Category: Social Contract

In examining questions of legislation and civics in the works of James Hogg and Walter Scott, it would do well to examine which legal and philosophical framework they were writing in the wake of. John Erskine of Carnock is particularly useful in this regard as he sought to systemise Scots law in its entirety, based on his expertise as a jurist and legal scholar. The Institutes of the Law of Scotland was completed and published posthumously, in 1773, by Erskine’s friends and colleagues, who collated his notes to produce an academic inspection of the law. In his effort to define justice, Erskine builds on theories developed by scholars writing in the seventeenth century, identifying a connection between a just legal system and social stability: ‘When laws have a tendency to promote real happiness of the subjects, that alone creates an obligation to obedience, called by Heineccius, and other writers, the internal obligation of law’. In defining the very term ‘law’ itself, Erskine leans heavily upon the Christian theory of Godly providence and the gift of free will. He makes reference to the book of Job in order to differentiate the immovable laws of nature from the constructed laws of man. The law, he states, ‘is peculiar to intelligent beings, endued with consciousness and liberty of will, who consequently have an inward power of acting and forbearing, and by disregarding the prescriptions of the law contract guilt’. Essentially, Erskine suggests that the law is not simply a system of control and governance, but a necessary tool used to alleviate and satisfy the human psyche.

In his academic analysis of Scots law, Erskine is exemplifying a central characteristic of what is now called the Enlightenment. Namely, that various strands of academia and philosophy cannot be examined in a vacuum and are intrinsically multifaceted and multidisciplinary. In his examination of the judicial system of a single European country, Erskine is simultaneously exploring religious tradition, the human condition, philosophical discourse, history, sociology, and psychology. Erskine establishes a clear connection between the law and the role both citizens and the government must play in order to maintain civil obedience. The law is shown here to be a central component of social and political stability. Having established that Erskine’s writings align with the philosophical movement of the Enlightenment, this chapter will now explore which areas of this movement’s political philosophies he was drawing on in the development of his theory of the ‘internal obligation’ of law. To what extent did what is now referred to as the ‘Age of Enlightenment’ reframe the obligations of politicians to their citizens, and how does this relate to the enforcement of the law?

Erskine’s assessment of the law can be viewed as an extension of the ‘social contract’, a political theory which argued that the government is as answerable to its people as citizens are to their government. This marked a significant shift in the wider understanding of political theory and power structures throughout society. However, how successfully did this framing of civil interaction influence the behaviours and entitlements of governments in practise? This chapter seeks to determine James Hogg and Walter Scott’s engagement with the concept of the social contract, particularly as this relates to Erskine’s theory of the law. To achieve this, this chapter will focus on the novels Peveril of the Peak by Scott, and The Three Perils of Woman by Hogg, two works heavily concerned with legal procedure and its relationship to social stability. To achieve this, first, this chapter will investigate how the social contract became a dominant theory amongst Enlightenment scholars and philosophers: what cultural and political context allowed this idea to permeate scholarly debate? Next, this chapter will assess how the social contract was impacted by the political and economic instability of the Napoleonic Era. Following on from this, Hogg and Scott’s depictions of the consequences of a failing social contract will be examined. Finally, this chapter will assess whether Hogg and Scott’s depiction of legal agents and politicians offer any positive endorsement of the social contract. Does their idea of a sound justice system align with the philosophy of this theory?

Before examining Scott and Hogg’s representations of the social contract, it would do well to examine the origins of this political theory. What philosophy was it being put in opposition to? Throughout the Middle Ages in Britain, the philosophical understanding of government, and the structure of society as a whole, was inherently hierarchical. This was heavily influenced by the medieval Christian theory concerning the organization of the universe, referred to as the Great Chain of Being. The Great Chain of Being placed God as the ubiquitous and omnipotent creator of all beings at the top of the hierarchy governing the universe. Directly below God were angels, followed by, in descending order, humanity, animals, plants, and minerals. It was a natural progression to subdivide these levels of the hierarchy yet further, so as to transfer this interpretation of the natural world into an understanding of societal order. The King sat at the head of this hierarchy, followed by the clergy and aristocracy, with the peasantry occupying the lower levels of this social order. This philosophical framework facilitated the acceptance of the concept of the Divine Right of Kings, which proposes that the monarch is appointed to his position by God, and therefore any challenge to the monarch would be akin to blasphemy. This doctrine sustained itself through to the Tudor age, with A Mirror for Magistrates (a book of poetry published in 1574) declaring that the monarch acts as God’s deputy, ‘and it is he which ordaineth thereto such as himself listeth, good when he favoureth the people and evil when he punish them. And, therefore, whosoever rebelleth against any ruler either good or bad rebelleth against GOD and be sure of a wretched end.’ The acceptance of the monarch as an unchallenged ruler was not only a political issue under this framework, but a moral one.

Much of the prominence of this doctrine resulted from the ubiquitous power of the church in British politics. However, the interconnected relationship between the church and the state eventually became a source of political and social instability. The See of Rome Act 1536 enabled Henry VIII to separate the influence of Rome and the Catholic church from English politics. Still, the philosophy of the Great Chain of Being was maintained, as Henry appointed himself the head of the newly formed Church of England. However, in Scotland, the perceived corruption of the Catholic church led to increasingly radical demands for the separation of church and state. Throughout the sixteenth century, many religious figures expressed frustration with the Catholic church, and whilst this initially involved attempts at reforming Catholic traditions, this eventually morphed into propositions to establish an entirely new system of religion in Scotland altogether, one which followed Protestant lines. In 1559 the tensions between monarchy and Protestant Reformers culminated in a clash between Mary of Guise, the Queen Regent, and Reformers led by the Scottish minister John Knox. This led to a protestant occupation of Perth which grew increasingly riotous as church property was destroyed, with Mary of Guise sending a small French army to oust them from the city. However, as the determination of the Protestant Reformers grew, and the Queen Regent made increasingly disastrous political maneuvers, many of Mary’s inner circle defected to the Protestant cause. In October of that year, Mary of Guise was deposed, and she died not long thereafter. By August the Scots Confession was approved by the Scottish parliament, which reformed the Church of Scotland away from Catholic ideals. Following this, Parliament passed a succession of laws which deposed the Pope’s influence over the church in Scotland and made participation in Mass illegal. The Presbyterian tradition, enforced and upheld by the Covenantors, argues that a complex hierarchy of several ‘courts’ should govern the church, and the monarch should have no influence over the administration of the Church of Scotland. Indeed, a strict condition of the Acts of Union, which politically merged England and Scotland, was that the monarch, who acts as the head of the Church of England, should hold no influence over the running of the Church of Scotland whatsoever, with the Oath of Accession promising this.

Undeniably, the political landscape throughout Britain was repeatedly threatened by clashing factions of Protestant and Catholic loyalists, from Bigod’s Rebellion in 1537, through to The Glorious Revolution in 1688 which ousted King James I from government. Meanwhile, the safety and protection of Catholics and Protestants could shift dramatically and unpredictability with each new monarch and his or her religious allegiances. As such, the commonly accepted belief that the unchallenged rule of a God-ordained monarch would maintain social stability came under increasing scrutiny as violence and political volatility escalated. This facilitated the emergence of new understandings of citizen’s rights and governmental responsibility. The Glorious Revolution also marked a significant shift in the power afforded to the monarch in Britain, by instating constitutional limitations to such powers, in something of a precursor to a liberal state. Post-reformation, modern values of Liberalism, which emphasized personal freedom and equality, were gaining ground through the philosophical writings of scholars who are now considered to belong to the ‘Age of Enlightenment’. The ever-growing irrelevancy of the Divine Right of Kings (a theory which was roundly renounced in Scotland in light of the Covenanting tradition) and the emergence of modernity can perhaps be most clearly identified by the concept of the social contract, as it was explored by Enlightenment writers.

The social contract, as a political theory, was initially developed as a way of determining whether a government had a duty to protect its citizen’s concerns. Writing in 1651, Thomas Hobbes determines the social contract to be the exchange of certain liberties in the pursuit of ensuring stability and security throughout society, and that it is the job of government to ensure that this is maintained in a fair and just manner. Hobbes considers this exchange to be a part of the laws of nature. The first law reads as follows: ‘by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same, and to omit that by which he thinketh it may be best preserved.’ If self-preservation is a fundamental law of nature, and Hobbes argues that this instinct can facilitate the development of a sound society, a second law of nature emerges:

‘From this fundamental law of nature, by which men are commanded to endeavour peace, is derived this second law: that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far forth as for peace and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men as he would allow other men against himself. For as long as every man holdeth this right, of doing anything he liketh; so long are all men in the condition of war. But if other men will not lay down their right, as well as he, then there is no reason for anyone to divest himself of his: for that were to expose himself to prey, which no man is bound to, rather than to dispose himself to peace. This is that lore of the gospel: Whatsoever you require that others should do to you, that do ye to them.’

Essentially, individuals will restrict any potentially damaging behaviors (such as theft or assault) if this decreases the chance of such behaviors being enacted onto them, and the role of government is to prevent stronger individuals within society from flouting these conventions. Still, Hobbes’ assessment of the ‘state of nature’ (essentially, one whereby people are not governed) is ‘brutish and short’ and as such emphasizes that a government is necessary in preserving human life and facilitating the full creative potential of humanity. As such, whilst Hobbes’ theory argues that the government have responsibility to regulate and sustain this system of justice in exchange for their power, it did not refute absolutism.

Building on Hobbes’ concept of the ‘state of nature’, and Hobbes’ exploration of the sacrifices made by individuals in order to sustain a stable society, John Locke emphasizes the responsibilities the government must uphold in their duty to the social contract, and the freedoms which must be enjoyed by the public at large in order to sustain it. Whilst Hobbes considered the ‘state of nature’ to largely be a hypothetical scenario, and the progression of society to be an innate human drive, Locke suggests that ‘the state of nature’ was in fact once real, and that the development of society was a choice. As such, Locke asserts that any government which is not chosen by its people is an illegitimate one, as there is no spiritual precedent for a ruler to maintain their power unchallenged. Locke, essentially, outright rejects the Divine Right of Kings. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Du Contrat Social (published in 1762), emphasized the importance of popular sovereignty. Under Rousseau’s evaluation of the social contract, egoism and corruption are the main detriments to social stability, asserting that ‘It is not expedient that he who makes the laws should execute them […] Nothing is more dangerous than the influence of his private interests over public affairs.’ Furthermore, Rousseau argued that each citizen must subordinate him- or herself not to a government, but to the collective good. Ultimately, though it had its origins in questioning the desire to maintain a stable society, the social contract eventually emerged as a challenge to governmental authority, particularly under the theories offered by Locke and Rousseau. The social contract required the government to represent the needs and desires of its people, to maintain their security, and argued that the population at large had far more political influence than previously accepted.

Vitally, as asserted by Locke, the social contract undermined the idea of permanence for any government: were it to fail its people, the people could work to oust it. As summarized by J.W. Gough, the social contract: ‘may be more accurately called the contract of government, or the contract of submission… Generally, it has nothing to do with the origins of society, but, presupposing a society already formed, it purports to define the terms on which that society is to be governed: the people have made a contract with their ruler which determines their relations with him. They promise him obedience, while he promises his protection and good government. While he keeps his part of the bargain, they must keep theirs, but if he misgoverns the contract is broken and allegiance is at an end.’

Marking the development of modernity, the social contract emerged as the foremost political theory which determined governmental legitimacy. The social contract, derived from years of political instability throughout Western Europe, offered a hope for peace to governments and protection to their people. However, this relied on the contract being properly upheld. In practice, how willing were governments to acknowledge the concerns of their people?

Certainly, the promise of the social contract was somewhat undermined by the realities experienced by working-class and rural communities throughout Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Whilst the social contract worked to reframe the relationship between governments and their citizens, and promised that autocracy could not sustain itself long-term, it could not alleviate the fear provoked by the onset and aftermath of the French Revolution. Whilst the revolution in France supported the theory of the social contract, and demonstrated how civilians will inevitably rebel against an inept or unfair government, this overhaul of government had been incredibly violent, leaving British parliament shaken by the possibility of a dissatisfied public. The framework of the social contract, and of Erskine’s theory surrounding the law, argues both that certain sacrifices must be made, and certain freedoms enjoyed by the population at large if they are to be willing to obey their government. However, as established, there was no specific consensus amongst Enlightened scholars surrounding which specific liberties were owed to a government’s subjects. Who, then, was to decide what the parameters of these freedoms and sacrifices should be? The French Revolution fulfilled the promise of rebellion when governments failed to uphold their duties in accordance with the social contract, but the consequential violent retribution reinforced a philosophy more consistent with the Great Chain of Being: that the King is indeed superior to the peasantry, and thus they needed to be controlled. As such, acting at complete odds with the theories presented by the majority of Enlightened philosophers, the British government engaged with increasingly autocratic behaviors. In practice, the main message the government seemed to take from the social contract was that ‘the people’ could be dangerous to them.

Moreover, the social contract’s requirement that government maintain the safety and stability of its ‘charges’ was severely challenged by a changing economic landscape which, with the proliferation of industrialization, overwhelmingly targeted the livelihoods of working-class and rural communities. This can perhaps be best exemplified by the diminishing working opportunities available to handloom weavers and the consequences thereof. The Carlton Weavers Strike of 1787 (also referred to as, tellingly, the Carlton Weavers Massacre) was sparked by a shift within the textiles industry which saw skilled workers losing their jobs to increasingly automized methods of production. This severely diminished the wages and working opportunities for weavers in the Scottish town of Carlton, which prompted several of these artisanal weavers to organize a demonstration in response to a significant pay cut. If Erskine had identified a desire for citizens to obey the law when they felt their interests were protected, then the protester’s increasingly destructive behavior indicated a huge sense of distrust in the government amongst the public. The protestors destroyed the looms of weavers who had not joined the march, building bonfires with the remains.

A certain understanding among the individuals from a general public to participate for social advantages, for instance by giving up some individual opportunity for state insurance .’

‘Implicit agreement endeavors to clarify the arrangement just as upkeep of social orders or states because of suggested contract among people and gatherings. Implicit agreement is a scholarly device planned for clarifying vital connections among individual and their administration . ‘

The implicit understanding is the understanding by which people commonly move their regular right . At the end of the day , I surrender my regular rights to take your nourishment since you surrendered your characteristic option to take mine .

THOMAS HOBBES

Thomas hobbes characterizes contract as ‘ the shared moving of rights ‘. In the condition of nature , everybody has the privilege to everything – there are no restrictions to one side of normal freedom . The implicit understanding is the understanding by which people commonly move their normal right . At the end of the day , I surrender my common rights to take your nourishment since you surrendered your characteristic option to take mine . Instead of the regular right we have made a constrained right , right now right of property . Hobbes takes note of that we don’t settle on these understandings explicity since we are naturally introduced to a common society with laws and agreements as of now set up . It is by playing out the psychological study with respect to the condition of nature and following the chain of thinking Hobbes put before us that we can see the establishments of our responsibility to common law. One issue that hobbes examination permits is the assessment of governments to decide their authenticity .

JOHN LOCKE

John Locke’s form of implicit agreement hypothesis is striking in saying just ideal individuals surrender so as to go into common society and its advantage is the option to rebuff others for damaging rights. No different rights are surrendered , just the option to be a vigilante . Indeed, even the option to be a vigilante comes back to the individual if the administration breaks the implicit agreement by not rebuffing the individuals who disregard rights .

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU

He didn’t concur with the announcement of hobbes and locke . He express that individuals resemble creatures having no clue about great and awful . In the implicit understanding (1762) Rousseau contends that laws are restricting just when they are bolstered by the general will of the individuals .

His popular thought, tested the conventional request of society. Where past scholars had talked about elites, Rousseau turned into the hero of the regular individual. His ideal world was one in which the desire of the individuals was generally significant. He likewise discusses total force or authority for example he gave general will .

‘Man is brought into the world free, and wherever he is in chains.’ Due to property , society comprises with fairness and imbalance by which implicit agreement happened .

Implicit understanding IN MODERN ERA

Implicit understandings assumed a significant job in deciding sexual orientation support in governmental issues. Ladies were looked downward on as they were viewed as individuals who required not to take an interest in governmental issues. Implicit agreement is now and again abused, where the intentions of implicit understanding age are baffled with government and ideological groups neglecting to kill the uneasiness.

Western nations have completely profited politically from implicit agreement. Implicit understanding hosts improved development of political gatherings, majority rule government, dutifulness of the law, legitimate arrangement . Implicit understanding has additionally affected political speculations as they were encircled dependent on implicit agreement hypotheses. In this manner, implicit understandings have had a compatible effect on the western political hypothesis .

In spite of the fact that implicit agreement has assumed a significant job in good and political hypothesis, it has encountered analysis whereby, women’s activists and thinkers who are cognizant to race consider it as a fragmented image to good and political hypothesis as they consider it to be a method for covering, henceforth, the agreement is viewed as discriminative in nature.

Particularly when implicit agreement oppresses ladies strategically, naming them as contemptible and incapable to settle on significant political choices. In this manner, implicit understanding has assumed significant job in molding western political hypothesis. The implicit agreement is critical today-perhaps more so than any time in recent memory. This agreement, in soul abd practice, is being disregarded each day since Trump was chosen. The individuals are have less and less to state and are being forced upon to an ever increasing extent. The magnificent thought of an agreement that ties members dependent on the will and want if both is being supplanted via autorotation endeavors at repressing the electorate.

Black America: A Broken Social Contract by Jeffery Jones is a social science book. It discusses the issue of race in contemporary America. The author uses a historical approach viewed from a sociological perspective. Jones’ goal, as he makes clear in the introduction, is to facilitate a dialogue between different races in the United States. According to him, the wealthier classes use the fears of the lower social strata to stay in power. The different races in the United States are fighting when, in fact, they should unite against a privileged elite that harms everyone.

As an African American, the author painstakingly describes the history of racial prejudice in the United States. Black America: A Broken Social Contract shows what happened before to explain how the past affects current race relations. Various subjects are discussed in this book: the Willie Lynch Letters, the history of the Ku Klux Klan, examples of the Jim Crow laws in the South, and so forth.

What I liked most about the book was the fact that the author seems to be someone very knowledgeable. He mentions several renowned social scientists like Max Weber, Thomas Hobbes, and Karl Marx in addition to notorious civil rights activists such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and Robert Spike.

I had no clue that the FBI had played an important role in attacking the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. The FBI created COINTELPRO to infiltrate, illegally spy, discredit, disrupt and fabricate evidence of crimes that had not been committed. Understanding how it all happened was incredible. Not being an American, I had no idea of the ‘dark side’ of Edgar Hoover’s life.

One of the negative aspects of the book was the mention of an alleged speech by William Lynch. This document is probably fake, but many slaveholders likely had a similar mindset. The alleged author, William Lynch, speaks of the reproduction of blacks and compares it with the breeding of animals. He uses N-Word many times in the text and it is a disgusting document. I wholeheartedly believe that Jeffery Jones should not mention this text in the book. An authentic material would be much better and would achieve the same goal. There is no need to use a fake and disgusting document like this one to prove your point.

On the whole, Black America: A Broken Social Contract deserves four out of four stars. It’s captivating, inspirational, and thought-provoking. The book’s only flaw, in my view, is not a strong enough reason to make me take one star away. I found only three grammatical errors, and that’s the main reason why nobody can say that this book is not professionally edited. There are some racial slurs and offensive language. Overall, I would recommend Black America: A Broken Social Contract to anybody who loves social science books and want to understand race relations in America.

Introduction

The introduction to the idea of creating a new social contract has generated a global shift in the incorporation of both human rights and ethical traditions within business practices. What I will be discussing is how the social contract is being re-examined to hold more responsibility towards Corporations and the government in terms of incorporating ethical practices in their operations, rather than focussing exclusively on maximizing their profits. This outlook has created a turn in how the rights of employees are now taken into consideration, forcing corporations to change the ways they do business. Not only that, but how businesses are now beginning to introduce ethical habits into the ways they operate.

Summary

Following the Second World War, the ‘social contract’ was introduced in order to hold responsibilities towards the government and businesses. As this has operated for many years, the author Wesley Cragg has argued that there is a need for a new social contract to be in place. After the introduction of the social contract, many Corporations prioritized profit maximization as their main worry in terms of operations. During this time, many did not acknowledge the need to incorporate ethical practices and human rights into their daily functions. Corporations believed that profit maximization is what drove all companies to become successful, as was the view from Milton Friedman. Friedman had stated that all corporations’ main priorities should be based on wealth rather than having a social responsibility for others.

Wesley has under covered that it is no longer beneficial for Corporations to cut out ethical practices, rather, it is important to include them daily. It has become recognized that in order for companies to be profitable, they must include proper rights for their employees, customers, suppliers, and clients. Not only that, companies must apply ethical practices towards everything that they do. Businesses are finding ways to change their operations to better the economy. Wesley states that a new social contract is in need to re introduce the idea that everyone should be help responsible for their actions and how they impact the economy. He states that the new contract should praise the idea of equally distributed rights among every individual, having everyone equal to one another.

As Human Rights and ethical practices were well known, not everyone accepted these within the workplace. In fact, many corporations felt as if there was no need for them to acknowledge the well being of other people. This was a result of the social contract stating that corporations had no obligation to worry about others, rather to worry about their daily operations instead. As profitability is an important aspect in every business, they did not see the benefits of incorporating any other practices other than focussing on money.

Critique

As Wesley expresses a need for a new social contract, is it possible for all governments and corporations to adopt these new rules? Realizing many people may be on board with the introduction of a new contract, many may perhaps also feel as if their profiting from the way they are doing business today. The social contract was introduced in 1948, from there on it was an accepted contract across the world. Many people today realize that both Human Rights and ethical practices are an important part of life, however they may not agree that they apply to everyone. For more than 50 years corporations have gotten away with prioritizing their profits over prioritizing anything else, which in a lot of cases, many may not want to change the way they do business.

I do, however, agree with Wesley Cragg, seeing a change that needs to be made within how corporations and governments deal with daily operations. Even though many opinions may differ from one another, it has started to become acknowledged that there is a need to be met in order for businesses to thrive and move forward. As Milton Friedman stated that corporations should only prioritize the profit maximization aspect, I believe there is more to business today than when the social contract was originally introduced.

Wesley Cragg had under covered that maximizing a corporation’s profits isn’t the sole driver towards success as many people think this is to be true. It has been said that the role of ethics has been widely accepted as an important part of doing business, in which it helps companies become successful. Not only that, but many corporations are implementing rules for human rights and labour laws that must be respected by every individual involved in the business. This is now becoming recognized around the world, in which corporations and governments are prioritizing aspects other than becoming financially successful.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it would be beneficial to create a new social contract that applies to all corporations and governments globally.

The social agreement theory changed into mainly developed in western political thought. The social settlement principle is outlined as a formation in addition to maintenance of society or kingdom as well as the counseled contract between man or woman and organization social settlement concept is a tool that describes the relationship among person interest and authorities. Social agreement idea starts from human nature the first person who has purposed Thomas Hobbes, Locke & Rousseau comes and outlines the social contract theory.

The social agreement idea had humans given us rights with the wish that others would do the same for them. Hobbes “lt it ended to a longtime of the nation which has a sovereign entity is created legal guidelines which synchronize relatedness socially.” The kingdom system which resulted from solitary leds their rights become no leaders.

States act as opposition with one other just the way individuals act in the kingdom of nature as they had their own hobbies and no rights. This made them to compete with one another. States had been in dispute due to the fact is there has been no sovereign state.

The social contract became developed mainly in early western political concepts. There become visible as a highbrow expression to European political mind wherein by kings, vassal and lords, were taken into consideration in the shape of political, felony and military affairs.

The social agreement they begin argue authoritarian, Jesus, princess, nobles and bishops responsibility even a lot later, the commitment turned into centered at the rights a separate could look after to be defended from the nation. various authors indicate the social settlement concept as something being which changed into factual in existing as the debate on the collective contract terms. Hence, it turned into a hired as equipment of framing what turned into top in developing for the society & nation.

From the radical converting length in Mid 18th century, social contract thoughts are motivated political thinking, that is the affirmation that political concepts were taken from social contract concept. Political theorists, when farming their principle, put under consideration the social agreement. Social settlement continued being in use in the United States of America, in which by, social contract become argued to be succession rights inside the southern earlier than the emergency of civil war.

It became a notion that the Social contract died after it become ridiculed by using Bentham and Hume, even though it’s been in existence until the twentieth century as a controversy of rights of the nation. The social settlement additionally appeared as a way for higher expertise of the public policy which existed within the works of John Rawls, an American political philosopher.

The social contract has been used to support several western positions. It has been used as a method for executing the king as it turned into in 17th century in England when it changed into used by the leaders of the Commonwealth.

Social contract may also be used as a justification for precise governance. In addition, it was termed as a shape of political revolution and lastly, as a way of treating each character the same irrespective of their race, beginning or color.

Social settlement evolved a framework for western political philosophers to follow. Most political philosophers used the social contract theory in framing their idea and in elaborating their political concepts.

Social contracts have had an obligation of making sure political authority is based on person rational and self hobby consent.

The social agreement attempts to evaluate and show the cause and cost of the organized government by way of comparing and contrasting the civil society and the kingdom of nature. It has performed a function of identifying the beneficial government to the western groups and the satisfactory country of governance to hold. Social contract states surely circumstances beneath which the state authorities is very crucial, via this has assisted in developing essential duties and rights of the residents.

Social contract idea justifies the sovereign electricity as well as trying to protect a character from too powerful sovereign oppression. The social settlement has played a position in improving the charter., It formed unwritten regulations for the society that become used for governance main to the formation of presidency charter.”

A social contract concept has played a primary role in enhancing political democracy in western political concepts. Westerners had been in a function to exercise their democracy as citizens with right to make their personal decision whilst voting. Individuals have framed rights and self-hobby as they make their very own congruent selections.

Social agreement is more advantageous the history of freedom. Each man or woman changed into entrusted with very own rights which no other character ought to deprive, unless with the aid of regulation which binds the residents. As opposed to the country of nature, social settlement delivered about the development of states which more advantageous citizen’s democracy.

The social agreement facilitated cause to the country citizens as they had better information of political theories by means of capturing the social settlement concepts. It additionally caused the status quo of the constitution inside the kingdom. Social settlement theories framed how the state’s charter might be structured relying on the interest of the sovereign power.

Argued that every nation creates its own charter which could not intrude with other states to beautify higher living inside the society. The charter may want to rule on the leader’s responsibility and how they might administer their duties to the lead.

The social settlement created political principle by way of shooting the idea that man or woman obedience is not essential while making a congruent decision; hence it is important for the residents to make choices based at the people’ choice however not thru political influence. Though obedience is going hand in hand with country governance, now not all political selections require being obedience.

Other humans obey the law because they are forced because of fear of punishment however now not because they’re obliged to. Each character has his or her personal right. One may decide to vote or now not to without anyone thinking of them. This has been enhanced thru the eradication of the dictatorship regimes due to the fact each citizen via social contracts had better information and taking pictures of what their rights are, hence, their rights must be respected.

Western political theorists have predominantly been portraying the alternate and interdependence among their constitution and authorities thru the social settlement model . Social agreement molds the western political theories, through the settlement of association, whereby, individuals sacrifice their liberty for the sake of others to sign up for the community.

Another association exists as a settlement among the society and the government in impacting the political theories. There are three aims of the presidency whether or not a republic or democratic, the government ought to minimize the aid necessary for retaining order, tax revenue maximization and making sure tight country defense.

If the citizens derive from the government maximum benefits this is proportional to what government calls for from them, the government acquires strength and legitimacy. Consequently, authorities power is derived from the right control of the social settlement as evidenced in Rousseau’s social agreement which is one of the most important theories that molded western political thoughts.

Social contracts played a primary function in determining gender participation in politics. Women have been appeared down upon as they had seemed as folks that needed not to participate in politics. Social settlement is every now and then violated, in which the motives of the social settlement era are annoyed with authorities and political parties failing to neutralize the discomfort.

Western nations have completely benefitted politically from the social settlement. The social agreement has the stronger formation of political events, democracy, the obedience of the law, right governance and even regulation formation.

The social contract has also impacted political theories as they had been framed based on social contract theories. Thus, social contracts have had a congruent impact to the western political idea.

Though social settlement has played a first-rate role in ethical and political principle, it has experienced criticism whereby, feminists and philosophers who are aware to race remember it as an incomplete symbol to ethical and political principle as they see it as a manner of camouflaging, hence, the settlement is seen as discriminative in nature.

Especially whilst social agreement discriminates against women politically, terming them as unworthy and unable to make vital political selections. Therefore, the social agreement has played a predominant function in shaping western political concept

A nation can be considered to be sovereign when an individual or governing body is bestowed upon optimum and complete power to govern a people over a particular region. The nature of sovereignty has been debated about time and time again. John Locke (1689) formulated a social contract theory whose foundations are the source and validity of the sovereign, the foundation of the law, and the justifications of following the set laws. It’s also how people can hold accountable for the sovereign if he or she does not accomplish their duties. Some theorists contend that the sovereign’s authority should be absolute since the government stems from a social contract in which the people consent to an agreed superior authority to safeguard themselves from their vicious natures. In this essay, I will argue in favor of Locke’s postulation and show that sovereignty belongs to the people. The people for whom ruling bodies or individuals are simply custodians and they can be rightfully removed from power if they do not accomplish their duties to the people.

In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke (1689) began by pointing out that a social contract is an agreement between people whose objective is to abandon the state of nature where people live in the absence of a ruler or clear established laws creating ambiguity and complications of settling disputes. Therefore, the key to resolving the difficulties plaguing the state of nature is a social contract. A social contract is where the people decide to submit to an elected government and permit the government to formulate and implement laws for the betterment of the entire society. If the state contravenes the social contract in any way, then, lawfully, the people can revolt and remove it from power. Locke contends that sovereignty belongs to the people for whom ruling bodies or individuals are simply custodians put in place to carry out their duties to the people as stipulated by the social contract. He tried to formulate actual defenses against infringements on natural law by the state. His social contract was dedicated to governance and law with the sovereign acting as dominant and ultimate, but only if it was confined to societal and natural law (Locke, 1689).

Therefore, following social contract formulations that lead to the establishment of sovereigns, authority is wielded not by the state but by the people. A ruling state only arose when every person in the community voluntarily gave up their natural rights directly or indirectly and bestowed them upon the hands of the state for safekeeping and the discharging of duties that benefit the entire society (Locke, 1689). A government of the people by the people for the people. Nonetheless, this authority cannot surpass that which the people possessed in a state of nature before formulating a social contract and transferring it to the state since nobody can offer more than what they have. Thus the sovereign is simply ruling by the will of the people, and as such the governed, lawfully possess the right to revolt and overthrow the government.

Those in favor of the sovereign wielding absolute power insist that the state of nature is possibly riddled with contentious struggle. Every person’s control over things provided in nature attracts conflict, particularly due to people’s competition for available resources. They portray the image that man is profoundly brutal which would ultimately result in a state of incessant conflict of every man for himself in a “dog eat dog” society. In a life plagued with continual clashes and terror, the advancement of civil society would be practically unachievable. The existence of man would be unsociable, deprived, foul, ruthless and short. Therefore, the social contract under the eventual brutal living conditions in the state of nature should establish an absolute sovereign. Whereby the people consent to a common absolute ruler to safeguard against their vicious tendencies and thereby facilitate the establishment of civil society. With an optimum and ultimate government as the final judge of disagreements and the source of all civil laws and justice in the state, the problems that plague the state of nature and the state of conflict which follows it are circumvented. To refuse the state to bear absolute authority would permit the occurrence of circumstances that would undo the benefits of an absolutist government and plunging the people back into the state of nature that is susceptible to chaos.

The argument for absolute sovereignty is widely erroneous and not convincing. The postulation made that human behavior under the conditions of the state of nature inhibits people from using their reasoning and thus reducing the society to a situation of “every man for himself” is flawed since the same conditions would also inhibit them from misusing their capabilities. This is because the intent of self-preservation is more likely to encourage harmony than cause destruction to others. Locke (1689) accurately differentiates between state of nature and state of conflict, where the state of nature is a situation where the society is in harmony devoid of a common ruler and the state of conflict only occurred following the rise of power from an individual upon another individual without the presence of a greater authority to offer assistance. The proponents of absolute sovereignty fail to distinguish between the state of nature and state of conflict and thereby fail to justify the establishment of absolute sovereignty.

In conclusion, since every individual is born equal and free in a society, any establishment of governance over a person necessitates their approval to be valid. I agree with Locke that the main reason for establishing and yield to a common ruler is to safeguard a person’s right to life, freedom, and property. Since the state only arose due to the establishment of an agreed social contract by the entire society, then sovereignty ultimately belongs to the people for whom ruling bodies or individuals are simply custodians put in place to safeguard people’s rights to life, freedom, and property. In every society that has an established government, there exists a constitution that constitutes the will of the people and therefore no individual or body can exist with absolute sovereignty surpassing societal and natural law. The main problem plaguing many nations is the state contravening the established social contract standards as proposed by Locke.

Works Cited

1. Locke, J. (1689). The second treatise of civil government, ed. Jonathan Bennett. Broadview Press.

Society has always been influenced by social standards and it results in a certain portrayal of women. Not many of these social norms have changed since the ancient world. Then, and even today, women have been told to act a certain way because society will only accept them if they conform to what is believed to be acceptable. Greek society was male dominated, both within the mortals and the gods and goddesses. Today’s society has roots that stem from the Ancient Greeks, and although feminism is more popular and normal today, there are still many people who believe that women are not of as much worth or use as men. Homer’s Hymn to Demeter reinforces social norms of the ancient world through the use of arranged marriage, lack of female authority, and limitation of Demeter’s actions.

Hymn to Demeter portrays this arranged marriage as a social contract. The text states that ‘He caught her up reluctant on his golden car and bare her away… she cried out… calling upon her father… But no one… heard her voice’ (1). As Hades took Persephone, she cried out for her help and her own father refused to listen because he knew what was actually happening and was prepared for it, he was not worried for her safety. Persephone was given to Hades to be his bride, she had no say in this transaction and was not even aware of it until it was too late for her. Zeus gave away his daughter to his brother, portraying her as if she were merely just a gift or a way for Zeus to gain the upper hand and have Hades indebted to him. This arranged marriage is proof that it is of no concern to the men what Persephone wants, she is just the commodity in which Hades is now obligated to Zeus. Just before Hades was going to take Persephone to see her mother, he ‘on his part gave her sweet pomegranate seed to eat, taking care for himself that she might not remain continually with grave, dark-robed Demeter’ (7). Pomegranate seeds were fed to Persephone, its intentions were not to provide any sort of sustenance to her or benefit her in any way, they were part of an ulterior motive set forward by Hades. Hades fed Persephone these seeds because its consumption is what binds her to him and the underworld, each seed that was eaten was a month that she must stay with him during the year, resulting in her living in the underworld one third of every year. These pomegranate seeds were a representation on how their marriage was indissoluble. Hades let Persephone see her mother, but not without making sure she will be coming back to him afterwards. This depiction of marriage as a social contract reinforces the ancient world’s representation on their views on what marriage signifies.

Demeter’s lack of authority further reinforces the ancient world’s view on how women have little influence and that the male authority is an increasing power . Once Demeter was told that Zeus had given away Persephone to Hades, ‘she was so angered… that she avoided the gathering of the gods and high Olympus, and went to the towns and rich fields of men, disfiguring her form a long while’ (2). Demeter was angry because Zeus did not confide in her or ask about how she would have felt in the giving away of Persephone. She had no say in the situation to begin with and now she couldn’t save her daughter from the torment of the underworld. She became so enraged that she refused to go to Olympus and would rather hide as an elderly woman within the mortal world.

Demeter’s actions are limited both in within the gods and the mortals. Demeter sensed that something wrong had happened to Persephone, she spent several days looking for her until she was finally able to get answers and then ‘grief yet more terrible and savage came into the heart of Demeter’ (2). She had no way to save or even contact Persephone, she couldn’t go to the underworld and rescue her nor could any of the other gods and goddesses break the contract between Hades and Zeus. Due to the limitations brought upon her, all that Demeter could do was fill heart with anger. When Persephone and Demeter are reconnected and they discover the effects of the consumption of the pomegranate seeds, they agree to the terms that Persephone ‘for a third part of the circling year… shall go down to the darkness and gloom’ (8). For this one third of every year, Demeter is again filled with sadness and anger that she cannot help the mortals by providing fertile land for their crops. Demeter is overwhelmed with wrath and fury due to the lack of help from the gods in the search for Persephone and it results in the limitations of her help towards the mortals.

From the ancient world to today, society has been faced with a set of social standards regarding how people should act. Hymn to Demeter reinforces these social norms, some of which are still being upheld today. Ancient Greek was governed by men whereas today there is a much larger increase in female power and it is a more widely supported societal decision. Women of today are more commonly praised when they demonstrate the capability and potential within themselves because there are still many who try to suppress them like in the ancient world. Demeter was controlled by her emotions due to the overwhelming love for Persephone and betrayal from the gods. Her actions throughout the writing shows the lack of female power, authority, and actions that were normal of that time.

The post-world war era had both positive and negative effects on retirement, the age-differentiated life course and productive aging. Historically the occupational life cycle of workers in America was characterized by unstable conditions and brutal working conditions. However, the coming in of the social contract brought in a stable occupational life cycle and contributed positively to the productive aging model. This is because the social contract gave workers stable jobs, retirement benefits and the traditional age-differentiated life course was clearly distinct (Rubin, 1996). However, failed competition led to an economic recession which eventually affected the labor –accord and the social contract. This is because corporations responded by downsizing, restructuring and adopting new technologies which led to a move towards globalization (Rubin, 1996). This led to flexible work practices which negatively affected the occupational life cycle. These changes on their own impacted retirement, age differentiated life cycle and productive aging. Changes in the social contract in America negatively impacted the occupational life cycle, retirement and productive aging.

Typical Occupational Life-Cycle World War II

The occupational life cycle captures the interrelatedness of individual lives over time with the social structure of employment and opportunity advancement, prestige and rewards. In an occupational lifecycle model, a worker upon completion of high school or any training enters into an entry-level job with cooperation or an entity (Kunkel & Morgan, 2007). A typical employee will advance through the ranks in the corporation, perhaps through promotion or seeking advanced training (Rubin, 1996). Through the period the workers’ earnings advance because of the skills earned, experience, seniority or responsibility which leads the worker to reach a plateau or middle age (Rubin, 1996). At this stage, an advancement may slow down or cease in anticipation of retirement which comes along with benefits such as health benefits or pension benefits.

Historically, the occupational life cycle of people in employment in America was characterized by unstable employment and employees who were in their occupational life cycle was treated brutally. There was a lack of opportunity advancement and the worker lacked prestige and rewards because employment was more of slavery than the enjoyment of work (Rubin, 1996). According to Rubin (1996), this was attributed by the fact that America was mainly dominated by industrial capitalism. Taking an example of employees who were working in the mining industry, a typical employee in the occupational life cycle lacked the freedom to organize, strike and they also lacked an opportunity to advance their grievances (Rubin, 1996). Oftentimes, when the workers tried to advance their interest they were brutally treated due to the sheer strength of the employer. However, the coming in of the labour accord which formed a social contract between labour, the employer and the government changed these conditions that these employees faced in their occupational life cycle.

The accord which mainly formed the conditions of the social contact had the purpose of changing the conditions of workers working in these industries. Characterized by labour unions, the accord rearranged the major actors in the economy which included big capital and big labour (Rubin, 1996). The formation of labour unions aimed at giving workers job security, an opportunity for advancement in the industry and prestige. The social contract began to protect a worker’s pay, working conditions and improved the quality of working lives. This improved the quality of the occupational life cycle. Elements of the social contract that brought about these changes include the collective bargaining process (Rubin, 1996). Collective bargaining brought industrial peace, most workers got stable jobs, an increase in earnings and the process created a stable social structure of employment. Secondly, productivity bargaining and regulation of conflict enabled workers who were both on the core of the social contract and on the periphery to live a decent life. An employee who was in this occupational lifecycle after world war would manage to get an entry-level job, get a stable salary and provide for their families.

According to Rubin (1996), several employees were able to buy houses for their families, buy cars, buy furniture and provide their families, received retirement benefits on a single paycheck. The hallmark of the social contract was the creation of a stable occupational life cycle which was made possible by the creation of labour capital (Bellou, 2013). The relationship that was premised on the exchange of job security, monetary gain stable employment for industrial peace and ongoing productivity (Rubin, 1996). However, the coming in of competition, and the emerging economy which was characterized by advancement in technology changed these stable conditions in the occupational life cycle. Reasons for a Change in the Stable

Occupational Life-Cycle

Immediately after the post-world war 2 era, this stable career model changed due to economic changes and demographic changes. The competitive environment for corporations and institutions led to the breakdown of the labour accord (Rubin, 1996). Because of failed international competition, the rise of paper entrepreneurism, international competition and rising cost, corporations employed strategies that aimed at reducing cost and increase profits One of the strategies was to engage in industrial restructuring, union-busting, globalization and technological innovation (Rubin, 1996).

In addition, failure by companies to compete in the new emerging world led to slow economic growth which led the economy into a recession. A recession comes along with loss of jobs, loss of market and high cost if companies do not adjust their corporate strategies to suit the emerging economy (Rubin, 1996). This affected the stable occupational lifecycle as the new flexible capitalism and industry was now requiring flexible working conditions (Rubin, 1996). People who had technological qualifications, people who had knowledge in the service industry and the new young generation which had knowledge of computers started replacing the older generation that was not accustomed to globalization and technology. Furthermore, as international competition intensified, companies which failed to compete changed their business models to adjust to the demands of the emerging economy. There was a shift in employment as companies invested in the service industry, upgraded for new technology and sought for new markets and cheaper workers (Rubin, 1996). Corporations also engaged in industrial restructuring and de-industrialization. Industrial restructuring and de-industrialization can be defined as a shift from manufacturing production and employment to expanding services production and employment (Rubin, 1996). Workers were affected negatively by this shift as it was difficult for a typical worker to get an entry-level job without advanced qualifications. Skills became obsolete as the emerging corporate world required new qualifications and skills that were more inclined to the knowledge of technology (Rubin, 1996).

Furthermore, the recent economic recession led to the introduction of flexible work practices, a situation whereby the employer outsources the skills that he needs. Such changes caused a shift in the occupational life cycle, and again employees found themselves lacking job security, faced with unstable earnings and lacked retirement benefits. The occupational life cycle again was now lacking opportunity advancement as employers in the emerging economy preferred to use freelance workers (Rubin, 1996). They also took advantage of young employees who had the recent knowledge of technology which was necessary to survive in the world characterized by intense competition. Challenge the traditional “age-differentiated” life course These social conditions of flexible work practices and the inability of living on a single paycheck led to challenges in the traditional age- differentiated life course and created a structural lag between societal aging and images of elders.

A life-course approach refers to the multidisciplinary paradigm for the study of people’s lives, their structural context and social change (Garrison, n.d). With regards to the traditional age differentiated life course, certain roles and behaviours are considered to be appropriate based on a certain age which is arranged in chronological order (Garrison, n.d). For example, the traditional age differentiated lifecycle would stipulate that it is appropriate for a person to work form the ages of 20-55 and retire thereafter (Garrison, n.d). However, changes in the patterns of aging and the social structures are interdependent. By changing the employment practices that were long-standing such as employment practices brought about by the labour accord corporates in the United States led a shift in the normal work lives of employees. This brought challenges to workers who were working during the period of social contract regulated the employment relationship as they were able to perform appropriate roles according to the traditional age differentiated life course (Garrison, n.d). Therefore, compared to the traditional worker, fewer workers were able to look for stable employment on one company and they had to find multiple careers so as to be able to sustain themselves (Rubin, 1996).

This took away the retirement benefits that employees were supposed to have bad brought about challenges in age differentiated lifecycle as workers continued to work even on the ages which they were supposed to retire or perform certain specified traditional roles. Although the aging process and the social structures which are created affect each other, the process of change is highly distinct and it follows its own dynamics. For example, although the aging process varies across individuals, it has a defined rhythm that includes birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age (Burkhauser & Quinn, 2014). However social structures do not have the same defined system as that of aging. This is because the economy faces ups and downs as evidenced by the recession that the US went through which eliminated social contracts. Consequently, these social events lead to a poor fit between the lives of people and structures, known as an imbalance between what people of given ages has to offer and what they need and expect in their lives (Burkhauser & Quinn, 2014). This creates structural lag as social structures fail to meet to the demands of the people (Burkhauser & Quinn, 2014). For example, the earlier roles and images of elder people during the period of the social contract was that they will retire and enjoy their benefits. However, the changes that happened in the economy led to a mismatch between the elder’s expectations and what societal structures were providing them hence resulting in a structural lag.

Changes in Future Retirement

The changes in the occupational lifecycle do not only have effects on the match between social structures and age differentiation but will also have an effect on the future of retirement and the contribution that retirement has to productive aging. According to Kunkel & Morgan (2007), under normal circumstances in a stable occupational life cycle, when people retire they will have retirement benefits which they can make use in productive activities such as volunteering and charity. This is because as people get older they get exposed to the risk of isolation, dependency, depressed physical, economic and mental well-being (CDC, 2015). Therefore, engaging in activities such as volunteering, faith networking and other charitable organizations will relieve them from the feeling of loneliness. Theoretical contributions developed in productive aging states that productivity cannot only be defined as the economic value of individuals’ actions but it is also measured in terms of social and civic contributions that the elderly make when they reach retirement age. This was supported by Shern (2017) who explained that older people have the capacity to help build the community’s social and economic capital through productive means.

The resource strategic mobilization model states that the amount of personal resources and networks influence the way older persons who are at retirement stage participate in three major activities such as employment, volunteering, charity a and caregiving (Shern, 2017). In general, those who have better resources have a higher probability of participating in all activities. However, due to the emerging economy which is characterized by flexible work practices and changes in the occupational life cycle, the elderly are left with little or no benefits that are channeled towards retirement. As a result, they do not have funds to engage in activities such as volunteering, caregiving or charity and this affects their ability to contribute positively to society hence affecting the productive aging model. In conclusion, changes in the social contract in America negatively impacted the occupational life cycle, retirement and productive aging. The coming in of the social contract brought in a stable occupational life cycle and contributed positively to the productive aging model. This is because the social contract gave workers stable jobs, retirement benefits and the traditional age-differentiated life course was clearly distinct. However, failed competition led to an economic recession which eventually affected the labour –accord and the social contract. This affected the occupational life cycle, age-differentiated life course.