crucial in helping the youth to sieve leaders they would want to elect. To ensure active participation in activism, the youths have to develop a functional leadership hierarchy led by chairpersons, assisted by vice-chairpersons and financial officers. Moreover, when the members are allowed to take part in elections, the youth groups would encourage social justice.

The Deaf Youth USA (DYUSA) for instance strives to educate, inspire, and empower the deaf youth to make difference in the communities (DeafYouthUSA, p. 1). Such activities would make the youths vibrant, intelligent, and ambitious. The youths ought to embrace media and the internet as powerful tools for fighting prejudices. These channels are crucial in educating the dead youths at all levels on how to develop and own personal media. Through Facebook for example; the DYUSA members would actively participate in topics that touch on redefining the meaning of being deaf, sign language, and deafness. These channels are crucial in sharing experiences and ideas on how to handle physical challenges positively.

Furthermore, Facebook would provide members with the opportunity to train to be community organizers. Such opportunities are likely to endear the members of the deaf groups to other people who view them as a lot that are striving to shape their destiny before imminent challenges. Importantly, the DYUSA members can use the media to carry out voter registration campaigns and elections. This enables the group to reach out to various deaf people throughout the United States.

Conclusion

Consequently, the deaf youth may get the chance to elect leaders who should represent them at various levels of governance. The members could host gatherings during the summer where members share their experiences and get professional or moral support from the members. Finally, the DYUSA leaders write open letters through the media denouncing discrimination against deaf people in companies where such people work.

Works Cited

1. Dale-Hench, Martin. “Enabling Activism.” Deaf Youth USA Bay Area’s Inaugural Camp. Dyusa.org, 2011.
2. DeafYouthUSA.The Problem. Dosomething.org, 2008.
3. DYUSA. Facebook. Facebook.com, 2011.