Several sociological theories have tried to address the impact of risk in molding individuals, as well as determining social development in communities. In the attempt to investigate various theories to this effect; this paper shall conclusively analyze positions taken by three leading thinkers: Deborah Lupton, Frank Furedi, and Zygmunt Bauman. Various positions taken by these thinkers will be investigated and compared.
Lupton
Lupton traces the definition and classification of risk in recent history. First, she asserts that risk was previously was associated with fortune and fate (Lupton 1999). The fate aspect of risk originated from the individuals inability to protect themselves from what could befall them. Most fateful exposures occurred as individuals tried to deal with their day-to-day lives. The fortune aspect occurred as individuals exposed themselves through risky activities. This meant that social status determined measures taken to protect self against risk, which resulted in the development of identity in societies. Todays definition of risk has come to be divided into different categories, such as medical, economic, and environmental risk among others. Exposure to these types of risks thus determines the development of an individuals identity.
As a result of changing definition and classification of risk, Lupton asserts that risk factors are controlled at the individual, institutional and societal level (Lupton 1999). At the individual level, individuals are tasked with ensuring that the shaping of their identities by risk factors have to is kept to the minimum. But this is a little hard considering that the modern types of risks cannot be controlled at the individual level. For instance, economic and environmental risks can hardly be controlled by individuals. Individuals develop institutions that help reduce the effects of risks in their day-to-day living. Governments are also tasked with the responsibility of capping the effects of risks in citizens (individuals) lives.
However, asserts Lupton, the very existence of institutions and governments tend to increase the effects of fear in individuals lives, the reason being that individuals are constantly reminded of the presence of risk in their daily lives (Lupton 1999). Having it in mind that there exist risks that could affect their identities leads to individuals changing their lifestyles constantly, which could eventually lead to identity change. The replication of identity and lifestyle change could lead to an overhaul in way of life in society. Lupton adds that institutions, which are supposed to help in reducing the effects of risk, and governments tend to create risks worse than the ones being addressed.
The results of individuals in the society being reminded of the presence of risks in their lives have included a continued change of social life. This has resulted from the politicization of risk issues in society. Indeed leaders in societal institutions and governments have seemed to make addressing risk their preoccupation. Fact that these two institutions could not have existed were it not for risk means that those working in them would keep telling the public of new types of risk. These players understand that failing to tell of risk would mean also death to their occupation. In addition, it can conclusively be asserted that the presence of institutions creates incentives for the establishments to engage in activities that would pose risk to their respective communities.
The increased interaction of people from all over the world and the interconnection of societal relationships has also contributed to the increased exposure to risk. This has resulted in greater subjectivity of risk in society (Lupton 1999). Given that individuals have less control over risk factors that develop from their increased interconnection with rest of the world have increased concerns. This has made people more concerned with their identities than ever before. Self defense against risk mean that identities can efficiently be protected. This individual intervention means that individuals have more choices in developing successful frameworks. Despite the success of self-initiated measures, institutional and governmental intervention has dominated prevention measures to an extent that individuals have been left with little choice. Fact that some of these institutions and government are at the center of causing risks to the public raises questions whether effects of risk in determining individual identity and social development would be achieved any time soon.
Bawman
Bawman agrees with Lupton that definition of risk has been evolving with time, reason: nothing keeps original shape (Bawman 2004). The changing face of risk is therefore caused by changing time. Owing to the changing face of risk, Bawman argues that so does the measures developed to address the problem. He therefore claims that individuals should keep developing new strategies to protect their indentions and societies from effects of risk. Institutions developed with intentions of helping individuals deal with risk issues should also improve on strategies. Any failure to improve mechanism would lead to continuation of using old and ineffective methods in protecting individuals and societies from dreadful consequences posed by risk factors.
Unlike Lupton who does not specify on the best positioned authority to ensure best protection against risk, Bawman is quick to note the importance of letting individuals take control of protection measures (Bawman 2004). According to Bawman, even institutions, including governments, which are tasked with the responsibility of helping individuals deal with risk factors, are subject to change with time. Trouble is that institutions are slow to change and thus subject people into greater risks. The ability of individuals to change in accordance with protection demands is therefore the greatest reason of letting them take control. In addition, having them take control reduces chances of moral hazard. This is a measure that leads to the entire society take control of the existing risk factors.
Bawman agrees that the existence of risk greatly the human experience. However, nothing can be done to eradicate risk despite attempts by institutions and governments, some of which have made risk eradication their preoccupation. Fact that these institutions try to eradicate risk rather than developing measures that would reduce effects is one of the reasons why they should relied upon. Providing these institutions with responsibility of eradicating risk is therefore the greatest mistake that societies undertake. The consequences of relying on institutions to develop and implement protection frameworks has have been dare to societies, even considering that the reliance began just few centuries ago.
Despite greater demand that individuals be given more say in the dealing with risk factors, Bawman argues on the importance of improving institutions aid the process of helping individuals deal with risks. This is because working institutions provide members of the public with hope that something is being done to address risk factors prevalent in respective communities. Solutions proposed through these institutions happen to mirror of individuals except that they are applied on a large scale level. In this consideration, Bawman calls for individuals to be involved in the formulation of frameworks used by the institutions and the government (Bawman 2004).
According to Bawman, there exists both positive and negative consequences of of depending on the individuals to develop and implement solutions to risk factors. The major advantage is that people are allowed to make mistakes and learn from them, which is the best way of knowing what works and what does not work. This also helps institutions and governments to concentrate on risks that cannot be controlled at the individual level. Another benefit is that people develop tendencies to undertake precautionary measures, because they would be the ones to pay the price. This benefit thus helps in reducing the possibility of moral hazard.
The negative effects of providing individuals with liberties to protect themselves from risks include sacrificing those without enough resources to do so. Only those with resources to help reduce effects of risks that get all benefits. It is in this regard that institutions and governments engage in the processes of ensuring that all in the community are well covered. In addition, the failure for most people to take care of the risk factors could lead to the entire society paying the price, which is not fair to those who had adequately prepared themselves. Fact that some factors out of individual control could be left without being covered, and therefore result to greater societal consequences.
Furedi
Furedi largely concentrates on the effects of ever increasing risk consciousness to the entire society (Furedi 1997). This sentiment arises from an observation that society has been forcing members to be concerned of the risk factors that could befall them, but provides little or no solution at all. As it has turned out, people are increasingly raising concerns regarding risks that have existed since time immemorial. Due to the societal risk pressure exerted on individuals, people have come to develop an identity of fearby always thinking that there is something that could impact their lives negatively. One downside of this fear is that society provides little remedies. So the question of what needs to be done is left to the individuals. As if not enough, the society still has doubts on solution mechanisms developed at the individual level; for instance, it is constantly claimed that individual solutions are less effective compared to those developed by the established institutions as well as government agencies. In this regard, members of the public are left more confused on what they should do. This confusion leaves Furedi with a lot of questions on what the society, especially leaders expect individuals to do. Unlike Bawman and Lupton who provide some space for institutions and governments to take part in the solution development stages, Furedi argues that developing solutions should completely be individuals business. This is because participation of institutions and the state in the solution development and implementation processes would lead to greater confusion that would decrease efficiency on the measures already in application.
Furedi argues that the institutionalization of risk issues has led to the loss of individual liberty to develop mechanisms to deal with risk issues, which is another way of demanding more liberty to the people (Furedi 1997). This liberty has been lost through the powers that institutions have taken from the public. Some of these powers include forcing members of the public to follow on the mechanism developed by these institutions, failure of which individuals could be subject to being regarded as law breakers. These institutions have the tendency to develop one-size-fits-all solutions that end up benefiting some people in the society while hurting others. As a result, the societies find themselves in situations where some members, which could be the majority, having their identities being changed by the risks, whereas other community members, sometimes minority, reap all the benefits. Furedi argues that this imbalance could be leveled one individuals are left to develop mechanisms that fit their needs. Any failure to embark on leaving individuals alone could lead to increased imbalances in societies, which does not bode well to marginalized members, who mostly happen to be the most poor and venerable groups.
Providing individuals with abilities to develop their own mechanism would lead to the use of precautionary measures among societies. Society members who may fail to develop internal mechanisms would pay the price by having their identities and circles of influence being negatively affected by certain risks. But this does not mean that there all society members would be safe from risks; some, especially the poor ones would be affected. It is in this regard that Furedi calls for the well positioned society members to aid their colleagues; institutions and governments, too, are called into taking part in helping needy groups to overcome risk challenges (Furedi 1997).
This involvement of all community members to help needy groups in the society should not lead to the establishment of new risks. Reason: parties coming to help might start raising alarm on risks arising from the poor peoples lack of solution mechanisms. This does not help at all. If anything, fear and problems associated with risks tend to increase, which makes it even harder to bring under control. The raising of alarms by institutions and governments is one fear that Furedi raises, asserting that society members become more scared, which could lead to slow adaptation of coping with risk factors.
In addition, Furedi argues that societys preoccupation with risk leads lead to development of low expectations among the populace (Furedi 1997). This is because self confidence in developing and implementing successful mechanisms is affected. This leads to the development of paternalism, where society members start depending on the state and institutions to help in dealing risk issues. The development of paternalism does not bode well to the society, because getting too hooked may lead to the development of moral hazards. In addition, people society members might end up underusing their potential in solving problems in their lives.
This paper has presented three perspectives on the effects of risk in shaping individuals identity as well as society development. It has been established that risk factors have greater impacts on the two aspects tested, meaning that failure to protect against risk could change community and individuals lives completely. However, a question arises on the party to be responsible in developing and implementing risk reduction mechanism. The three thinkers agree that individuals should be at the forefront, but have contradicting views when it comes to institutional and state roles.
References
Bawman, Z 2004, Identity, CUP, Cambridge.
Furedi, F 1997, Culture of Fear. Wisely & Sons, New York.
In the Big Feelings book, a group of children has a shared goal of converting a trash-filled area into a playing ground. The children have different feelings such as happiness, excitement, or hopeful toward the task, hence threatening the finalization of the program. The children need to acknowledge each others emotional feelings and work together to be successful in the project.
The Books theme(s)
Cooperation
Friendship
Inspiration
Emotional vocabulary
Scary
Exciting
Nervous
Recall questions of the story
While reading the story, I would ask the children how they feel while staying in a clean environment with other people. How would they detect if they wanted to make good relationships with other people? What can we do to control our emotions when interacting with other people? And finally, what can we do to create a pleasant environment in our school and community?
Activities
Literacy
The use of literacy components such as rhyme and singing can help children minimize their emotional feelings. According to (K1l1nçc1 & Bayraktar, 2021), the utilization of technology in the production of printed materials such as books for learning activities can maximize learning outcome. The use of books can be a strategic way of increasing literacy during early childhood development.
Art
Since the story is about a clean environment, the children can use strings, a rope, and boxes to make sweepers and waste bins. They need to work together to make the brooms and dustbins and arrange them accordingly. When working together, they should share the strings and boxes among themselves.
Dramatic Play
I would encourage the children to sing and repeat the song for them to learn new rhymes. Also, I would ask the children to identify the new vocabulary from the lines and identify their meanings.
Math
The children should measure the length and width of the area using strings and a rope. I would question them how big the zone is when compared to their classroom? The frustrations arising during the measurements may influence childrens emotions, by talking about the benefits of math subject can yield positive outcome.
Small-Group Activity
The children should present the cleaning materials to the teacher and explain how they will clean the environment. Finally, the teacher will happily congratulate the children for their cooperation and determination.
Reference
K1l1nçc1, E., & Bayraktar, A., (2021). Early literacy materials and teacher practices in preschool classrooms. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 11(1), 447478. Web.
Having considered the course I cannot but say that there are some points missed in the course. There are a lot of social problems, but I would like to concentrate on the several topics, that are neglected in the course. These are migration, poverty, and providing education in countries of the third world. These problems are very urgent today as poverty and lack of education have the same roots, as people without proper education arent able to receive good jobs, and migration is caused by the wish of people to seek a better life with better living conditions.
Migration
Today there are 200 million migrants in the whole world. And each of them must be provided with proper respect and rights. UN General Minister Kofi Annan called migration one of the most important challenges of the XX century . Also, he said that some measures towards helping migrants must be taken. In the report Migration in Contemporary World: Directives of Actions written by the Worlds Organization of Migrations, concepts of actions, concerning the problem of migration, are included. The main concepts say:
People should have the right of migration upon their will, and not upon the forced necessity. Migration should be held safely and appropriately, respecting peoples rights and professional abilities.
The role of migrants in contributing to economic growth, development of the society, and reduction of the level of poverty must be officially accepted. Migration must become an inherent part of the strategy of world development.
Those states, which independently decide whom to allow entering their territory should actively cooperate in cases of resistance to illegal migration, concerning all the rights of migrants, refugees, and also everyone who decided to come back to their native country.
The state should contribute to the effective inclusion of officially accepted migrants into the life of society. That should be conducted according to the principles of social equality and diversity. Migrants must know their rights and claim for observation of their legal guarantees.
The structure of the rights of migrants should find its more effective realization to enhance the protection and labor standards of migrants.
The international community should aspire to the improvement of politics on the national level, to more efficient dialogues and cooperation between governments and international organizations.
It is mentioned in the report that migration essentially contributes to the development of the world economy, though no one accepted it. Moreover, considering the low birth rate in many industrial countries, a continuation of their economic development will be based on international migration. Every year migrants send to their countries nearly 150 billion US dollars. This quantity is three times more than the financial aid given by the developed countries.
Concerning the economic consequences of migration, the growth of tension between governments and the business sphere is underlined. Because of severe migration limits, some companies tend to reduce those limits in the part of work of migrants. Sometimes, companies even lead themselves to re-placing manufactures abroad, where suitable working personnel can be easily found.
The problems concerning illegal or irregular migration are also highlighted in the report. This phenomenon, especially when conducted with smuggling, threatens both migrants themselves, and the countries they arrive in. states have the right to protect their borders, but their ability to control the stream of people is greatly limited. In many cases, it causes threats to the rights of migrants. In many countries, where migrants arrive, local society treats them doubtingly.
Often these doubts are supported by mo real facts, but they are artificially spread by some politicians and mass media. The main reason for worries is safety. It is mentioned in the report that recent cases of violation committed by migrants led to making society create parallels between migration and terrorism. The growth of migration is treated as the real threat to national safety.
Poverty
Another problem is poverty. Poverty can be of different cases, it may refer to the lack of money, some facilities, or education. Today more than 1.7 billion of the earths population lives in poverty. Poverty is caused by many reasons. The first and the most obvious is financial problems. A lot of people are dependent on the economy of the country, and if the development plan fails, people find themselves poor and with their bottom dollar in their pockets. Today, the main reason for poverty is a financial crisis that led to the corruption of many economies of different countries, thus sentencing people to be in lack of money. Other reasons for poverty are corruption, political instability, and insufficient social institutes .
Poverty is divided into absolute poverty (which is divided into extreme (when people live on less than $1.25 per day) and moderate (when people live on less than $2 per day) poverty) and relative poverty (its the index of poverty in the world). To help starving and poor people, some aids are provided. International organizations try to provide them with food, clothes; try to give them proper education and to find some work for them.
Education
Another problem that is connected with poverty is education. There are more than 1 billion non-educated people in the world. The majority of them live in Africa and developing countries, as well as the majority of them, are women, mostly of the Muslim religion. This problem is also rather urgent as in the contemporary world education plays a great role in receiving proper work and earn a good living. Though many people still cannot read and write.
Besides, education is not very popular in agrarian countries, as people who used to work with their hands dont understand the importance of education. The degree of education is much higher than in industrialized countries . Also, another point why people in developing countries dont receive an education is that parents because of poor conditions of living prefer their children to make at least some money than to study for years.
Conclusion
All of the highlighted problems are of great importance today and all of the three are connected. Migration leads to poverty, as many people are illegal migrants and they cannot receive good working positions, which leads to poverty, which leads to forcing people to receive no education to make money, and lack of money makes people look for a better life somewhere abroad the locked circle. And the aim is to overcome it.
Reference List
Krugman, P, & Wells, R, Macroeconomics 2, Worth Publishers, New York City, 2009.
Schofield K, The Purposes of Education, Queensland State Education, Queensland, 2010.
Zenit.org. Migrants Are People, Not Money-Makers , Innovative Media, 2009.
Zenit.org. On World Day of Migrants , Innovative Media, 2009.
Japan is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy that protects its economic interests through positive relationships with other countries. Since Japan has low corruption rates, it offers opportunities for successful foreign direct investment (FDI) without considerable financial risk. The country is characterized as a collectivistic high-power distance society emphasizing group interests and hierarchy. It is one of the least uncertainty-tolerant nations with a long-term orientation, leading to the perseverance of values and wealth. A high level of masculinity explains the fundamental values of competition and success and causes a clear role distinction between women and men. Japan relies heavily on human labor and has the worlds lowest unemployment rates due to its work ethic and effective immigration laws. As an APEC member, the country supports the trading between the Americas and Asia-Pacific countries, but the shipping between Japan and the US might be financially unjustified due to considerable travel distance.
India is a federal parliamentary constitutional republic facing the problems of inequality and nationalism, resulting in conflicts and social discontent. English is the language of international business relations in India, so the country is favorable for foreign investors despite its high corruption rates and the lack of government transparency. India is an individualistic country with a high degree of independence and moderate tolerance to uncertainty, while the values of success and prosperity characterize it as a masculine society. The social structure is hierarchical with a high power distance level and intermediate long-term orientation influenced by religion. The fast-growing economy is based on the combination of capitalist and socialist production modes, which contributed to the formation of the middle class. India has a progressive economy and rich labor market, but the limits of its government on foreign business owners negatively affect FDI.
India
Political Status
India is a federal parliamentary constitutional republic with the President as the Head of State. The democratic country struggles with inequality and nationalism, causing conflicts and social discontent. While India offers valuable opportunities for FDI and the convenience of the English-speaking business environment, it has an unfavorable position in the Corruption Perceptions Index. Political financing in the country is not transparent and fair, as the government lobbies corporate interest groups and stimulates corruption in the public sector. However, the situation might change in the future, as the country began to follow the trend of open government and transparency after introducing the Right to Information Act. Additionally, in response to the global climate crisis, India will play a crucial role in sustainable development as it currently suffers from the effects of climate change. The growing economy will demand more energy in the future, so the government might invest in renewable energy or seek FDI support for sustainable development efforts.
Social Development
Indian society is characterized as individualistic, masculine, and moderately tolerant of uncertainty. However, as a highly religious country, India promotes the values of humility, abstinence, and caring for others. Power distance level defines the hierarchical and top-down social structure, with an intermediate level of long-term orientation. In 2019, India had a rank of 129 out of 189 on the Human Development Index (HDI), which means that the country struggles with inequality and deprivation (UNDP, 2019). Horizontal inequalities are expressed by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes underperformance based on indicators such as access to education, digital technology, and healthcare. Since economic development depends on human capital, stigma and exclusion undermine the professional potential of Indian citizens and thus, decrease FDI opportunities demanding a skilled workforce.
References
UNDP. (2019). Human Development Report 2019. Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st century. United Nations Publications.
Socialization is crucial for community growth and economic development since it promotes the exchange of ideas and unity. The development of social media platforms has made it easy for individuals to communicate regardless of the distance between them. Although technology has positively influenced socialization, it is associated with negatives such as misrepresentation and malice. Internet and the use of social media platforms make my interactions with my peers and schoolmates different from my grandparents. Although technology is important for socialization, it should be cautiously used to avoid hurting others.
Growing up involves interacting with different people who positively or negatively influence an individuals life. Agents of socialization are the people who influence key factors in a persons development in society. Some of the traditional agents of socialization are peers, schoolmates, and family members. Social media community groups such as WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger allow people to interact albeit the distance and time between them.
Consequently, social media has influenced socialization since people can interact without physically meeting. Additionally, the social media platforms have integrated translation software that make it easy for individuals to socialize without language barrier. The use of social media has made socialization easy by eliminating the need for physical meeting and language barrier.
However, the internet and social media pose various challenges that are detrimental to socialization. Impersonation and use of pseudo-social media accounts have led to the destruction of other persons reputations. Consequently, many people have suffered from depression and anxiety caused by the spread of false information about them. Moreover, the internet is addictive, making people waste productive time on social media platforms.
My experiences with my peers and schoolmates differ from those with my parents and grandparents. While I joke much with my peers and schoolmates over social media, the conversation and interactions with my parents and grandparents are often physical and based on honesty. Therefore, unlike my peers and schoolmates, my parents and grandparents influence pertinent issues involving our family.
Agents of socialization play a central role in influencing individuals behaviors. Social media and the internet have positively influenced communication among various agents of socialization. The use of WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger groups allows me to interact with my peers and schoolmates. However, the interactions and other socialization activities involving my parents are often physical and about family issues. Using the internet and social media with caution helps in avoiding problems such as impersonation.
Social development theory is aimed at exploring the changes in structure and way of society’s functioning to enable it to define its goals and objectives. According to this theory, development of the society is the result of its capacity to manage the resources to overcome challenges and use opportunities. Asset-based social development is related to the tenets of empowerment. It suggests that the key to finding solutions to the problems faced by the society lies in the already existing community assets.
The survey methodology appears to be the most appropriate for this research, as it gives an opportunity to collect a broad range of data and gives extensive flexibility in data analysis due to the unlimited number of questions that can be asked (Gideon, 2012).
The first hypothesis in the study will propose that students coming from Latino families had a lack of effective communication about sex with their parents when they were teenagers. Effective communication in this sense is viewed as a trustful discussion of issues vital to the formation of certain attitudes to sexuality. The second hypothesis will test whether the source of information received by a teenager about sex within a family affects his sexual behaviour in the future.
The study will also aid as a stepping stone for further research in the social work tackling the sexual behaviour of teenagers based on the activities aimed at promoting the parents’ awareness of the importance of building an effective communication about sex issues with the children.
This chapter brings out the research topic and the examination of the impact of the quality of communication between parents and children about sex on the sexual behaviour of teenagers and the behavioural patterns related to informing the children about sexual issues typical for Latino families.
The chapter also demonstrates the significance of the purpose of the study to contribute to the understanding of the relation between home sexual education and sexual behavioural patterns.
In addition, this chapter will help guide the literature review about studies exploring the importance of sexual education within a family and its influence on the sexual behaviours of teenagers.
Assets and Social Development. Social development theory can help to reveal the roots of such phenomenon related to the topic of the research as teen pregnancy and unsafe sex among teenagers. As this theory focuses on identification of factors guiding certain social changes, it is useful for determining the causes of different social phenomena, as showed by studies by Siau and Long (2006).
The usage of social development theory can be applied to the issue of family sexual education as well. The assets-based approach helps to suggest the potential steps necessary for overcoming teen pregnancies and unsafe sex with the help of already existing social asset – family units.
Sanders, Lankenau, and Jackson-Bloom (2010) reveal the methodology of conducting surveys aimed at revealing the roots of the risky sexual behaviour of Latino youth and contributing to the effectiveness of interventions addressing this phenomenon.
Cultural beliefs include those stereotypes and widely-accepted behavioral patterns that are affected by traditional and religious views of the Latino population.
Though this concept has some positive features within romantic relationships, it has deleterious features, including dominance and sexual prowess, within a framework of sexual behavior (Kassab et al., 2014).
Machismo defines masculinity as an ability to seduce a woman, and therefore, praises frequent sexual relations with different partners (Raffaelli & Iturbide, 2009).
While the cultural background of Latino youth creates the stereotypes promoting the inclination of male adolescents to have many sexual relations, the religious background related to the positions of Catholic Church contributes to the popularity of stereotype considering protected sexual relations inappropriate.
Young, Turner, Danny, and Young (2004) also concluded that poverty resulting in the lower educational level of the parents is one of the factors typical for the population experiencing teen pregnancy. Low income appears to have a significant influence on the risk of having unsafe sexual relationships leading to teen pregnancy.
Mehra, Kyagaba, Ostergren, and Agardh (2014) conducted a study that revealed the significant association between poor academic performance and inconsistent condom use.
The analysis of relevant literature related to the investigated issue reveals that more research is needed to determine the roots of the risky sexual behaviour of Latino youth resulting in teen pregnancies and develop an effective scheme of reducing such negative tendencies.
The Questionnaires presented in this chapter, and the description of the procedure related to their usage will help to understand the main issues of sexual education addressed during the research and the methods of analysis of the results.
The instruments used in the study include several questionnaires aimed at revealing the participants’ attitudes and experience related to sexual education.
The first part is borrowed from a previous research and consists of 17 issues that need to be analyzed in terms of the source of the information about them (mother, father, friends, media, school sexual education, and religious institution). The second part is also borrowed from the previous research and includes 60 statements that need to be rated according to the source of receiving such messages (parents, friends, media, school, religion).
The third part is created by the author of the study and includes two open-ended questions with the variants of answers. The fourth part is created by the author of the study and includes four open-ended questions with the variants of answers. The fifth part is created by the author and includes four topics that need to be rated based on the involvement of parents in the discussion. The sixth part is borrowed from the previous research and includes eight questions related to the demographic information.
References
Gideon, L. (2012). Handbook of survey methodology for social sciences, New York: Springer Science.
Kassab, V. A., Acevedo-Polakovich, I., Grzybowskil, M., Stout, S., Richards, A., Barnett, M.,…Saxena, S. (2014). Views on sex and sex education among gang-involved Latino youth in the United States. Qualitative Health Research, 24(5), 654-664. Web.
Mehra, D., Kyagaba, E., Ostergren, P.-O., & Agardh, A. (2014). Association between self-reported academic performance and risky sexual behaviour among Ugandan University students- A cross sectional study. Global Journal of Health Science6(4), 183-195. Web.
Raffaelli, M., & Iturbide, M.I. (2009). Sexuality and sexual risk behaviors among Latino adolescents and young adults. In F. A. Villarruel, G. Carlo, J. M. Grau, M. Azmitia, N. J. Cabrera, & T. J. Chahin (Eds.), Handbook of U.S. Latino psychology: Developmental and community-based perspectives (pp. 399–414). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sanders, B., Lankenau, S., & Jackson-Bloom, J. (2010). Putting in work: Qualitative research on substance use and other risk behaviours among gang youth in Los Angeles. Substance Use & Misuse, 45, 736-753. Web.
Siau, K., & Long, Y. (2006). Using social development lenses to understand e-government development. Journal of Global Information Management, 14(1), 47-62. Web.
Young, T., Turner, J., Danny, G., & Young, M. (2004). Examining external and internal poverty as antecedents of teen pregnancy. American Journal of Health Behaviour, 28(4), 361-373. Web.
Recent developments in technology have helped people communicate more conveniently. The smartphone, for example, has many great features. You can call, send pictures, post comments on social media and send text messages. Texting, in particular, is extremely popular, especially with young people. However, like many things, if overdone or misused, texting can be harmful. The most obvious problem is texting and driving, of course. There are also social situations and venues that make it inappropriate for texting. However, many young people deny labeling their actions as unacceptable (Tulane and Beckert 379).
When young people become so dependent on their phones, texting interferes and takes away from closeness in relations. Reid Goldsborough, a scholar on information technology, states, “Media is causing more distance in relationships. Over-reliance on texting has a deleterious effect on social development.” (73). For instance, in social gatherings, aren’t their moments you realize that people are more interested in their smartphone than talking with you? It is very irksome. This supports the belief that texting limits direct and intimate connection with others, influencing negatively on social development (Ling and McEwan 13).
Dr. R. Vitelli, a psychologist who has studied the effects of texting, reports that when young people receive a text, they feel stressed when they cannot respond. Perhaps, they are in class or at formal gatherings. The urge to pick up their phone or text back is so high that it creates a socio-ethical dilemma; should they ignore the text or risk acting inappropriately? Many young people have also reported feeling disconnected when they are cut off from their cell phones, even for relatively brief periods” (Vitelli 1). It is therefore not surprising that most countries have sanctioned laws limiting the use of mobile phones while driving and institutions of learning demand that all cell phones be switched off during classes and other school events.
Some researchers claim that texting and social media use can even cause emotional problems and alter how young people feel about themselves. A recent research study done by Washington University in Virginia found, text messaging in itself could exacerbate the effects of interpersonal strain due to the energy and time demanded by a revolving social environment. The nature of such an environment results in greater awareness and overall cognitive load on an individual. Text messaging by itself may not automatically be the cause of all problems. However, students already going through interpersonal stress are already more vulnerable to the issues associated with addictive text messaging (Vitelli 2).
When young people develop meaningful social relationships, this has a positive effect on their well-being and confidence. We should understand that intimacy in social relations matures through developed and sustained mutual social exchanges (Pea et al 328). It is, therefore, clear that human beings require social relationships. More so, Pea et al found that spending time together in a face-to-face situation brings about positive social feelings.
Dr. Hyman, however, says that cell phone use has become the way that young people interact socially, and this is not a bad thing (Cell Phones are Changing Interactions). Nevertheless, when texting becomes a substitute for face-to-face interaction and learning, it creates a barrier to the development of more intimate bonds with others. Conclusively, even though texting has many benefits and can be fun, if it becomes a substitute for real-life communication, then I think its use has gone too far.
References
Goldsborough, Reid. “Texting As Social Regress.” Teacher Librarian 39.5 (2012): 73. Academic Search Complete. Web.
Ling, Rich, and Rhonda McEwen. “Mobile Communication And Ethics: Implications Of Everyday Actions On Social Order.”Nordic Journal Of Applied Ethics / Etikk I Praksis 4.2 (2010): 11-25. Academic Search Complete. Web.
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Everyday arguments are emerging on the status of the present activism. Debates on whether activists display of opinions, street rallies, sit-ins and blockades are things of the past have emerged. Thus, we seek to highlight whether new forms of advocacy can still be effective in achieving social developments in modern society.
Scholars in the field of social movements have realised that a lot of changes are conspicuous in today’s advocacy causes, strategies and tactics. Social and economic movements have referred to advocacy as an “active support of an idea or cause expressed through strategies and methods that influence the opinion and decision of people and organisations” (Moyer, 1990).
The key reason of advocacy is to design or change policies, regulations, and laws that influence people daily activities and ensure fulfilment of people’s decisions. Advocacy targets policymakers who include: public servant, politicians, as well as government officials. Other bodies that impact on people’s lives and whose opinions and actions influence the policymakers are also keys in advocacy.
They include the private sector leaders, journalist media, social development agencies, trade unions, faith based and peace groups and enormous nongovernmental organisations such as Jubilee 2000, and Via Campesina.
A number of social movement organisations of today such as Via Campesina have their origin from advocacy. They have grown from the desire of wanting to recognise basic rights like the need for education, medical care, food, as well as just treatment among some groups of people like the disabled and the prisoners.
However, some phases of advocacies have not undergone transition i.e. advocacy on core values and some principles of independent advocacy. They entail self awareness, respect, equality, openness and stereotyping. On the other hand, other advocacy principles have gone through changes due to progresses in the community. These areas include to equal opportunities, business planning, evaluation procedures, equality and diversity strategies.
In the Global South, the rise of social and resistance movements is not a new notion. These movements grow daily in numbers, in Africa, Central and South America, Caribbean, Europe, South East Asia, and South Asia. The movements target activism, advocacy and grassroots, capacity building for advocacy among the locals for the aim of creating critical analysis, and emphasising detailed discussions on national and global policies.
Their task targets to lessen effects of globalisation, neoliberalism, and militarisation. Participants of this movement are mainly environmentalist, small-scale farmers and producers, peasants, rural women, youths, and casual labourers in the agricultural sector. Social and resistance movements always bear clear goals and objectives.
Such goals and objectives include advocating for food sovereignty, solidarity among peasants, breaking structures of political and economic institutions that inflict stress to the weak in society, coming up with structures and institutions for liberating, promoting peace and demilitarisation, reducing conflicts, and advocating for solidarity among farmer organisation.
Examples of resistance social movements in the Global South are Via Campesina; mainly concern with matters of agriculture commonly referred to as Family Farmers International, Focus on the Global South, People’s Global Action; movement constituting youths, Jubilee 2000; created for relieving debts, Friends of the Earth; movement for environmentalist.
Theoretical approaches on social and resistance movements
Rational choice theory
This theory focuses on comprehending social and economic behaviour among individuals. It states that both material and none material incentives drive people to engage in mass actions. Individuals believe in the increased rewards that accompany mass action and penalise those refraining from taking part in collective actions due to lack of personal benefits. Here, free-riders would like to take advantage of the mass but do not take part in the mass action (Olson, 1965).
In movements and advocacy organisations that are active in the Global South, millions participate with clear missions and objectives in mind. They are aware of the incentives that come with participating in these movements such as justice promotion, change and protection of their livelihoods, cultures, values, as well as community interests.
Members of the Via Campesina organisation, a prominent movement in the Global South comprising of indigenous communities, rural women, small scale famers, and agricultural workers enjoy the movement’s advocacy. They enjoy the right of producing food in their own territory, protection of farmers’ seeds, campaigns of ending brutality against women, as well as worldwide campaign for agrarian improvement.
The concept of freeriding does not directly pinpoint an individual’s mental functioning. It focuses on the different manifestations of motivation. Freeriding concept creates a logical, reasonable, and normal person to give in to other people’s action for social advantage of both self and other parties. These clearly show people’s perception on self-satisfaction to the well-being or utility of others; thus, peolpe support such movements in order to maximise self gains first and then for society as a whole.
Resource mobilisation theory
Theorists such as McCarthy and Zald developed resource mobilisation theory in order to explain mobilisation of individuals to help achieve the goals of a movement (McCarthy and Zald, 1977). They noted that freeriding offered opportunities for people to participate in social movement as a result of motivation, cost and benefit, as well as career benefits (Gamson, 1990). Consequently, people participate in social movement for personal resource gains than collective goals.
Marwell, and Oliver, 1992 state that resources are the catalyst for mobilisation than social protests (Marwell and Oliver, 1992). These resources include money, offices, communication equipment, volunteer time, media attention, and alliances with those in power. This theory presents participants as reasonable and only act if benefit outweighs costs (Gamson, 1990).
In Latin America countries for instance, the social movements mobilise people against free trade, protection of natural resources privatisation and militarisation. Other movements e.g. those based in Middle East are against wars and demand for termination of privatisation of energy resources, and removal of foreign troops from Iraq. Majorities of these movements active in the global south call for human rights, end of violence, and torture.
They are also against all forms of racism, homophobic violence, and tirelessly put on permanent fight for feminist struggle for equality. In pursuit of resource mobilisation, these social movements have successfully managed to protect the small farmers and peasant through rejecting the sale of seeds to large-scale farmers as well as opposing the use of seeds created with terminator technology. They also advocate tirelessly for the public right to education financed through the state.
Social movements
Habermas observes that social movements depend on socially unaccepted and radical movement methods in enhancing self-reliance and self-determination. Still, they have varieties of unrecognised networks (Habermas, 1990). In other words, they lack centralisation (Rutch, 1998; Melucci, 1996). Social movements rise due to the need of realising changes, promote consciousness among members of society, reinforce identity, and change social relationship in society.
Social movements exist as part of community structures, as procedures, practices and strategies to transform community relations and behaviour patterns in order to enhance growth, resources allocation, redistribution, and control of social power and community statuses and resources. Thus, social movements exist as a collective bargaining tool that strives at enhancing a noble cause or creating a social change in society.
Researchers who have dwelt on New Social Movements concur that social movement originates out of the desire to challenge and provide alternative to inactive labour movements (Rutch, 1998; Melucci, 1996, Habermas, 1990).
Social movement concerns itself with emerging challenges in society, such as protests about consequences of capitalism, environmental degradation, social injustices and advocacy for the rights of women and children. Many authors believe that social movements change materialism and shift between left and right (Rutch, 1998; Melucci, 1996, Habermas, 1990). This is the notion of value shift hypothesis.
The current views of value shift hypothesis concentrate on modern models of society such as the post-development society, information age society, and advanced capitalism among others. Elements of social changes such as social, economical, and political, are what theorists use in explaining the concept of value shift hypothesis. These factors change society over a period of time (Inglehart, 1990).
The approach of social movement theories from Marxist point of view reveals that social actions emanated from economic changes of the capitalist exploitation and class reductionism. This implies that creation of class system has it origin in the process of production that views most participants as a part of social movements and economic protests.
These are marginalised workers with a collective action but not a part of revolutions. There is a paradigm shift to emerging trends whereby the new social movements highlight new political, ideological, cultural, identity developments as a basis of collective actions.
Strategies in advocacy
We can refer to strategies in advocacy as long-term, multi-featured approach that mainly cover different and diverse tactics that advocates or activists consider suitable in a context for achieving a given resource, objectives, social and economic transformation. Moyer notes that several activists prefer focusing mainly on tactics that may not help them achieve their goals (Moyer, 1990). He further argues that tactics methods apply the use of normal media system.
These activists do this hoping the media channels will air their concerns to relevant authorities. Consequently, preferred solutions and actions or policy changes occur. However, these approaches have proved ineffective in fighting for social changes. As a result of this, many strategies have emerged to support social movements and advocacy. The traditional models and strategies of advocacy came in two forms. These included self advocacy and one to one advocacy. They were all equal in value and served specific needs (Moyer et al, 2001).
Advocacy is a change process that promotes interests of clients, cases, or a community, or a cause or ideal that involves directed, purposive, and intentional change. Advocacy change strategies can vary widely, from direct social action and political action through education and consciousness raising.
Hardcastle notes that advocacy and social action are strategies for achieving a given goal (Hardcastle, 2011). Progressive professionals such as Via Campesina, the Focus on Global South, Centre for Third World Organisation, Jubilee 2000, and other concerned citizens use social movement strategies in order to change the status quo.
Advocacy can be micro, such as self and individual, client and case, and group advocacy, or macro, concerned with institutional and social cause advocacy. Cause or class advocacy is a form of social action and may be a part of a social movement. These concepts (cause or class advocacy) are the same.
There are varieties of techniques used by social workers engaged in advocacy and social reform. In addition, the new communication and information technologies greatly expand the audience for and participants engaged in advocacy. The main difference is that case or individual advocacy, while often leading to larger social action, have individual approach rather than intentionally seeking larger social change.
The old approaches in advocacy included group collective advocacy, issue-based advocacy and self advocacy. There are also certain forms of advocacy, such as peer advocacy in which all participants share same values and experiences, citizen advocacy whereby members struggle for the rights and privileges of the marginalised people.
We also have non-instructed advocacy in which people are free to express their opinions. However, some forms of advocacy have also come up. These may include advocacy through legal experts, religious bodies, workers unions, self-help group, and virtual advocacy among others. These groups are not radical in their approaches and have not fully embraced the title of advocacy.
Group advocacy as a strategy in advocacy may originate from other approaches such as case advocacy. Group advocacy is mainly part of a large fight, or a proceeding a social or community movement. Group advocacy is useful in aiding the community acquire awareness and knowledge and skills for self and community struggles for social justice.
It is necessary to note that a group advocacy may start with an individual and gradually grows to include other members of the society. For example, Via Campesina advocates for the Global South farmers as individuals. However, it ends up fighting for land rights of the entire community as is the case today where land-grabbing advocacy covers several countries of the Global South such Congo, Brazil, Italy, Indonesia, and Mozambique among others.
Occasionally, advocates operate on behalf of scattered individuals who have never met. This is the macro advocacy modalities. In either case, the advocate must get to know each individual, and members of the group, articulate the group situations as the process proceeds, and must be accountable to them. In these cases, most members cannot easily air their grievances. Thus, the advocate has to work through ethical and authority issues.
Advocates who represent groups with inarticulate and passive members must consider all the various sub-interests within the group. Otherwise, only members who are present and articulate their issues will succeed. When members of the Global South want to fight discrimination, land rights or economic hardship, the practitioner-advocate must fully inform the group of any potential risks, and then encourage the group’s self-determination and follow its lead. This is the best method to advocacy where masses participate.
Community advocacy can take many forms and bridge the gap that exists between the micro and macro advocacy approaches. Community advocacy strategy needs community consciousness awareness and public education regarding methods of challenging unfavourable conditions. Most community advocacies occur as a result of demoralising conditions, conditions that cause marginalisation, anger or harm a section or the entire community.
Firstly, the advocate might organise activities that enhance or sustain the quality and welfare of the community. Emerging towns in the Global South surrounded by farms or ranches can have street festivals or fairs that attempt to promote social inclusion among them. These occasions provide opportunities for enhance their social developments and solve their problems.
Secondly, community advocacy often involves efforts to maintain the status quo for a community resisting the waves of modernity. In some areas, there is advocacy for zoning ordinances, for restrictions on development. For instance, Via Campesina has been resisting the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD).
It argues that the programme does not “significantly reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, although it does open the door to the privatization of land, and also rewards polluters, and threatens national sovereignty and the survival of indigenous communities” (Angus, 2010).
Thirdly, advocates may demand public access to resources. This is the case in which Via Campesina has noted that peasants are losing their access to land and other natural resources to capitalists. Thus, the organisation is advocating for protection of peasantry. Fourthly, advocates strive to become accountable to the community.
Social movements want to account for inequality such as land rights, gender, and food scarcity that exist in society. Successful social movements result in social inclusion that provides community citizens with justice and dignity. Political leaders and elected city officials and managers can serve as, and often are, community advocates.
Virtual advocacy, or more accurately the use of the Internet to advocate, is a widespread and growing phenomenon among social movement groups. Advocacy groups such as the Focus on Global South, Via Campesina and Jubilee 2000, among others can rally their supporters to e-mail political policymakers and provide the supporters with links to the decision makers’ e-mail boxes.
This strategy has worked well for MoveOn.org for what it labels virtual marches on Washington and Wall Street, as well as massive e-mail campaigns. Virtual advocacy involves the use of blogs for posting any cause, issue, or candidate. Hardcastle notes that people can use blogs for public education, persuasion, social marketing, developing virtual networks and mailing lists, and rallying and communicating with supporters.
Other authors observe that people can widely use blogs in political campaigns to generate money and voter support. When combined with Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and the other networking sites, virtual advocacy has the potential to be powerful (Hardcastle, 2011). The challenge is to break through the clutter and not become spam or end up at the bottom of the list of sites. This will require a hit strategy and links with a variety of other sites.
Hardcastle points out that virtual advocacy have not been rigorously evaluated (Hardcastle, 2011). Social movement groups and politicians have extensively used virtual advocacy for various purposes. In any case, as with the other components of community practice, it is a crucial skill for advocacy.
Butcher notes that the strategy of internal change in society enhances authority and effectiveness for new social movements (Butcher, 2007). Conversely, trends and elements like bribery and self-interest in social movements may inhibit participation of people in advocacy. Thus, the main purpose of social action is raising awareness of issues to provide opportunities for action systems (Butcher, 2007).
As per Gamson, there are mainly three collective action models that enhance social action (Gamson, 1990). These include injustice, political process and collective action in society.
Advocates use these frames or mode as a basis of justification for their social actions. He further notes that injustice element in society consists of moral unfairness that happens mainly in political situations. He observes that most agencies believe in taking action through a collective social action. Thus, the main reason for advocacy is to counteract unfavourable social changes in society (Hardcastle, 2011).
Studies in collective social action show that social actions vital concern is to hold people who have power accountable (Hardcastle, 2011). The belief is that social movements enhance insurgency, reform movements, and reforms.
They know that modern social actions rely on modern forms of communication such as the Internet and, social media platforms, as well as other methods of campaigning aimed at achieving the desired reforms. This differs with traditional forms of advocacy where limited availability of resources and technology negatively influenced their efforts.
Advocates use social action globally with strategies of demonstrations and protests for various reasons. For instance, in Africa and other parts of the Global South, farmers have demonstrated against land-grabbing using social action for fighting for land rights whereas in developed nations, social movements have condemned unfavourable corporate and political globalisation actions. We can see the use of social actions on the streets, media, and Internet among other channels.
These approaches function best to enhance social changes and incremental reforms necessary in society (Hardcastle, 2011). The social changes aim at redistributing community resources and social power among the masses. This redistribution of resources has promoted developments in post apartheid South Africa particularly in low income areas.
Systems Advocacy and Change
Individual, state, national and regional economic investment and boycotts are effective tools for system change. For example, making socially responsible domestic investments or conducting boycotts can help develop grassroots, community-oriented, and self-help organizations.
System changes approaches through using various means such as mass protests, strikes, and demonstrations proved effective in the Civil Rights struggle of Americans in the 1960s, and war against apartheid in South African and now in most countries of the Global South.
Organisations such as Jubilee 2000, Via Campesina and others have attempted on several occasions change the world at various levels such as communities, national and international levels by transforming various societal systems, such as the economic system, the patriarchal family system, and gender roles.
These attempts indicate that society desires such changes. However, main challenges to the social order take longer than expected. Individual advocates are crucial in social movements for change. Some of the prominent figures who have achieved social changes through advocacy include Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela among others. Today, people enjoy the sacrifices such leaders made in the past to enhance social equalities.
Goodwyn captures what is fundamental about social movements and change endeavours to the people who are part of them (Goodwyn, 1978). Goodwyn refers to populism as a source of self-worth and self-education in social movements. These words describe the aims of many of today’s movements and embryo political parties.
Today’s protestors resist the latest version of a giant industrial engine (capitalism and its consequences). Globalisation and extreme poverty have become part of the public debate because of the insistence of advocates for systems change. These are some of the aspects (negative aspects of globalisation) that global social movements have tried to resist.
Large-scale social movements and quests for changes often have scopes of reaching into community advocacy, political advocacy, and systems change. Women’s social movements and quests for equal opportunities in societies are excellent cases of large-scales social movements.
Women have attempted several approaches to achieve equal representation but with minimal results. They then turned back to their communities and outward to larger systems, seeking other types of equality in terms of jobs, education, insurance rates, and even public sanction regarding the sharing of domestic chores.
Most social movements have made fundamental gains in some areas such as respect for human rights, equal opportunities and representation, there are still existing setbacks in communities. These setbacks stem from institutions, and other forms of emerging social trends. The gains made are uneven. However, progress continues. Social movements have resulted into situations whereby we have ethnic minorities, women, and gays in public offices.
Why advocacy may fail
Research works indicate that advocates who mainly use tactics, such as relying on the media to air the grievances and individual approaches rarely get their desired outcomes or goals (Moyer, 2009; Hardcastle, 2011). The main reason why advocacy may fail is the lack of sufficient information.
Thus, it is necessary for advocates to have sufficient information to support a campaign agenda. In addition, advocates must have the necessary advocacy skills and practical knowledge for effective campaign management. Lack of interpersonal relationship skills may also affect the outcome of social movement (Shields, 2009).
Advocacy may also not succeed due opponents’ propaganda, deceptions, and bribes. There are cases where advocates may have vested interest and negatively affect the outcome of a movement. Bribes usually inhibit the ability or desire to acts among the advocates (Freddolino and Moxley, 1994).
The social and labour movements of the 1960s did not create a base of individuals with the wide range of interests, and achieve results beyond the local level. Instead, these movements put their efforts on issues people could easily defend without support. At the same time, majorities of the leaders did not pay attention to main issues their constituents experienced.
Advocacy may also fail due to lack of progressive strategies. This is mainly due to lack of necessary skills in the dynamic field of social issues. Advocates should learn from past experiences and take lessons from previous actions.
Scholars also note that some social movements fail to address ideologies (Freddolino and Moxley, 1994). The inability to focus on necessary issues have affected rendered some social movement organisation irrelevant. These factors undermine initiation of any movement to create a change in society because of disfranchised communities. This means that modern forms of advocacy rely on issues rather than the use of traditional approaches to advocacy.
Effectiveness of organisations advocating for communities
Organisations advocating for communities have played a critical role in bringing changes to the lives of individuals in the Global South as compared to individual advocacy. In the global south, Via Campesina, an international organisation has fought endlessly for the protection of peasant farmers through protecting the native seed and objecting the sale and use of seeds created harmful technology.
Conclusion
This work shows that advocacy trends have undergone significant changes, and new methods of advocacies, such as virtual advocacy, and systems changes among others are evolving. However, action-charged tactics that characterised old advocacies strategies are losing sense of relevant in modern society. Activists are relying on social networks, new knowledge and skills, and modern advocacy strategies to induce social changes. However, traditional forms of advocacies are the foundation of modern advocacy strategies.
Social changes achieved through advocacy takes time with regard to prevailing political, socioeconomic, and cultural consequences of changes in the community. Impacts of such changes determine how advocacy and social movements for change manifest themselves and the subsequent reactions for achieving the preferred changes in society.
Scholars’ review of youth empowerment programmes concluded that uniting youths to work together in social action is an essential component of community building, and addressed skills in development at both the individual and group levels (Hardcastle, 2011). Engaging in community organising and critically examining community issues provide young people with the experience, self-efficacy, and social connections to continue to work for community-based change.
There are also other radical strategies such as structural and system change advocacy. Habermas notes that structural and system changes advocacy are fundamental with regard to terms of ends sought, ideologically driven and revolutionary than others forms of advocacies, which focus on an individual’s rights and interests (Habermas, 1990).
It can be promoted by either the political left or going on to provide for adequate facilities for the entire community. Many systems affect individuals and society in general, and advocacy systems want to be able to influence them. Those who would transform themselves and their environment must be able to construct a vision and convince policymakers on how the community can be.
Transformative structural and systems change results in profound alteration or revitalisation of society. However, these are systematic changes that must take time to have significant consequences on the masses. Societies can change peacefully or violently though with slow steps towards their goals.
We have witnessed how the American civil rights movement transformed American society. We could not imagine a black president in the US or a woman president in Africa in the 1960s. Some forms of these transformations were not imaginable in the 1960s. However, today, they have become reality due to the civil right movements, social changes and advocacy strategies. This demonstrates that strong forms of advocacies are fundamental tools in fighting for the rights of community in order to enhance development.
Manifestations of changes achieved through modern forms of advocacies make members of marginal and invisible groups more central and visible, address social isolation and disenfranchisement, link individuals to social resources, and contribute to their social capital, and promote empowerment, confidence, and optimism.
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Community development has developed to become a powerful model for helping more people transform their life experiences. Experts can utilize different principles and concepts to transform communities, help those in need, and address some of the recorded challenges. This description outlines the major concepts, cultural and social approaches, and intervention measures revolving around community development. The work offers evidence-based insights that can help transform the lives of more people.
Discussing Community Development
Key Concepts
The concept of community development describes the major initiatives and procedures members in a particular society undertake to improve their economic, environmental, cultural, and social attributes. Individuals in a given society must collaborate, address their differences, and focus on the best strategies to achieve collective goals. To deliver the intended outcomes, citizens should consider and implement specific principles to ensure that timely results are recorded. The leading ones would include participation, locality, self-help, and equity. The first one will guide individuals to be involved, focus on sustainable results, and identify the most appropriate initiatives (Juárez, 2016). Locality would denote the people’s ability to identify existing issues at the community level and implement the most appropriate strategies to mitigate them. Self-help is an evidence-based initiative whereby individuals might engage in personal initiatives to transform their life experiences.
Community participation allows individuals to launch projects and complete tasks that can help transform their overall experiences and outcomes. Concepts of social justice help members of the community to pursue wider goals, promote empowerment, and promote equality. The idea of locality helps people identify and implement initiatives that resonate with the demands of the locals (Juárez, 2016). To support the delivery of positive results, members can complete needs assessments, plan the right services, establish community networks, and maximize people’s engagements and skills. Members can identify priorities and identify evidence-based approaches to empower one another.
General and Cultural Issues
Communities tend to have different groups with diverse needs and expectations. For instance, the selected case study shows how the recorded fire incident affected the experiences of many people. Such an occurrence would have affected the disabled, children, and the elderly in different ways. Similarly, community development agendas and initiatives should be aware of such dynamics and be introduced in such a way that they help deliver positive results (Green, 2016). For the general population, helpers and community workers can identify and pool groups in accordance with their demands. For instance, disabled person would required programs and development programs that resonate directly with the challenges they encounter. The same approach would be worth considering when trying to meet the needs of women and children. Such client community groups should be encouraged to seek and develop the relevant competencies that can take them closer to their objectives.
Cultural issues are critical because they dictate the acceptability of various development initiatives and the overall outcomes recorded. For example, individuals tend to prefer specific ways of doing things and solving problems. Professionals involved in various community development initiatives should begin by considering the cultural needs of the people (Juárez, 2016). Launching initiatives that ignore cultural issues could result in rejection and affect the recorded goals. People who believe that the measures put in place do not resonate with their cultural attributes and practices will have increased chances of being uninvolved (Green, 2016). The level of participation could also reduce significantly. However, the identification and promotion of individuals’ cultural aspects will support the entire process and help more people transform their life experiences and economic outcomes.
Traditional Community Development
Experts involved in community development should be aware of various approaches that can deliver positive and sustainable results. Several measures exist that can make it possible for communities to transform their experiences and overall social and economic outcomes. Traditional methods have been applied successfully in the past to support the delivery of timely and sustainable results. For instance, a needs-based approach is one of the traditional approaches whereby the involved participants begin by analyzing the demands of the potential beneficiaries (Green, 2016). This strategy will guide the people to analyze the nature and possible sources of such challenges. The next would be how to mitigate such needs and transform the life experiences of the targeted beneficiaries. The continuous involvement of the community members will ensure that such a process succeeds.
The second traditional method for community development that remains significant till this present day is that gaps-based model. Under this framework, community organizers will begin by identifying the gaps existing in the targeted regions. For instance, the presented case exposes the absence of proper mechanisms for fighting fire outbreaks and transforming the lives of the affected individuals (Juárez, 2016). Another good example would be a community that lacks proper measures to meet the medical demands of persons with disabilities. The absence of initiatives to empower women could also be addressed using the gaps-based strategy.
Conclusion
The above discussion has identified community development as a powerful approach that professionals should take seriously. The consideration of the recorded challenges and the adoption of superior models can help transform people’s lives. In conclusion, those involved can focus on the general and cultural issues of the population while relying on the best interventions to ensure that timely results are recorded.
Social centers that are also known as social development centers (SDCs) aim at helping those people who live in underserved neighborhoods. The core idea of these centers is to promote the social sustainability of families and young people, in particular. A range of specialized programs developed by social centers strives to enhance the lives of the community members.
The first SDC was established in England in the 1800s (“Settlements and Neighborhood Centers”). The population of cities was increasingly growing and required some efforts to provide citizens with an adequate amount and quality of social services. Initially, these social centers focused on such issues as educational and recreational needs as well as personal and neighborhood services. Nowadays organizations taking care of underserved neighborhoods also pay attention to refugees, business services, children’s development, environment, and several others each of which depends on the needs of a certain community. In the Middle East, a social center was established in Qatar in 2005 (“The Social Development Center”). Sponsored by ExxonMobil Qatar, it initiated the First Step Program to help adolescents and adults to accomplish professional growth. Besides, family well-being was taken into account in the context of national sustainability and promotion of career opportunities for future generations.
SDCs focus on shaping a better life for the community members by providing various opportunities for jobs, education, economy, and life in general. Expressing their attitudes and concerns, people may work as volunteers in creating programs. In particular, they may take part in both developing and implementing the programs and also suggest their viewpoints through official websites. At the same time, SDCs can significantly help government spending by contributing to the development of the social sector. For example, the Neighborhood Development Center (NDC) located in St. Paul, Minnesota trained 4,690 entrepreneurs, provided 56,000 hours of coaching, and created 2, 200 jobs in the neighborhood area in 2016 (“Our Impact”).
As for the financial contribution, it is possible to point out that NDC returned $ 46 million in the community by rent, payroll, business expenses, taxes, and other economic means (“Our Impact”). These statistics clearly show that NDC works in collaboration with the government and attempts to reach the same goals. Another example that can be noted concerns Qatar SDC the Gala Dinner of which allowed receiving QR 23,950,000 (“Social Development Center Raise QR23 Million for Entrepreneurial Programmes”). Along with such prominent government representatives as HH Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani and HH Sheikha Moza bin Nasser, the evening gathered ministers and other public persons.
Speaking of Qatar SDC, it is essential to emphasize that this social center is one of the most active and successful ones worldwide. For instance, the Tarahom project initiated during the Holy Month Ramadan in 2013 helped 22,109 indigent families that suffered from poverty, natural disasters, or other hardships (“The Social Development Center”). During this project, Qatar Foundation also collaborated with Reach Out To Asia (ROTA) and Qatar Red Crescent to reveal those families that needed support. Approximately 200 volunteers were taking part in Tarahom, implementing the project, and making their community life more sustainable.
One more project run by Qatar SDC is related to environmental protection so that the community members can live a balanced life. The issues of the environmental pollution and ways to preserve Qatar’s beautiful nature that is considered as Allah’s creation were discussed on Religion and the Environment conference in 2013 (“The Social Development Center”). Seeing the alarming international statistics, it was decided to control the use of natural resources of the country and reduce air-polluting manufacturing. Furthermore, the conference attendees agreed to take measures aimed at preserving productive lands to prevent its transformation into the desert. It is significant to state that the WISE Prize for Education is given to the most active members.
Among other challenges that SDCs try to address, there are refugees’ needs. For example, Karenni SDC that is located on the border of Thailand and Myanmar was created for Karenni young people. In particular, this social center offers a range of educational programs in such fields as human rights, environment, English, IT, management, and others (“What We Do”). The paramount goal explicitly stated by the organization is to engage young refugees to become advocates for peaceful social change by providing them with necessary instruments such as appropriate knowledge and skills. After completing the Basic Training Course (BTC), the students can apply for the Advanced Community Management Training Course (ACMTC) to work as leaders of the community (“What We Do”). The set of problems discussed within this organization also concerns water problems including the lack of drinking water and hot weather drought, domestic violence, ration reductions, the judicial system, and other relevant issues that are associated with the Karenni community.
The importance of the centers that were discussed earlier in this paper as well as of others located all over the world cannot be overestimated as they improve the everyday life of the community members, resolving their most complicated problems. Along with those positive points that were mentioned above, there are plenty of other success stories. For example, Klaw Reh, one of the alumni of Karenni SDC, states that “human rights, law, and democracy are really useful for me. I don’t want to see my community collapse. SDC School is very important for our future. SDC School saves our lives” (“Klaw Reh’s Story”). This statement illustrates that this young person who moved to SDC as a result of a fire that destroyed his home is aware of his rights and opportunities. After graduating from Karenni SDC, he wants to make a change in his community and serve society as an important activist. Even though no prizes are given to the members of this organization, they are full of desire to learn, improve their own lives, and benefit society.
The perspective goal that can be achieved in the future by SDCs is the complete revitalization of neighborhood areas. Promoting awareness in the community members along with the active life position, SDCs can help people achieve their personal and professional goals, thus enhancing their level of life satisfaction. It seems that currently SDCs successfully cope with problems that are encountered by the communities. In this regard, there is no need to consider alternatives for these centers.
In conclusion, it is essential to emphasize that SDCs can be found in any country and community as they perform the role of the social promoter. It was revealed that SDCs cover a great variety of social issues related to family, children, adolescents, environment, education, and innovation. At the same time, the focus and effectiveness of SDCs depend on a certain community, available resources, level of members’ awareness, and other peculiarities of the area.
Works Cited
“Klaw Reh’s Story.” Karenni Social Development Center, 2015. Web.
“Our Impact.” NDC, 2016. Web.
“Settlements and Neighborhood Centers.” VCU, 2016. Web.
“Social Development Center Raise QR23 Million for Entrepreneurial Programmes”. Marhaba, 2013. Web.
“The Social Development Center”. Qatar Foundation, 2016. Web.
“What We Do.” Karenni Social Development Center, 2016. Web.