Category: Social Issues

While comparatively tolerable a few decades before, being single seems to have become a major problem for a range of people in the 21st century. Those, who are not engaged in any kind of relationships, are constantly being reminded of what they consider a problem – even the Facebook service annoyingly offers the user to identify their current status as “single.”

The ensuing communication problems can be seen as an expected outcome of the factors above. The status of a single person is part and parcel of the modern reality for an increasingly large number of people and at the same time the major cause for psychological and social problems for the specified social tier; therefore, fighting the fear of being single should be viewed as the key coping mechanism for the people, who are labeled by society as “single.”

Not only is such fear irrational, but also very dangerous in its implications for the person affected by it: “An important consequence of fear of being single may be, therefore, to settle for less in relationships in order to gain and maintain a relationship” (Spielman, MacDonald, Maxwell, Joel, Peragine, Muise & Impett, 2013, p. 1049).

There is no need to stress that being single may trigger a range of issues, including both social and personal ones. Moreover, in a range of cultures, being single is often viewed as a negative characteristic of a person, or, at the very least, something to look down at (Pignotti & Abell, 2009). More to the point, being single often affects people in a number of negative ways.

While there are obvious advantages to being single from a certain perspective, such as better career options, the lack of a supportive partner does have its effect on an adult person, who no longer has strong ties to their parents. According to the recent researches, singleness may even cause depression with subsequent suicidal tendencies:

“Other features associated with an increased risk for completed suicide include male sex, being single or living alone, and having prominent feelings of hopelessness” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 205). Identifying the people, who happen to be affected by their single status the most, one must admit that women seem to have the most issues with their social status (Gordon, 2003).

It should also be noted that the very concept of being single is often used rather loosely to define a variety of social phenomena. The concept of being single is used as opposed to being married; however, the phenomenon is not restricted to denoting the absence of marital bonds. According to the existing classification, singleness can also be identified as the absence of a partner.

Apart from the absence of a marital status, the fact that a person is not currently dating anyone is also viewed as another type of singleness, according to the existing typology; more to the point, the concept of singleness can be identified as the lack of interest towards relationships in general (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

At this point, such types of singleness as the intended and the unintended one must be named. While some people attain the status of being single after thorough and long speculations, others cannot help being ignored by the potential partners.

Singleness, however, does not necessarily lead to a neurotic disorder. In fact, singleness may turn out a rather neutral factor depending on the temper and the set of personality traits that a person may possess. The confusion lends its way to the fact that singleness is often mixed up with loneliness.

The latter, in its turn, is identified as a state of permanent lack of communication and, therefore, a very negative factor triggering depression and mild neurologic disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Hence, being single should not be viewed as a factor that causes immediate problems with communication. Instead, it can be considered a factor that contributes to one’s developing a wrong image of one’s self-based on the existing prejudice and the specifics of the cultural values accepted in the specified society.

However, as far as the typology of being single is concerned, the state of being divorced is, perhaps, the situation that should cause the greatest concern. Although a number of people handle the divorce procedure comparatively easily, a number of divorcees undergo a stage that is characterized by a severe depression; more to the point, the chances of developing a bipolar disorder rise among divorced people:

“Separated, divorced, or widowed individuals have higher rates of bipolar I disorder than do individuals who are married or have never been married, but the direction of the association is unclear” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 130).

Outlining the reasons for a person to be single, one must mention that the existing factors affecting one’s decision to remain without a partner are quite versatile. As a rule, among single people, the ones that have made their decision to remain without a partner consciously and those, who have found themselves single due to specific circumstances, are traditionally identified.

Researches show that women are usually more vulnerable to their status as single than men are. Nevertheless, a range of women choose to remain without a partner; some are pressured into it by their career choices, whereas others consciously acknowledge their lack of willingness or experience to engage in relationships with a partner:

“In addition to decisions about remaining single, the majority of women are now delaying marriage, which presents additional issues” (Gordon, 2003, p. 34).

Being single is not one of those phenomena that have been unfairly left out of people’s focus – instead, the issue seems to have been explored to the point where everyone thinks themselves to be competent enough to solve the specified problem. Singleness, its causes, and key effects, as well as the means to stop being single, for the lack of a better expression, have been worn out completely.

The existing pieces of advice regarding being single, however, beg the question whether the phenomenon is to be avoided. Instead of dreading the latter and conjuring the strategies for rushing into the relationships that one may later regret starting at all, the methods of dealing with singleness should be provided. A decent coping strategy is bound to prevent major issues and help one reconcile with one’s state of being single.

Among the key strategies, the necessity to cope with the fear of being left alone deserves a mentioning first. One of the basic stumbling blocks in not only building relationships with another person but also living a full life, the fear of being single tops the lists of key reasons for single people to have emotional and psychological issues, including major communication problems.

Fear, in its turn, launches depression and, thus, unleashes the Pandora’s Box of psychological issues that a person in question may possess.

It cripples people’s basic abilities to communicate, making the problem even worse and, therefore, leaving its victims in a vicious circle of communication failure. Herein the need for fighting this fear lies, and the strategy of exploring the roots of this fear can be seen as a perfect approach of reconciling with one’s singleness.

People need to learn to put up with the state of being single. Spielman et al. (2013) show that a rushed decision to engage into relationships out of fear of being left alone is not only harmful to the person starting it but also unfair to their partner, leaving both sides of the relationship dissatisfied and bitter after the rue reasons for their relationships to be started are revealed.

Relationships must be based on positive attitude, mutual trust and the willingness to share one’s experiences with the loved one, whereas fear only blocks relationships from development, making them stale (Spielman et al., 2013). To acquire an opportunity to engage in relationships, one must work on one’s self-schema (Hafer, 2009) and design a positive image of one’s self.

Even though the state of singleness itself does not presuppose that a person being in it has certain issues, being single still means putting up with a lot of pressure, which emerges both from the social prejudice and the recognition of the need for support and love. By designing a strategy, which will help the single person get their priorities in order, one will be able to help the person in question avoid major issues triggered by their social status.

Reference List

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

Gordon, P. A. (2003). The decision to remain single: Implications for women across cultures. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 25(1), 33–44.

Hafer, J. (2009). The role of self-schema status in moderating cognitive dissonance. Villanova, PA: Villanova University.

Pignotti, M. & Abell, N. (2009).The negative stereotyping of single persons scale. Research on Social Work Practice, 19(5), 639–652.

Spielman, S. S., MacDonald, G., Maxwell, J. A., Joel, S., Peragine, D., Muise, A. & Impett, E. A. (2013). Settling for less out of fear of being single. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(6), 1049–1073.

Affirmative action can be discussed as a policy developed to address the issue of racial discrimination in American society. The problem is in the fact that the focus on affirmative action as the way to respond to the minority’s needs is often considered as a controversial idea because of different attitudes to the policy represented by the members of the racial majority and minority.

Affirmative action in the sphere of education can be discussed as the appropriate approach to evaluate the admissions of college students because it can guarantee the equal access to the limited educational resources for students of color and the white majority.

The main legal issues associated with affirmative action in the college admission process are based on the opposite ideas that racial quotas similar to the affirmative action policy are illegal and that affirmative action is effective to promote diversity in the student body of elite and selective institutions and serve the community’s diverse needs.

On the one hand, affirmative action can contribute to discriminating against white students because of the promotion of racial quotas in the college admission process.

The argument for this position is that the incorrect use of affirmative action in evaluating students’ admissions can lead to biases, unfair competition, and to the overuse of racial criteria. The strength of this argument is in the fact that the policy cannot work to correct the racial imbalance in institutions, but it can provoke stronger discrimination. As a result, affirmative action is seen as the illegal approach to evaluating the students’ college admissions.

On the other hand, affirmative action provides the opportunity for the underrepresented students to compete in the sphere of education as equals because of avoiding race domination in the process. The focus on the non-white students’ qualifications, performance, and grades promoted with affirmative action become legally supported with two compelling arguments for such an approach in evaluating the students’ admissions.

Thus, affirmative action serves to address the educational institutions’ focus on promoting diversity in the student body. Non-white students receive the opportunity to enter elite and selective institutions in spite of the limited access to resources and because of their qualifications and grades.

The next compelling argument is the focus on institutions’ responses to the diverse needs of the community. Fixation on grades of students is possible for addressing the excellence of colleges, but it should be supported with making non-white students eligible for joining the college community.

Affirmative action can be discussed as the legal initiative which contributes to admitting the fact of the non-white students’ eligibility.

Although there are still debates regarding the effectiveness of affirmative action in the sphere of education, it is possible to state that affirmative action is appropriate to evaluate the college students’ admissions because this policy provides students of color with the opportunity to compete in the college admission process along with the white majority and because affirmative action allows decreasing the gap between the evaluation of students according to their performance and qualifications and evaluation of students according to their grades.

From this point, affirmative action operates the idea of eligibility as the focus on grades and performance, but affirmative action is also the way to create a diverse student body. Thus, this idea can be discussed as a compelling interest in many elite and selective institutions which need to support their high status.

The life of a person as the member of the group or community is associated with definite rites and ceremonies which are followed to respond to the traditions, and cultural values developed during the centuries of the group’s historical progress. Many rites can be discussed as the rites of intensification because they determine the period of significant changes in the person and group’s life.

The changes of seasons and associated activities are as significant for people as the changes in their social statuses. From this point, many rites of passage are the rites of intensification in their nature because to achieve the definite point in the group’s development or to receive the definite status; people should overcome some barriers and cross the boundaries.

In this case, all the phases of the rite are important for a person because he or she can understand the role of the transition and the effects of changes more clearly. Rites of passage and intensification are developed to accentuate the values and traditions within the community, and as a result, they emphasize the ties between people belonging to the community.

Thus, rites, rituals, and ceremonies reflect the cultural heritage of the community and contribute to developing the sense of cohesion because people perceive their social ties more actively with references to various customary practices and focus on the idea of belonging to the community.

The discussion of many rituals and ceremonies as rites of intensification depends on the ideas of transformation, transition, and responsibility.

From this point, the changes of the seasons, for instance, mean natural transformations; the period of growing seeds or preparing the harvest determines the process of transition to the other season, and these activities as the fact accentuate the persons’ responsibility to overcome the critical situation of changes. However, such important situations of transitioning to the new form or status can also affect a man personally.

On the other hand, the fact of belonging to the family and community supports the idea that the ties within the group can be influenced significantly. For instance, referring to the Arab weddings as the rites of passage, it is possible to note that the marriage of a young man and woman means not only the changes in these persons’ social status but also the changes in their family ties.

Furthermore, the wedding can be considered as the important rite of intensification when two families choose to be brought together, and all the familial ties are intensified and improved. As a result, the group’s sense of cohesion increases with references to the establishment of the new large family and development of new ties between the relatives.

The role of the group’s sense of cohesion in customary practices is significant because people need to feel the ties and their connection with the other persons within the family, group, and community. This sense of cohesion and belonging to the group is associated with the feelings of personal confidence and security.

While participating in different rites and ceremonies which are important for the person because of his or her identity and culture, the individual can acquire the necessary feelings of confidence and security because of relying on the group’s support. Thus, the person’s self-esteem and understanding of his or her role for the group increase, contributing to the individual’s personal development and growth as the social actor.

Moreover, the sense of cohesion develops with references to the actual idea of rites because, while participating in many various rites and ceremonies, a person understands that he or she is the part of the group which follows definite traditions and specific rituals.

For instance, in Arab culture, the fathers of brides and grooms put their hands together to press the thumbs on the traditional act before signing the wedding contract to state the fact of uniting the families.

Furthermore, many Arab rituals associated with the ceremony of wedding and preparations to it are developed to emphasize the idea of improving the familial ties and bonds between the bride and groom’s families. These rituals are necessary to accentuate the role of the sense of cohesion not only for the young couple but also for all the relatives.

The family is the group of persons who have the most developed ties and bonds because they are connected not only with the help of social rituals but also with references to their natural relationship and kinship based on blood. Therefore, relatives as the members of the family group are characterized by the strongest sense of cohesion.

That is why the wedding is traditionally discussed as a very important rite in many cultures because the members of two different families begin to cohere to form the new social cell. Following the example of the Arab wedding and marriage as the change of statuses, it is possible to note that young bride and groom can experience significant stress and tension associated with the transition to the new form of relations and the new social status.

The concepts of prestige and recognition are also associated with this type of transition in the Arab culture. In this case, the sense of cohesion which is based on the strong familial ties, provides the necessary feeling of security for those family members who are involved in the wedding ceremonies as the rite of intensification.

Cohesion, support, and cooperation are important conditions to discuss the group as the strong organism which can overcome the critical social situations and contribute to the personal transition from one status to another.

Rites of passage and rites of intensification associated with a lot of ceremonies and rituals which can differ depending on the cultures and traditions are important for the person’s development because these customary practices provide individuals with the necessary feelings of self-esteem, self-worth, confidence, and security.

The rites also emphasize the transition of the group or the person to the new stage of the development that is why all the connected phases contribute to assisting the group or the person in overcoming the critical situation of changes. At this stage, the sense of cohesion is important for all the participants of the rites and ceremonies because of the natural necessity to feel support and approval.

The strongest sense of cohesion is typical for the family members because this group is based not only on the social norms but also on the aspects of kinship. That is why, marriage and the ceremony of the wedding are significant for persons because two families are united, and improved familial ties contribute to intensifying the sense of cohesion as the feeling of belonging to the definite social group.

Today, information is discussed as one of the most important values. The development of the Internet and media support the idea that people need more information every day, and they are inclined to use any resources to receive the necessary facts or data. The circulation of information on the Internet with the help of the media is the characteristic feature of the developing globalization. Several decades ago, people had no access to a lot of information resources because of the time and space limits.

Nowadays, the situation changes and the Internet provides people with a lot of information on any topic. Thus, modern society is dependable on the successful circulation of information. From this point, the development of such resources as WikiLeaks is the logical consequences of the public’s searching for more information and facts.

Although there are both critics and supporters of the idea of WikiLeaks, it is important to note that WikiLeaks contributes to developing transparency, supports the people’s right for free speech, and satisfies the society’s needs in receiving factual and unedited information; thus, WikiLeaks can be discussed as the new variant of the information source which is more fair and open for the society in comparison with the traditional media.

Thus, researchers discuss WikiLeaks as the contemporary social issue which is associated with the main features of the modern world development such as globalization, global community, search for information, transparency, openness, fairness, freedom of speech and press, and democracy. Like any other social issue, the phenomenon of WikiLeaks can be examined from many perspectives about its positive and negative effects on society (Pulda 473).

That is why it is important to focus on the purpose of WikiLeaks as it is stated on the website of this organization. According to the WikiLeaks website, “Our goal is to bring important news and information to the public” (“What is Wikileaks?” par. 1). Moreover, it is pointed out that “one of our most important activities is to publish source material alongside our news stories so readers and historians alike can see evidence of the truth” (“What is Wikileaks?” par. 1).

In this case, WikiLeaks can be considered as the archive of documents and sources which are not paraphrased or interpreted by journalists as in the traditional press. The main difference between the sources presented on the WikiLeaks website from the other media is their secret character.

Many materials released by WikiLeaks are secret and provided by anonymous ‘whistleblowers.’ This fact is the main reason to discuss WikiLeaks as a social challenge and as the resource which is threatening for the public. Thus, it is one of the perspectives to discuss the role of WikiLeaks in society.

According to the other point of view, WikiLeaks is the modern way to state the freedom of speech and press and to provide the possibilities for the public to learn facts and controversial materials without any censorship. Thomass states that “it is a long-standing tradition in democratic states that the public’s right to know is a fundamental element in the political structure of a state or nation” (Thomass 20).

From this point, WikiLeaks responds to the people’s right to receive access to important information and the ideals of the democratic society. The society is in constant progress, and WikiLeaks is the symbol of the contemporary society oriented to transparency and openness as the support for democratic principles. The controversy of the materials provided by WikiLeaks is questionable, along with the illegal character of the information presented on the website.

Critics are inclined to accuse WikiLeaks in the provision of the secret materials and classified information which can be discussed as the illegal actions and violation of privacy laws. However, the presentation of the provocative materials on the WikiLeaks website has a lot of similarities with providing the problematic journalists’ investigations during which journalists can find a lot of secret information and use it in their investigations.

WikiLeaks does not violate the laws on free speech and privacy when the prohibition of the WikiLeaks’ activities can be considered as illegal. According to the claims of “a high-tech terrorist” Julian Assange, who is the founder of WikiLeaks, the mission of the website is to support the war on secrecy (Thomass 18; Roberts 16). This formulation of the mission is correlated with the ideas of many people who want to receive the truthful information on the situation in the world.

Nevertheless, it is almost impossible to deny the fact that WikiLeaks has significant consequences on the development of modern society and people’s attitudes to information and its sources. Thus, ‘whistleblowing’ can be discussed today as the relevant source for receiving the necessary information as well as attempts to rely on the other anonymous sources.

Focusing on the provision of sources and documents, WikiLeaks contributes to the development of democratic discourse, and the principle of transparency becomes closer to the public. It is stated on the website of the organization, “the broader principles on which our work is based are the defence of freedom of speech and media publishing, the improvement of our common historical record and the support of the rights of all people to create new history” (“What is Wikileaks?” par. 2).

That is why the reaction of society to the work of WikiLeaks is mainly positive because the organization’s activities meet the interests of the global community. For instance, there is a tendency to support the activities of WikiLeaks with organizing other websites with a similar mission and contents. Thomass states that “WikiLeaks is just the beginning or the symbol for the emergence of other revealers of sources which will become ubiquitous” (Thomass 18).

The emergence of these websites can be explained with references to the people’s internal desire to know the truth in its original form, without editing. The critics of WikiLeaks pay attention to the concept of responsibility while discussing the negative consequences of developing the website. The provision of the classified information for open access can be risky for the persons mentioned in the sources. Nevertheless, WikiLeaks uses a definite policy to protect the public from the negative effects of the website’s activities.

Thus, WikiLeaks is the product and reflection of the modern society which strives for the open information and freedom of speech. However, WikiLeaks as a social issue cannot be discussed as a completely positive or negative phenomenon because of its controversial nature. More policies and laws should be developed to respond to the new approach to the availability of secret materials and classified information.

The principle of transparency is based on the idea that society has the right to receive access to information associated with different organizations, activities, and events without limitations. The principle of responsibility depends on the vision that not all the materials can be discussed as available for the public because of their nature (Ruppin 8). To find the fringe between the materials, the provision of which can or cannot result in a resonance and negative consequences is a rather difficult task.

That is why it is possible to state that today it is the responsibility of WikiLeaks to guarantee the protection for those persons who such a kind of transparency can influence negatively. This statement is appropriate to discuss the issues of indirect victims of releasing the secret information. Nevertheless, the materials can be denunciatory and help in discussing other problematic cases.

WikiLeaks is a controversial phenomenon, but it is the product of modern society. The great public support directed toward the protection of WikiLeaks and its activities accentuates the idea that modern people need more transparency and more freedom in interpreting different types of information.

In contrast to journalists’ investigations and information provided in the media, WikiLeaks presents the original materials, and the public can conclude about their relevance independently.

Much open and truthful information along with unprejudiced attitudes and independent visions are highly estimated in contemporary society, and the activities of WikiLeaks support these ideals, which are correlated with the principles of modern democracy. As a result, the social phenomenon of WikiLeaks is characterized by a lot of followers who share the ideals of the organization’s policy.

Works Cited

Pulda, Molly. “Unknown Knows: State Secrets and Family Secrets”. Biography 35.3 (2012): 472-491, 584-585.

Roberts, Alasdair. “The WikiLeaks Illusion”. The Wilson Quarterly 35.3 (2011): 16-21.

Ruppin, Adi. “Data Security in the Age of WikiLeaks”. Risk Management 58.5 (2011): 8-10.

Thomass, Barbara. “WikiLeaks and the Question of Responsibility within a Global Democracy”. European View 10.1 (2011): 17-23.

What is Wikileaks?2011. Web.

In this activity, the researcher visited Khalifa Park to monitor the games that children play, and the pattern of their games. Some of the common games that children were playing in this park include Hide and Seek, Kick the Can, Parachute, Football, Traffic Corp, Jump-Rope, Marbles, Simon Says, Blind Man’s Bluff, and Cat’s Cradle. Most of these games were played without any guidance from the adults because they are safe. The park was well maintained, eliminating any chances of the children getting injured during the games.

The boys and girls played together in some games such as Jump-Rope, Hide and Seek, Blind Man’s Bluff, and Simon Says. However, there were some games that were exclusively played by boys, while others were played by girls. For example, games such as Football, Kick the Can, and Traffic Corp was dominated by boys. On the other hand, Cat’s Cradle was dominated by girls.

It was noticed that there was a marked difference in the games boys and girls play and their reactions to winning and losing the games. Boys preferred physical games that involved running and using a lot of energy. That is why they dominated games like football and traffic corp. On the other hand, girls preferred less physical games. They like games where there is a structured pattern of play and with the least possible controversy over who becomes the overall winner at the end of the game.

The reaction to winning or loss is also different among boys and girls. Boys have a more pronounced reaction to winning or loss compared to girls. Boys would shout joyously when they win, but in case of a loss, there would be a clear demonstration of disappointment in their faces. On the other hand, girls would show insignificant signs of celebration upon winning a game. In case they lose, it is not easy to detect the disappointment.

It was noticed that children had an easy time socializing with new friends when they meet in the playing grounds. There are cases where some children did not understand how to play some of the games. Such problems were addressed with ease. Those who knew such games taught others so that they could play as a team.

There was an effort from the children to ensure that other parties, including the competitors, understood how the game is played to create a fair, competitive ground. These children would also teach one another how to behave when playing certain games or when relating to team members. They did not hesitate to scold those who misbehaved in one way or the other. In most of the cases, they would supervise themselves.

These games had some hidden curriculums that guided the children as they played. One of the biggest lessons that these children learned was that in every game, there must be a winner and a loser. This was the basis of their games. Another lesson they learned was that success could only be achieved if one puts in the right effort and skills in a particular task. It also came out clearly that taking a loss positively and changing the approach of the game may result in overall success.

This was so because some of those who lost their initial games were able to become overall winners because of the effort and positive approach they took after their first loss. In games like football, these children were able to understand that success can only be achieved through teamwork. It was also clear that these children learned the importance of obedience and respect for authority because it was the only way through which all these games could be governed.

These games reflect our larger society’s cultural beliefs, attitudes, and values. When playing, it was observed that sometimes the children would rebuke their peers because of behavior they considered to be unreligious. They would also mention the name of God to give them the strength to win. In some of the games, the players would engage in praying before they started playing to receive blessings from God. This closely reflects values, beliefs, and cultural practices in the society.

Playing these games may affect the way girls and boys would behave in the future. It was evident that boys preferred physical games. This makes them grow up, knowing that boys must be physical and aggressive when addressing various issues. On the other hand, girls would grow up knowing that they are not supposed to be aggressive, especially when dealing with boys.

Notes

Kinds of games children are playing

The following are some of the common games that children were playing within this park:

• Hide and Seek
• Kick the Can
• Parachute
• Football
• Traffic Corp
• Jump-Rope
• Marbles
• Simon Says
• Blind Man’s Bluff, and
• Cat’s Cradle

The extent to which boys and girls play together

It was observed that in some games, boys played together with girls, while in others, they played differently.

Games played by both boys and girls include:

• Jump-Rope
• Hide and Seek
• Blind Man’s Bluff, and
• Marbles

Games played by boys include:

• Football
• Kick the Can, and
• Traffic Corp

Games played by girls include:

• Cat’s Cradle
• Simon Says

Differences in the games boys and girls play and reactions to winning and losing

The following are some of the differences observed between the games played by boys, and that played by girls.

• While boys’ games were more physical and aggressive, girls preferred less physical games.
• Boys reacted violently to wins and losses, while the reactions from girls were mild.
• Boys preferred playing confrontational games while girls preferred teamwork.

How Children Are Socializing With Each Other

Children were able to socialize with each other through the following approaches:

• Asking of one another’s names when they first meet
• Helping one another to understand how to play new games
• Playing as a team or against one another
• Engaging in mind games

The Hidden Curriculum of the Games

During these games, children were able to learn several issues as mentioned below:

• They learned that life is about competition
• They learned how to celebrate a win and how to fight failure
• They learned how to behave through guidance from peers

How the games reflect our larger society’s cultural beliefs, attitudes, and values

• The games reflect our society’s cultural beliefs, attitudes, and values because these children would behave based on the values they see in their families and at home.

Speculation on how playing these games might affect the ways girls and boys will behave in the future

• These games may influence the pattern of thinking of these children.
• It may influence boys to become very aggressive in life

Introduction

Over the last two decades, there has been a surge in body modifications especially piercing and tattooing in the West. While most body modifications are acceptable in society and are popular amongst the youth, other body modifications fall outside the category of mainstream body modifiers.

Young people not only exercise social rebellion through the non-mainstream body modification but also they cause controversy by modifying their bodies in ways that contravene the mainstream beliefs. Such body modifiers communicate contentious issues of cultural identity, sexuality, and gender equality.

For instance, some gays brand and scar their bodies as a way of rejecting or standing out from the mainstream gay rights activists. In addition, distinctive body art used by some women is meant to show rebellion against men dominance and control of one’s body (Gagne & McGaughey 2002). Sometimes women use piercings, scars, and tattoos to reject the social norms associated with beauty and femininity.

On the other hand, ‘modern primitives’ use nonmainstream body modifiers as a means of proclaiming self-identity and a way of rescuing the self from the modern day problems. All of the above cases show how people project the body as a medium of social significance rather than as a matter of personal choice.

These non-mainstream body art practices are closely tied to people’s conceptualizations of the self and society, social control, and gender relations thus making it impossible to modify one’s body limitlessly. This paper analyzes Featherstone’s claim that self-invention “is an ideology that informs body projects as much as it is a practice that constitutes them.

No body projects limitlessly expand the range of possibilities for human subjectivity, nor do they ‘invent’ the self as a matter of personal choice” (Pitts 2003, p.34), with reference to nonmainstream body modification.

The Emergence of the Body Modification Movement

In the early 1990s, people, especially the youth and women, developed an unprecedented interest in tattoos, thus resulting in a surge in tattoo parlors across the US. The shift to body piercing and tattoos was for not only aesthetic reasons but also a portrayal of a tribal-style that is distinct from the mainstream tattoos in Europe and the US (Jordan 2006). Such body art was popular amongst people outside the mainstream tattooing communities.

Besides tattoos, the body modifiers employed adornments of certain cultural groups. They borrowed scarification, which is a body modification that involves cutting of the skin to produce scars of various shapes, from African communities.

In addition, branding of the skin often with hot metal to create a scar with a specific shape, body piercings, earlobe expansion, as seen in indigenous African communities, skin implants, and sub-dermal implants were all borrowed from indigenous Native American, African, and Hindu cultures (Jordan 2006). All these forms of body art were used for ritualistic or tribal purposes, political, or personal communication, or performance.

Later, technological inventions transformed body art into a celebrated art. Cyberpunks, using biomedical devices, developed new body art styles including laser-mediated implants (Jordan 2006). The rise of many art styles and body modifiers, the increase in tattoo parlors dealing in non-mainstream art, and the emergence of websites, books, and magazines containing body art practices led to the rise of the body modification movement.

The non-mainstream body art movement borrows from various cultures including punk, performance art, pro-feminism movements, Western tattooing, and spiritualism movements (Braun 2009). Of all these forms, tattooing is the most developed type of non-mainstream modification.

Braun (2009) states that Western tattooing, which was initially practiced by European aristocrats and sailors, would later be embraced by the middle-class, and was associated with marginality and social deviance. The kind of tattoos they used had masculine and patriotic symbols of flags or lions.

As Gagne and McGaughey (2002) put it, the new age of tattooing in the West in the twentieth century was predominantly common amongst the working class men to display their sense of belonging or community. However, towards the end of the twentieth century, tattoos became associated with marginalized and stigmatized social groups such as convicts and organized gangs. Gagne and McGaughey (2002) note that at this time, the “tattooing was viewed as a deviant practice in the public mind” (p.815).

Thus, tattoos were used as a sign of disaffection or rebellion amongst the stigmatized groups, thus eventually creating a sub-culture that is symbolized by rebellion. In Gagne and McGaughey’s (2002) terms, people who embraced body art were perceived as “rootless, unconventional, and marginal” (p.821), which is a kind of rebellion towards the mainstream society.

Defining the Self and Society

The body modifications, which have been borrowed from indigenous cultures, are used as rebellious practices towards mainstream society. For instance, in the 1970s, the British punks used facial piercings, tattoos, and hairstyles borrowed from the Native American society (Jordan 2006). Besides these body modifications, the punks wore torn t-shirts, torn jeans, leather jackets and boots, and others even wore the swastika to show open aberration to the norms of the American society.

As Frank (2004) points out, the punk body modifications were both offensive and shocking to the authorities. Its state-level creativity and offensive symbols sent a message of resistance and rebellion to the authorities. Frank (2004) adds that the present body modifiers developed from punk culture represent a transformative movement that uses the body to express anger and social resistance. The movement raises serious issues related to deviance towards mainstream society.

In modern society, issues such as gay rights and feminist rights have led to movements that use the body as a medium of deviance against existing social norms. The body also serves as a medium of social regulation and a way of expressing liberation with regard to sexuality, faith/spirituality, health, and power (Frank 2004). For instance, the ‘pro-sex’ feminism has not only emerged as a movement that opposes the perceived oppression under patriarchy and social control but also serves as a way of empowering and liberating women sexually.

In contrast, the New Age movements object the religious traditions of the West and Western medicine (Jordan 2006). They turn into other cultures as sources of new practices on bodily care.

Gay liberation movements encourage the use of deviant body art including tattooing and piercings, transgender adornments, and nonconventional body modifications such as corsetry to alter and feminize their body shapes. Others use more radical practices and pleasures that not only go against mainstream gay practices but also contravene societal gender norms.

The issues related to sexuality and gender politics primarily involve the body as a site for expressing self-identity. Non-mainstream body modifications combine various traditions and interests associated with the body, thus culminating in sub-cultural groups with shared values. For body modifiers, the body is a medium for self-exploration, which should be reclaimed from the mainstream culture.

Therefore, instead of serving as a site of social regulation and domination by spirituality, medicine, and patriarchy, the body is a site for examining one’s identity, pleasure, and bonding with others (Jordan 2006). Self-identity in the modern era highlights factors that influenced the notion that the body is “a self-reflexive project for modern people” (Sullivan 2009, p.130).

The ideas such as the “lifestyle and practices” that people choose to portray self-identity and the dominant ideologies on family and religion are diminishing as modern people try to establish a new sense of the ‘self’ based on their physical bodies (Braun 2009). In this regard, the rise in body modification practices among the youth is influenced by the pre-occupations of dominant discourses in the mainstream society.

From a sociological perspective, the rise in tattooing and piercing practices particularly in Western societies is associated with reduced stigma and appeal of the practice among the youth and women.

Some sociologists have attempted to describe the impact of body art on one’s self-identity and group identity. Sullivan (2009) argues that tattoos have important “social cues” among people, as they act as symbols of group identity. The body art including piercings and tattoos besides being part of the modern fashion system also allow one to explore the self.

Body Modification Projects

Tattoos, scars, and piercings have much in common with mainstream body practices. However, modern bodies are viewed as limitlessly transformable based on race, gender, or class. If there were no power relations, then identity construction through body modification would be possible for all people (Sullivan 2009).

However, since power relations, gender, and social aberration influence body modifications, it can be argued that self-invention body projects do not create the ‘self’ based on one’s personal choice. Body projects are indeed conceptions of the self; however, they are limited in time and space such that the symbols inherent in tattoos and piercings can be construed in only one social context or within one social system.

According to Frank (2004), capitalistic societies encourage self-transformation of bodies and personal consumption. This ideology encourages people to exercise their personal freedoms, create private worlds, and expand personal consumption. Body projects fall into various categories based on economic status and individuals’ ability to handle social pressures.

Most Western body projects have different origins, are perceived differently, and they have distinct implications on society. In other words, while some body projects may be celebrated in a particular culture, others stir feelings of hatred and stigma. In Western culture, projects such as cosmetic surgery, where wrinkles are removed surgically, is socially accepted, especially for middle-class women.

In contrast, brandings and scarification are not only repulsive but also disliked in Western culture (Jordan 2006). Besides cosmetic surgery, other body art projects such as spa and weight check projects have either direct or indirect links to the economy. Also, body projects categorize people into different groupings, such as race/ethnicity, sexuality, and gender.

The spread of Western culture has had less impact on the social norms or classes of sexuality, ethnicity/race, and gender, which continue to define body modifications in the West. According to Sullivan (2009), body projects have close associations with power relations and social exclusion giving rise to differentiated groupings within the society. Thus, in modern body projects, the concept of self-invention is largely influenced by societal forces.

Even when body modification is subject to the prevailing political and social forces, non-mainstream body modifications are not perceived as pathological or unnatural (Sullivan 2009).

Moreover, such body projects do not indicate that people can limitlessly or freely tattoo or pierce their bodies as a way of defining self-identity. Instead, most body projects are influenced by a combination of culture, self-identity, and body-subjects (Braun 2009). Thus, the body is a construct of a social process that is defined by the existing power relations within society.

From a sociological perspective, social power influences the body modifications and thus the body is beyond one’s control. In this regard, as individuals, it is possible to perceive the body projects as being symbolic of social deviance, and thus the body modifications are not entirely the making of one’s choosing; rather, they are constructs of the society. Braun (2009) notes that instead of viewing the body as a medium of social expression and self-identity development, feminists describe the body as a formation of social relations.

In the West, moral and political regulation associated with power relations especially the social categories of sexuality, race/ethnicity, and gender influence the nature of body projects. Braun (2009) further argues that modern power has close links to individual subjectivity observed in the twentieth century. Thus, technologies to control the body such as confinement and surveillance developed as primary ways of regulating the body.

Modern approaches use skills and behavior alteration to modify the body to suit industrial needs. In this regard, these developments deny the body self-regulation as it is often the target of power relations in society. The concepts of self-identity are creations of sociological disciplines, which have become internalized over time as socially acceptable or deviant identities.

Conclusion

The relationship between non-mainstream body modifications and society is indirect. While in most traditional societies body modifications such as tattoos and piercings served to socialize the body, in the Western societies, non-mainstream body modifications aim at isolating the self from the mainstream society.

However, the body projects have close links with social constructs of gender, sexuality, and ethnicity, thus making it impossible for one to modify his or her body limitlessly.

Reference List

Braun, V 2009, ‘The Women are Doing it for themselves: The Rhetoric of Choice and Agency around Female Genital ‘Cosmetic Surgery’, Australian Feminist Studies, vol. 24 no. 60, pp. 234-239.

Frank, A 2004, ‘Source Emily’s Scars: Surgical Shapings, Technoluxe, and Bioethics’, The Hastings Center Report, vol. 34 no. 2, pp. 18-29.

Gagne, P & McGaughey, D 2002, ‘Designing Women: Cultural Hegemony and the Exercise of Power among Women Who Have Undergone Elective Mammoplasty’, Gender and Society, vol. 16 no. 6, pp. 814-838.

Jordan, J 2006, ‘The rhetorical limits of the plastic body’, Quarterly Journal of Speech, vol. 90 no. 3, pp. 327-358.

Pitts, V 2003, In the Flesh: The Cultural Politics of Body Modification, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke

Sullivan, N 2009, ‘The Somatechnics of Bodily Inscription: Tattooing’, Studies in Gender and Sexuality, vol. 10 no.2, pp. 129–141.

Introduction

Living in the information era presupposes being able to acquire new knowledge and use it properly. As far as the acquisition tools are concerned, however, a major conflict seems to have emerged. While the scientific method of qualitative or qualitative research has been defined as the most efficient means of acquiring the necessary information, the unorthodox methods of gathering information pertain within contemporary society.

Indigenous ways of living in nature are opposed to the scientific method of cognition, yet the two should be combined so that a perfect method of cognition should be created.

Science as the Most Reasonable Way to Cognise the World

The opinion of science seems to have become the only credible source of knowledge in a contemporary world, and for a good reason – with the recent technological breakthrough and the advent of the era of the information society, science has clearly become the main tool in acquiring new knowledge. Thus, science is viewed as the key means of propelling the humankind.

Indeed, the scientific methods of cognizing the world have a range of advantages compared to the existing alternatives – science supports the key theoretical tenets with logical reasoning, vast research, and impressive evidence. Moreover, it is crucial that the present-day theories offer substantial information on the connections between the existing domains.

Indigenous Ways of Knowledge and Intuitive Understanding of the World

One of the major problems and at the same time major advantages of indigenous ways of knowing is that they blur the line between objective reality and spirituality, therefore, leaving the person discovering these ways to a major introspect. On the one hand, the idea of losing touch with reality does impede the process of cognizing the world. O the other hand, meditation paves the way to metacognition.

The latter, in its turn, helps one locate one’s place in the universe; as a result, the process of acquiring knowledge about the relations between different elements of nature becomes a possibility. Much to the credit of the people supporting an indigenous way of cognizing the environment and locating people’s place in it, there are some grains of reason in the philosophy that is not supported by contemporary science.

Conclusion: Locating a Compromise

The entire conflict revolves around the phenomenon of an intuitive understanding of nature and its laws. On the one hand, the existence of intrinsic knowledge has not been proven scientifically and, thus, cannot be relied upon. On the other hand, it is the indigenous knowledge that allows for insight and, therefore, enhances an intuitive understanding of nature’s laws and principles.

On the other hand, even the cognition of one’s self, not to mention the attempts at understanding the order of the universe, requires that basic rules and information should be learned. In their endeavors of learning the principles of nature’s cycle on their own, one is most likely to spend an entire lifetime on figuring out what the rest of the humankind has learned already with the help of science.

Herein the key to the conflict between the intrinsic knowledge and science lies. It is essential that one should learn the key principles of a scientific method, as well as the essential concepts that have advanced science so far. At the same time, one must train their skill of indigenous knowledge, therefore, creating a stronger link with nature and learning about the relationship between the latter and the spirituality of one’s people, i.e., the roots of one’s culture.

In his article “A critical Mess”, Scott Rowan highlights the problems associated with the monthly cycling event ‘Critical Mass’ in the streets of Chicago. In his argument, Rowan, the president of Sherpa Multimedia, explains the pains and frustrations that the Chicago community undergoes when the cyclists take to the streets demonstrating their riding skills and claiming that it is their constitutional right to do so. I tend to agree with Rowan that the problem can be solved through corporate sponsorship.

Specifically, the cyclists take to the streets without warning, blocking the roads and shouting obscene words at other road users, who are forced to stick in the traffic for several minutes or even hours. Even more worrying is the time at which the event takes place.

Almost every Critical Mass event takes place on Fridays and in the morning rush hour when most of the city commuters are moving towards their workplaces. If corporations are involved in sponsoring the cyclists, the companies involved are likely to consider their social responsibility and rights of others by making sure that the sponsored participants are educated on the need to respect other road users.

Noteworthy, it is embarrassing to note that the cyclists have the support of the authorities. The Chicago City Hall has recognized the rights of the cycles to assemble and express their conscience about the affairs of the city. Rowan states that “…Every time they start their “en mass” movement, the police always give them escort and protection…” (Rowan 12). They do not recognize other people’s rights and affairs.

I recognize the right of the people to assemble and expression. I also support the right of the cycles to claim that the city planners did not recognize cyclers as normal road users. Therefore, I believe corporations can determine the best time and place for the event because it will be a form of business. Thus, the organizations will ensure that they adhere to civil and traffic rules and regulations.

However, it is clear that the main problem concerns the behavior of the participants. Although they have the right to assemble, I do not think the constitution grants them the right to disrupt the public. In most of the events, some participants attend the event while under the influence of alcohol (Schweitzer 18).

They abuse other road users, cause traffic jam and sometimes accidents. On their part, the city authorities have failed to consider the economic loss associated with the event. A minute delay in the city’s traffic means a loss to the economy, yet the city’s coffers have huge deficits. When corporations are involved, they will be accountable for any behavior and problems caused by cyclists. Therefore, they are likely to ensure that the cyclists are registered before they are allowed to participate.

Instead of finding better methods of solving the problem, the authorities and the media support the event and the hooliganism associated with it. In his article, Rowan suggests that the city of Chicago should “…consider the initiatives that the organizers of the 2012 London Olympics did- corporate sponsorship” (Rowan 12).

According to Rowan, corporate sponsorship will turn the chaotic event into a profitable monthly event that will attract genuine and decent cyclers into the city. He argues that it will ensure that motorists are safe and the hooliganism will cease.

I must agree with Rowan on this matter. Providing corporate sponsorship does not necessarily mean that the riders will behave. However, it will attract decency because the sponsors will be held liable for any problem associated with the behavior of the riders. Corporations that sponsor the event will be responsible for any damages made, including accidents, public disruption and traffic jams.

Thus, they will try to hold the event at the appropriate time and place in order to avoid some of these problems. On their part, the riders will be required to behave in the appropriate manner and ensure that their actions do not violate the rights of other road users.

Works Cited

Rowan, Scott. “Critical Mess…uh En Masse.” Chicago Tribune 2 Oct. 2011: 12. Print

Schweitzer, Kevin. “Bike’s Messengers: Critical Mass a Rolling Example of Cycling’s Appeal”. Chicago Tribune 25 May 2003: 18. Print

The results of a conversation depending on the levels of communication between the parties that are involved. Some conversations, depending on the levels they are based upon, yield positive results and may create healthy relationships. The Social Penetration Theory by Irwin Altman states that the level of conversation defines communication and relationship.

He argues that a close social relationship can be created from a healthy conversation where the two parties involved are in the same level of understanding. This research paper seeks to explore how levels of conversation influence levels of relationships and functions.

There are several levels of conversation. A conversation may be social, mental, emotional, or spiritual. In a social conversation, there is an exchange of views and expectations from the parties. This level of conversation requires one to be keen on communication to be able to know whether the conversation will continue or not.

The people involved in this level of conversation may have varying opinions depending on their understanding of the topic of discussion. However, mutual respect and understanding should prevail in the conversation in order to get better results irrespective of the level of relationship that exists between the parties. A mental level of conversation aims at giving facts over an issue. This level of conversation lays the grounds for deeper communication and relationship.

One should be keen to pick other information that may be expressed through the tone or body movements in order to understand how to tune the conversation to be fruitful. Emotional and spiritual levels of conversation are very tricky. The emotional conversation seeks to get a confidant. Whatever one says in this level of conversation is supposed to be kept secret and not to be shared with other persons.

If this condition is not observed the relationship between the parties may become sour after the conversation. The spiritual level of conversation is based on one’s believes and faith in some form of divine power. In this level of conversation, a self-fulfilling relationship may be developed particularly if the people involved in the conversation share the same faith.

To realize a self-fulfilling relationship we need to consider the level of conversation and the level of relationship for both parties. A person at the social level of conversation may find it tricky developing a relationship with another person who is in the emotional level. This is so because at that moment of the conversation these two people are in different moods and worlds of reasoning and understanding. Considering this factor will avoid conflicts and stressful relationships.

Some outcomes of a given conversation that is not level sensitive may affect our relationships severely if no efforts are made to rectify the situation. This is evident from the relationship I had with my class teacher some time back. She called me after class work and reprimanded me over my poor performance in class. At this particular time, I was in deep sorrow and pain as I was mourning over the death of my best friend who had passed on the previous day.

The grief made me talk in a rude manner to the teacher during the conversation. We exchanged words that affected our relationship to a great level. After a long time of stress, I decided to make up with the teacher, and she was very sorry when I explained what I was going through at that moment. This is a clear indication of how levels of conversation may influence levels of relationship and function as self-fulfilling prophecies about our relationships and ourselves

In a coherent society, humanity lives not according to the laws of nature but according to the laws, which society and social code dictate to people. Having decided the question of survival, humanity can afford its living taking into account the feelings and emotions of individuals and not caring about the best ways of growing in number. That is why in the majority of states relationships are now being built based on the principles of faith and devotion.

Men and women chose one partner and tried to do their best to preserve and save this bond, guarantee its stable development and prosperity. The idea of fidelity is widely accepted in society and a persons devotion to his/her partner is praised and encouraged. However, there are still states, in which men have the right to have several partners at the same time.

It is explained by religious aspects and by polygamous nature of a man. Being responsible for the continuation of mankind, a man should have as many partners as it is possible to guarantee the prosperity of humanity. Being rather popular at different periods of our history, polygamous and monogamous relations have their advantages and disadvantages. However, being widely spread nowadays, monogamy needs further analysis.

Nowadays, monogamy is determined as a marriage or relations with only one person at a time (DeLecce para. 1). This sort of relations is considered to be the only legal type of bond in the majority of states all over the world. However, there were times when people considered monogamy to be wrong and unacceptable. Archeologists and paleontologists often find some evidence which prove that in ancestral times, people practiced polygamy as it was the best way to guarantee their survival.

Usually, the strongest men had the right to have several wives. It was a beneficial practice from evolution as the best man could give his qualities to descendants. However, in the process of its development, humanity changed the model of its behavior and started practicing monogamy. This shift was influenced by several factors.

One of the most important was the religious aspect. Christian church became more influential and powerful, and it promoted the development of monogamous relations, strictly forbidding relations with several women at one time. However, being in a marriage with one woman, a man still practiced relations with another. The change in consciousness of people came with the development of complicated and democratic societies, where the moral became powerful enough to influence the choice and behavior of men.

Having chosen a monogamous type of relations, humanity gained some obvious advantages. The first one is more stable and clear relationships within the married couple. Being the basic element of the society, a family should be strong enough to be able to develop itself and guarantee the development of the state.

Within this framework, this sort of relations seems to be more preferable. Having only one partner, a person is more caring, and he/she devotes most of his/her efforts trying to guarantee happiness and comfort to his/her beloved one. The second advantage is a better treatment for children in a monogamous family. There was a high degree of child mortality in the societies which practiced polygamy as men could have as many children as he could afford, though not being involved or interested in their raising (Shuiling 56).

Moreover, there were cases of male infanticide as men were trying to get rid of would be rivals (Lukas and Clutton-Brock 527). On the contrary, the typical modern monogamous family has one or two children, that is why it is very important for both partners to guarantee their childrens safeness and upbringing. Parents devote the greater part of their time, forces and funds to the creation of good conditions under which their children will live.

However, there are not only advantages of this sort of relations. First of all, it should be said that from evolution, monogamy is very dangerous and makes humanity weaker. There is no use denying the fact, that monogamous family cannot produce as many children as polygamous and that is why the future of society seems to be more vulnerable.

Though, mortality degree of children being lower in monogamous families, polygamous ones still give more would be members of society. Moreover, there is one more disadvantage in practicing monogamy. Very often monogamous relations succumb to boredom and jealousy. Being together for a long period, partners very often become tired of each other. In its turn, it can lead to psychological and physiological problems.

Moreover, a great number of crimes are committed by one of the partners on the foot of jealousy or some other inner problems. Polygamous marriage lacks this drawback, guaranteeing diversity for one of the partners. Moreover, monogamous relations can suggest more ways to avoid scandals and misunderstanding within a couple.

Nowadays, monogamous relations are standard for the majority of states all over the world. People accepted this model with all its advantages and disadvantages. Having made this choice under the influence of several factors, people now live according to its rules. There are several problems connected with this type of relations. The first one is that being officially married or in relations with a partner, very often a person has a lot of partners outside these relations.

Formally being monogamous, in practice these relations turn out to be polygamous. That is why it is possible to speak about the deceitful character of this sort of relations as it promotes the development of jealousy and misunderstanding.

However, it should be said that monogamous family is the only way for people to raise children and respect each other which seem to be acceptable in modern society as it respects rights and does not humiliate the dignity of one of the partners. Nevertheless, it still has some prejudices connected with the role of women in marriage, that is why it is possible to say that monogamous relations are not so ideal as they often said to be.

Having analyzed the data, it is possible to come to certain conclusions. First of all, it should be said that the sort of relations in which a person has the only partner and is devoted to him/her is the most popular in the world. Monogamy is a common mating system in a modern democratic society.

Developed under the influence of the Church and moral aspects, it now still has some advantages and disadvantages. Guaranteeing tighter relation between partners within a family, it also supplies children with better conditions, under which they live and develop. However, it sill promotes the development of jealousy and violence within a family. With this in mind, it is impossible to call monogamy an ideal type of relations for people as they still have strong animal instincts.

Works Cited

DeLecce, Tara. What Is Monogamy? n.d.

Lukas, Douglas and Tom Clutton-Brock. “The Evolution of Social Monogamy in Mammals”. Science. 341.6145 (2013): 526 – 530.

Shuiling, GA. “The benefit and the doubt: why monogamy?”Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 24.1 (2003): 55-61.