The paper will focus on personal and social changes in the lives of two characters, Hem and Haw, and how the changes that take place depend on morality and ethics. Very often, people are afraid of change and do everything to keep the same order of things as before.
The time, however, is moving forward, and conditions are changing. Those who cannot adapt and move on are left behind. They will only have two choices: one is to realize that change is inevitable and much needed, the other is to stay the same and be forgotten or left behind.
Once again, this was the day of contemplating for Hem and Haw. It was raining almost every day now, and the nearby river was getting dangerously filled up. Haw was more reasonable and kept saying that the environment was changing, and they must do something to make sure that they would be safe in the future. Hem was careless and did not worry.
He kept asking: “What changes do you want to see?” The world was an entity constantly moving and evolving in some form or another. Changes must be made according to the outside environment and the internal processes inside each person. Haw knew they had to move on to a different place or somehow modify their current place of stay in order to meet the conditions that weather placed before them.
Haw would reply that the highest morality states that the truth must be accepted and followed no matter what, even though there are sometimes exceptions from the rules. Wanting to change his friend, Haw would ask: “Why is change important?” As usual, Hem did not care and wanted to keep the old life.
But Haw knew that change was important because everything that happened had begun with some form of change, as it seemed to define life. Either it was a conscious effort or the environment exhibited certain conditions that led to a change. Only a philosophical view on change could help. As such, Haw started thinking about morality and how it applies to change.
His thought was that a person’s character qualities are important to himself/herself and the people who s/he is in cooperation with (Johnson, 2012). He knew that change is important because it leads to the evolution of an individual. It is also critical that the kinds of changes are noted and the person adjusts to them accordingly.
In social views, people must do what is necessary in relation to the greater good. Haw began thinking about building rafts, houses in the trees, or some form of fortifications to keep the river out, as the water was rising rapidly, and the rains did not stop for a week.
Meanwhile, Hem became so careless that he let all his supplies and other useful things be taken by the overflowing water. One morning, when the thunder and lightning were making the weather even worse, Haw asked: “What are the implications of refusing to change?” Hem just made a hand gesture for Haw to leave him alone. But Haw persisted; he explained that unless people change, they will have no future.
People will always feel inconvenient due to the environmental changes and conditions that regulate existence, but nothing is as precious as someone’s life which can be lost because of a refusal. A person not willing to change will slowly die inside, their confidence will dwindle, and no one will be able to rely on that person, as they will be left behind.
The same can be said about self respect and negative personal influences. The need for change is required, so in case someone refuses to change and adjust to the new conditions, it will be a significant fallback for the person, his/her surrounding, and eventually, the bigger society.
Even though it might seem that there is no direct connection between the society and individuals, whatever changes happen in a person, lead to a shift and change in society. The public life is significantly affected by the decisions made by individuals, especially in cases of morality and ethics (Brandt, 2013). Haw understood this and decided to learn everything about ground water, elevation, and world oceans’ movements.
First off, he built a house on a tree, far off the ground, as he hoped this would save him. But one night, a loud thunder strike woke him up, and a question appeared in his head: “Do you expect resistance to your changes?” He could not answer because he never dealt with change. All his life, everything was the same.
As an answer, the tree started leaning from side to side, as the water had loosened the earth between the roots. The answer came itself: yes, Haw knew there would be resistance. An individual character or even the surrounding environment might be resistant to change, as was the case with Haw and his tree house.
A person could believe in something so strongly that after seeing how the outside environment has changed, the internal character might not want to change. Haw did not want to believe that this was happening to him, but now he saw that he must stop the resistance within himself and focus on the resistance nature was placing in front of him.
He started studying even more, engineering, carpentry, buoyancy laws, ship building… As he was carving out a tree trunk, he thought: “What are the ethical implications of change?” The reoccurring thought was that both individuals and societies govern themselves according to the rules and laws of morality, ethics, and more specifically, virtue, which play an important role in the lives of people and nations.
A change in ethics will either make a person better or set him/her back in their morality (Rohlf, 2010). That is why Haw was trying to convince Hem that they must change themselves and think of an escape. Haw understood that people and societies were concerned with the highest moral standards, as they became very close to the person’s heart and soul.
His idea was that the higher the ethical consideration, the better the change and the outcome. To sum up his thoughts, he asked himself: “What are the lessons that you want to learn from this story?” It taught that valuable lessons in changes were needed, but the great principle that ruled everything was morality and ethics (Gort, 2002).
As Haw was floating away on his boat, he saw the dam collapsing and water engulfing everything in the forest. He learned that changes are needed to survive, not only physically, but mentally as well. Peoples’ moral health is key to evolution and development of a person.
Now, he was deciding what image of change management he would be using and why? First, the most necessary adjustments must be understood. After familiarizing with them, they must be implemented into everyday life. The ethical goals and criteria must be strong, in order for changes to be managed properly, and provide the largest benefit for the individual. It must be a life commitment.
References
Brandt, A. (2013). Morality and Health. New York: Routledge.
Gort, J. (2002). Religion, Conflict and Reconciliation: Multifaith Ideals and Realities, New York: Rodopi.
Johnson, O. (2012). Ethics: Selections from Classical and Contemporary Writers. Boston: Cengage Learning.
The topic of social development and change has gained prominence during the past decade. Much has been written and said about the political, economic, cultural, psychological, and social factors of change. The modern study of social change marks a new stage in the development of social sciences. Here, fiction is believed to be an essential driver of new social identity.
Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist is no exception: the book creates a unique picture of social development. In Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist, social change comes through the terrorist acts of anarchic organizations, which cause a change in personal worldviews, self-understanding, and personal experiences, leading to a shift in power and the creation of a new civil mentality.
Social change is an ever-present phenomenon, whose mechanisms are poorly understood. Economic growth, changes in GDP, multiculturalism, personal experiences, and political moods create a picture of social complexity, which no science can reasonably explain.
This is probably why writers of fiction seek to re-consider the social reality in their own terms. More often than not, modern works of fiction shed light on the most controversial aspects of social change and facilitate the development and integration of social priorities with the realities of life.
In Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist, terrorism and anarchic organizations cause a profound change in personal experiences, self-understanding, and worldviews, which become the main drivers of social change.
Hamid’s protagonist Changez passes a long way from a belief in the American sanctity, through a painful realisation of the country’s social and political vulnerability, to the roots of his cultural and social belonging. America attracts thousands of immigrants, who are proud and pleased at being part of the cosmopolitan society.
However, this picture of multiculturalism is merely a cover to the sense of nostalgia for something that will never happen again. In a vicious circle of events, torn between the University, scholarship, excellent grades, and obligation to work in the United States, Changez slowly realises the tragedy of American self-destruction.
American people, so devoid of refinement, position themselves as the world’s ruling class, with little to no respect to other nations (Hamid 21). It is during his journey to Greece that Changez’s personal experiences change his perceptions of the reality, in which he lives. This realisation of American superiority, arrogance, and cultural blindness gives an impetus for a profound shift in Changez’s cultural and political consciousness.
The tragic events of September, 2011 exemplify the turning point in the development of Changez’s worldviews. The latter eventually become the main driver of social change. Changez watches the news and, as the two WTC towers are crashing, he experiences a deep sense of pleasure: he smiles and experiences a deep sense of pleasure – the pleasure he cannot explain (Hamid 72).
Changez is no longer what he used to be just a day ago. The events of 9/11 push the young man beyond the boundaries of the American Dream: with his Middle Eastern appearance, he is turned into a social and cultural outlaw, an alien who is destined to spend the rest of his life in isolation and solitude.
Only active political and cultural opposition can give Changez another chance to win. From now on, Changez lives on thin ice. He makes bold political statements, which expose the tragedy of American arrogance.
In the aftermath of the tragedy, conflicts between East and West speed up a change, which is equally political and social. In Hamid’s book, social change pursues two different paths. Change is made social, when Changez learns about the events of 9/11 and decides to promote a new idea of social relations among people.
The events of 9/11 also cause another social change: the conflict between East and West that follows the terrorist act pushes Middle Easterners to the bottom of the social hierarchy, because they are associated with terrorism. Those with a Middle Eastern appearance lose everything – their reputation, cultural heritage, trust, and peace of mind.
These few hours when the two Trade Center towers are burning turn the lives of thousands into a nightmare. Nothing will be the same. From now on, the Middle East is the main source of various terrorist threats, and those of the Middle Eastern origin are potential terrorists – all of them!
This is how, hiding behind the veil of the self-preservation philosophy, America tries to submit the entire planet to the repercussions of its social and political tantrums (Hamid 168). At this point, Changez transforms into an advocate of the new ideology, which leaves no room for ominous hypocrisy but exposes the dangers of political egoism and self-centeredness.
Is Changez a fundamentalist? Hardly so; in the eyes of the American majority, the term “fundamentalism” is a good justification of its self-protection ideals. To a large extent, fundamentalism is non-existent; it is merely a product of American political inventors, who seek public approval for their acts against the humanity. However, nothing is eternal, and so is the U.S.’s political superiority.
Changes in worldviews, shifts in beliefs and thinking, and personal experiences provide a framework that organises, defines, and guides Changez’s actions. The balance of power shifts towards the new civil mentality, which no longer yields itself to the deceptive power of aggression.
The advantages and disadvantages of the social change caused by the terrorist acts are obvious. That Changez becomes an advocate of the new social mentality holds a promise to change the way American people perceive the reality. Unfortunately, it is not before thousands of people die in a huge terrorist act that changes in public mentality become possible.
Thousands of others are destined to suffer alienation and isolation because of their nationality, ethnic origin, and religion. Moreover, Changez alone cannot cause a global change in society and politics.
Most probably, he overestimates his capability to change the world. However, everything in Hamid’s book implies that such change is possible, away from violence and self-centeredness, toward multiculturalism and reciprocity in human relations with the world.
Conclusion
Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist is a unique but extremely interesting account of social development and change. In Mohsin Hamid’s The Reluctant Fundamentalist, social change comes through the terrorist acts of anarchic organizations, which cause a change in personal worldviews, self-understanding, and personal experiences, leading to a shift in power and the creation of a new civil mentality.
Hamid’s protagonist Changez passes a long way from a belief in American sanctity to the roots of his cultural belonging. Certainly, Changez alone cannot cause a global change in society. However, Hamid’s book implies that social change is possible, away from aggression and violence and toward reciprocity in human relations with the world.
Works Cited
Hamid, Mohsin. The Reluctant Fundamentalist. New York: Harvest Books, 2008. Print.
Nowadays, it became a commonplace assumption among many people that, as time goes on; human societies continue undergoing a qualitative transformation – the process that has a number of discursive implications, within the context of how we address life challenges.
Moreover, even though that there are still a few individuals here and there that try to oppose the earlier mentioned change, due to being ‘immoral’, there can be no doubt that the ongoing socio-technological progress, which induces such a change, in the first place, has been predetermined by the objective laws of history. In this paper, I will explore the validity of the above-stated at length, while specifying how different sociological theories address the subject matter in question.
Development of sociology
Social change can be best defined as a process of the society’s operative principles attaining an entirely new quality, which in turn causes a number of formerly legitimate socio-cultural concepts/notions to be seen as utterly outdated. The manner, in which social change extrapolates itself, can be well discussed alongside of what account for the integral components of the change paradigm – cultural change, ideological change and technological change.
The first notion refers to the process of people’s association with the so-called ‘traditional values’ becoming increasingly weakened. The validity of the provided definition can be well illustrated, in regards to the fact that, unlike what it used to be the case with them, even as recently as a hundred years ago, today’s Westerners have grown almost completely secular and cosmopolitical.
In its turn, this creates objective preconditions for these people to eventually cease associating the sense of their self-identity with what happened to be their ethno-cultural or religious affiliation – something that we witness happening in the EU countries, as we speak. It is needless to mention, of course, that the earlier mentioned process will have an enormous effect on the Western society’s very fabric.
The notion of ‘ideological change’ presupposes that for the duration of time, the principles of governorship, deployed in a particular society, grow increasingly adjusted with the currently predominant socio-cultural discourse. For example; whereas, at the turn of the 20th century, the majority of the most powerful European countries were monarchies, at the end of the same century it effectively ceased to be the case. In its turn, this can be referred to as the part of a larger process of humanity remaining on the path of progress, while being put through the developmental phases of feudalism, industrialism (capitalism) and post-industrialism.
This process’s most immediate effect is that, as time goes on, people grow ever more aware of the counterproductive essence of a variety of socially constructed rituals and ‘taboos’. To exemplify this statement, we can well mention the fact that; as of today, the overwhelming majority of the world’s countries does provide women with the opportunity to take part in the political elections. Yet, at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the suffragist movement was only beginning to gain a momentum, even in such progressive countries as Britain and France, women used to be treated as ‘second class’ citizens.
Our overview of social change, as a dialectically predetermined phenomenon, would not be complete without mentioning the phenomenon’s most important aspect – the fact that it is being essentially ‘fueled’ by the ongoing progress in the field of an empirical science, which nowadays attained an exponential momentum. After all, it is not only that technology affects people’s perception of the surrounding reality, but it also alters the very reality in question, in the literal sense of this word. In the paper’s following sub-chapter, I will illustrate how it is being done.
The sociological imagination
The major aspects of how technology changes just about every human society can be outlined as follows:
Technology promotes secularism
As it was implied earlier, even though that many Westerners continue to be formally affiliated with one of the world’s main religions (such as Christianity), they are in fact rather ‘godless’, because such their affiliation has no effect, whatsoever, on the actual essence of these people’s lifestyles.
The reason for this is simple – while being provided with the opportunity to take practical advantage of a number of different life-enhancing gadgets, which came into being due to the ongoing scientific progress, people come to realize that it is namely science and not religion, which is capable of making their lives more enjoyable. This partially explains the well-known phenomenon that the extent of a particular society’s material prosperity negatively relates to the measure of its members’ religiosity (See Appendix).
Technology enables the human population’s continual growth
As of now, the population of Earth is estimated to account for 7 billion. It is understood, of course, that the substantial proportion of these people does suffer from being undernourished (as it is being the case in Africa, for example). Nevertheless, the Earth population’s rapid expansion, which took place during the course of a few recent decades, would not be possible if it was not up to the fact that, within the same time-period, the efficiency of the world’s agriculture has tripled. Within the context of ensuring this specific accomplishment, technology came in indispensable.
Technology reduces the humanity’s dependence on natural resources
The validity of this suggestion can be illustrated in regards to the fact that; whereas, 80% of the original Atlantic telephone cable’s self-cost accounted for copper, the material cost of today’s fiber-optical Atlantic telephone cable accounts for only 10%.
Yet; whereas, the old cable could only sustain 128 parallel calls, the fiber-optical one sustains 750.000 parallel calls.1 What it means is that in the future, the influence of the resource-rich countries in the arena of international politics will be effectively undermined. The technology’s earlier mentioned effect can also be discussed, as such that contributes to ensuring humanity’s self-sustainability more than anything else does.
Technology lessens the society members’ likelihood to affiliate themselves with the strongly authoritarian political ideologies and causes them to grow increasingly comfortable with the ideals of secularism.
The classical definitions of ideology do mention the fact that, in order for an individual to become strongly committed to a particular political cause, he or she must necessarily be a somewhat arrogant person. Therefore, it will be thoroughly appropriate to suggest that, while increasing the integrity of people’s connectivity across the globe, technology reduces the extent of their susceptibility to political ideologies, because it does broaden their intellectual horizons – hence, making it less likely for them to remain politically narrow-minded. Eventually, this will result in more and more people questioning the legitimacy of the notion of ‘national sovereignty’, which is conceptually inconsistent with the process of Globalization.
Sociological theories and frameworks
Even though that the number of sociological theories that address the phenomenon of social change is rather extensive, in this part of the paper, we will only review the ones that immediately relate to the discussed subject matter.
The sociological theory of Emil Durkheim (Positivist)
Having been the proponent of a scientific positivism, Durkheim believed in the dialectical essence of social change. His theory’s most important premises can be generalized as follows: Society is the integrated part of the surrounding reality. As such, it functions in accordance with the basic societal laws, consistent with the laws of nature. Society is in the position to regulate the functioning of its systemic components.
The ‘social facts’ (dialectically predetermined specifics of how people interrelate with each other within the society), studied by sociology, are thoroughly objective, which in turn presupposes the possibility for them to be subjected to a scientific inquiry. As the sociologist noted, “We (sociologists) must penetrate much more deeply into reality, in order to understand it…
We must look for a means of comparing historical data, and establish a series of phenomena which vary on parallel lines”.2 According to Durkheim, the sociology’s primary objective, is to gain an insight into what causes people to subscribe to the communal forms of existence, while willing to consider the maintenance of the undermined social order (by the government), as such that represents a universally applicable and fully objective sociological category.
The sociological paradigm of Durkheim allows the division of human societies on archaic (simple/primitive) and industrial (complex). In the archaic society, people’s individual identities are being ‘dissolved’ within what happened to be this society’s ‘collective archetype’. This explains why in primitive societies, people tend to lead highly ritualized lifestyles, while striving to objectify themselves within the surrounding environment – hence, their endowment with the essentially tribal (mechanic) sense of solidarity.
The existential mode of people in the industrial society, on the other hand, is characterized by their endowment with what Durkheim used to refer to as the organic sense of solidarity. That is, in this type of societies, individuals tend to assess the measure of their relatedness with others, along the lines of what happened to be the particulars of their social/professional affiliation. The reason for this is simple – the very functioning of an industrial society is being made possible by the strongly defined division of labor among its members.
Durkheim also used to promote the idea that, the more primitive a particular society happened to be; the higher is the measure of its members’ psychological homogeneity. In its turn, this homogeneity creates objective preconditions for such a society to fall behind, in terms of a socio-cultural progress, because individuals who tend to perceive the surrounding reality similarly, are incapable of evolving.
Alternatively, the measure of the society’s complexity positively correlates with its members’ likelihood to gain an awareness, as to what the concept of ‘society’ stands for, and consequently – to find circumstantially appropriate solutions to the pressing problems of a socio-political importance. Thus, Durkheim’s theory refers to a social change, as such that is being triggered by the process of human societies continuing to evolve, in the socio-cultural sense of this word. This, of course, implies the change’s dialectically defined necessity.
The sociological theory of Georg Zimmel (Functionalist)
This particular sociologist’s approach to addressing social change can be best defined as phenomenological. Unlike Durkheim, who used to stress out the social change’s objectiveness, Simmel preferred to think of it in terms of a subjective ‘thing in itself’. That is, according to Simmel, the forms of people’s socially integrated existence are not defined by what happened to be the affiliated socio-economic circumstances, but by the very nature of the concerned individuals’ unconscious anxiety to achieve individuation.
This anxiety, however, consists of a number of mutually incompatible sub-anxieties, “(An individual) is always member and body, part and whole, complete and in need of completion”.3 The earlier mentioned dichotomy creates objective prerequisites for the forms of social organization to remain essentially the same, throughout the course of millennia, even though they often adopt seemingly incompatible subtleties.
This is the reason why, when we analyze the societal significance of the court of Louis XIV, the U.S. Department of State and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, for example, it will appear that there is indeed much in common between them. All three of the mentioned organizations serve (served) the cause of maintaining the legitimacy of predominant socio-cultural discourses in the concerned countries.
Hence, the essence of Simmel’s methodological approach to sociology – contrary to what Durkheim used to suggest, Simmel insisted that the sociology’s subject matter are historically archetypical social situations, which regardless of what happened to be the form of a particular society’s political governing, constitute a metaphysical foundation, upon which this society is based. The sociologist used to refer to these situations as ‘social forms’, while classifying them as independent, on the one hand, and dependent, on the other. The independent ‘social forms’ are concerned with people’s inborn tendency to seek individuation through love, competition, alienation/integration.
The dependent ones are concerned with the functioning of legal systems, the process of individuals entering in economic relations with each other, and the discursive popularity of social activities that presuppose their participants’ willingness to indulge in role-playing. The main feature of ‘social forms’ is that they reflect people’s earlier mentioned psychological predispositions – the actual inhibitors of social change.
There are certain limitations to people’s ability to achieve self-actualization, while acting within the framework of a particular ‘social form’. These limitations include the particulars of their class-affiliation, the discursive oppressiveness of legally upheld rules and regulations, and the society’s stance on what can be considered the moral/immoral means of attaining a social prominence.
Therefore, according to Zimmel, when it comes to defining the essence of qualitative dynamics within the society, sociologists should never cease taking into consideration the causes and implications of what appear to be the currently predominant socio-cultural discourse, while remaining thoroughly aware of this discourse’s effect on their own ability to rationalize.
This, of course, presupposes that the process of social change is rather ‘metaphysical’ than purely physical, because it is nothing but the reflection of the workings of people’s unconscious psyche, which are procedurally chaotic. As such, this process cannot be triggered externally, by definition.
The sociological theory of Karl Marx (Materialist)
Being thoroughly materialist, the Marxist paradigm of what accounts for the qualitative dynamics within a particular society is based upon the assumption that it is specifically the ongoing accumulation of the so-called ‘surplus product’, on the part of the representatives of social elites, which causes this society to grow increasingly stratified.
However, the very same process causes the intensification of social antagonisms within the society, which in turn is supposed to lead towards the overthrow of the capitalist system of a political governing, concerned with subjecting the representatives of the society’s lower classes to the different forms of an economic exploitation.4 Thus, the Marxist sociology views the process of a social change as the byproduct of the earlier mentioned antagonisms between the rich, on the one hand, and the poor on the other, becoming progressively more acute – hence, the phenomenon’s objectiveness.
The sociological theory of Daniel Bell (Technocratic)
The main premise of this theory, is that the transformation of ‘social forms’ is the direct consequence of the ongoing technological process. This presupposes that is namely the factor of technology, which defines the qualitative subtleties of how a particular society functions.5
The validity of this idea can be illustrated in relation to the fact that, throughout the course of history, the social change’s actual momentum never ceased being reflective of the associated historical era’s ability to yield scientific discoveries. For example, the emergence of psychology was predetermined by the fact that, throughout the course of the late 19th century, scientists obtained a number of scientifically legitimate insights into how human brain addresses challenges.
In its turn, the legitimization of psychology altered the sociological fabric of Western societies, in respect of undermining the influence of religion on these societies’ members. After all, as time goes on, more and more Westerners choose in favor of being counseled by psychologists, rather than by priests. This, in turn provides an additional boost to the earlier mentioned process of a societal secularization, which now became the integral part of a post-industrial living in the West.
Structural functionalism
Nowadays, the notion of social change has often been deemed synonymous with the notion of modernization. After all, it is namely because humanity continues to take advantage of technology, as the mean of enhancing the efficiency of its socio-economic and cultural pursuits, which alter human societies structurally and functionally.
Nevertheless, it would prove counterproductive referring to modernization in terms of a ‘thing in itself’ – the notion in question has been brought about by the never-ending competition between the representatives of Homo Sapiens species to take possession of the limited natural and human resources. In light of this suggestion, we can identify what can be considered the additional set of the change-inducing societal factors:
War
During the course of war, the pace of technological progress assumes an exponential momentum, which in turn causes the affected societies’ rapid modernization. For example, before the outset of the WW1, there were only 600 internal-combustion vehicles in Britain; whereas, by the time this war ended, the country’s automotive industry has managed to manufacture 60.000 cars, which differed drastically in quality/technology from the ones produced before the war.
The same can be same about the wartime transformation of the British aviation industry from being concerned with producing ‘flying bookshelves’ to manufacturing rather powerful warplanes. In other words, war is probably the most substantial contributor to the process of modernization, which in turn induces social change.
The reason for this is apparent – only the states (in the time of war) are able to invest adequately in the economy’s technologically intense sectors, while overlooking the scope of potential hazards – these hazards to not come even remotely close to the danger of the country’s territory facing the prospect of being occupied by the enemy. This is exactly the reason why wars contribute to the cause of progress/modernization more than anything else does.
Globalization/standardization
Although that Globalization usually gets to be discussed as an essentially post-industrial phenomenon, this is far from being the actual case. After all, even as far back, as during the time of antiquity, the attempts have been made to introduce a universally recognized currency, which in turn was meant to ‘globalize’ the world to an extent. Thus, it will only be logical to suggest that in essence, the term Globalization is synonymous with the notion of standardization. As such, Globalization appears to be the logical consequence of the fact that humanity continues to remain on the path of progress, while growing progressively less ‘animalistic’.
The rationale behind this suggestion is rather simple – since the standardization is supposed to increase the overall efficiency of the economy’s functioning, it necessarily means that in the ‘globalized’ societies, there will more of a ‘surplus product’ for the society-members to enjoy. As the logical consequence, they will have more time on their hands to go about attaining ‘individuation’, as opposed to being primarily concerned with taking care of their physiological needs. Eventually, this should lead them towards adopting a thoroughly secularized worldview. One of the long-term effects of this is that it will cause the eventual collapse of the discursively outdated social institutions/customs – the event that can be well discussed in terms of a revolutionary-rapid social change.
Natural environment
Being thoroughly biological, people’s foremost priority is concerned with securing their place in the environmental niche of choice. In its turn, the alteration of the associated environmental conditions will have a size-related effect on the niche in question. Consequentially, there will be a plenty of social tribulations, leading to a social change. Therefore, the ecology’s effect on the human societies’ very functioning does not need to be doubted – especially nowadays, when due to the sheer pace of its technological advancement, humanity itself is being in the position to alter the surrounding natural environment.
Conflict perspective
As it was pointed out earlier, there are a number of objective reasons for human societies (with the exemption of the ones that never managed to evolve beyond the Stone Age) to continue undergoing a qualitative transformation. One of this transformation’s extrapolations is the fact that, as time goes on, more and more people reassess the validity of their former opinions about the surrounding social reality.
This, of course, creates preconditions for them to consider joining the newly emerged social/political movements, which aim to increase the effectiveness of how a particular society addresses the issues of a socio-political importance. By joining these movements, people are able to ensure that the expected social change does occur.
In order to prove the legitimacy of this suggestion, we can well mention the social effects of the trade-unionist movement, which emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. Whereas, prior to the institutionalisation of trade unions, the hired industrial workers used to be denied even the most basic means of a social protection against being mercilessly exploited, the continual rise of the trade-unionist movement was able to improve this situation rather drastically.
This is the reason why, as of today, it became a commonplace practice among the managers of privately owned companies to provide employees with the extensive package of social benefits, such as bestowing the latter with the free dental/medical insurance, for example. It is needless to mention, of course, that the earlier mentioned development had contributed to the process of Western societies becoming ever more observant of the principle of a social fairness.
Essentially the same can be said about the effects of the so-called Civil Rights movement, which started to gain momentum in America, during the course of the sixties. One of the reasons why this movement originated, in the first place, is that throughout the course of the mentioned historical period, the officially sponsored policy of subjecting Black Americans to a racial discrimination became discursively outdated.
Given the fact that back then, the America’s high-ranking governmental officials preferred not to acknowledge this, it became up to the ordinary citizens to seek the banning of the race-discriminatory laws. As the realities of a contemporary living in America indicate, the Civil Rights movement did succeed rather splendidly in promoting the cause of an interracial egalitarianism.
The above-provided examples do legitimize the idea that social movements can indeed be considered capable of inducing social change – even if it continues to be resisted by the representatives of social elites, who strive to maintain the status quo within the society. In their turn, social movements are being triggered by the inconsistency between people’s newly acquired awareness of what accounts for their true self-actualization agenda, on the one hand, and the public institutions’ failure to recognize it, on the other.
Therefore, it is thoroughly appropriate to suggest that social movements can be thought of in terms of the social change’s powerful agents. Moreover, due to the revolutionary breakthroughs in the field of informational technologies, which took place in recent decades, social movements are likely to influence the surrounding social reality to an increasingly higher extent.
Interactionism
The emergence of the term ‘environmental sociology’ can be traced to the works of Robert Park. According to this sociologist, the very etymology of the concept of ecology presupposes that, being essentially physical; ecosystems are the legitimate subjects of a scientific inquiry.6
Because people play an important role, within the context of how ecosystems develop spatially, it means that the qualitative aspects of the human societies’ functioning reflect the objective works of nature. The fact that humanity experiences an acute ecological crisis, has naturally led sociologists towards becoming increasingly aware that the ways of mankind cannot be discussed outside of how the factor of a natural environment affects people’s views of themselves.
Therefore, it can be well suggested that environmental sociology reflects the necessity in researching the objective characteristics of an interrelation between human societies and the natural environment. Hence, the environmental sociology’s actual subject – researching the measure of a particular society’s influence on the natural environment and also forecasting how this influence may result in the affiliated environment beginning to affect the dynamics within the society in question, as well.
While addressing the concerned subject matter, environmental sociology assesses the subtleties of the social, political and economic order within the society, in order to answer whether this society can be referred to as an ‘environmentally friendly’. The reason for this is apparent – the realities of a post-industrial living invariably suggest that the extent of the society members’ environmental awareness positively relates to the measure of concerned society’s geopolitical competitiveness.
For example, it is largely because the citizens of Haiti have no idea, as to what the notion of an environmental awareness stands for, that their country is now being commonly discussed in terms of a ‘failed state’. This, of course, illustrates the validity of the environmental sociology’s main conceptual premise that it is specifically the state of ecological affairs, within a particular society, which reflects this society’s ability to evolve, in the Darwinian sense of this word.
There can only a be a few doubts as to the fact that in the near future, the environmental sociology’s methodological apparatus will be deemed even more discursively adequate, because there is indeed a good reason to expect the rapid worsening of the environmental conditions on Earth. As a result, the societal dynamics within the world’s countries will grow increasingly affected by what happened to be the affiliated ecological circumstances.
Conclusion
In light of what has been said earlier, it appears that it is indeed fully appropriate to think of social change, as the most crucial inhibitor of the humanity’s ‘existential fitness’. Even though that the different schools of sociology address the phenomenon differently, there can be no doubt that social change is the notion that fully adheres to the provisions of the Theory of Evolution, which in turn suggests the process’s positivist objectiveness. I believe that the earlier deployed line of argumentation, in regards to the subject matter in question, is fully consistent with the paper’s initial thesis.
Works Cited
Durkheim, E. ‘Debate on explanation in history and sociology’ in The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and its Method ed. S. Lukes. Free Press, New York, 1982. Web.
Hoag, C. ‘The Atlantic telegraph cable and capital market Information flows’, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 66, no. 2, 2006, pp. 342-353. Web.
Mezhuev, V. ‘The idea of world history in the doctrine of Karl Marx’, Russian Studies in Philosophy, vol. 51, no. 2, 2012, pp. 9-43. Web.
Shils, E. ‘The Sociology of Robert E. Park’, American Sociologist, vol. 27, no. 4, 1996, pp. 88-106. Web.
Simmel, G. ‘Eros, platonic and modem’ in Georg Simmel on Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings ed. D. Levine. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1971. Web.
Summers, J. ‘Daniel Bell and the end of ideology’, Dissent, vol. 58, no. 2, 2011, pp. 80-85. Web.
Footnotes
Christopher Hoag, 2006, ‘The Atlantic telegraph cable and capital market Information flows’, The Journal of Economic History, vol. 66, no. 2, p. 350. Web.
Emile Durkheim, ‘Debate on explanation in history and sociology’ in The Rules of Sociological Method and Selected Texts on Sociology and its Method ed. S. Lukes. Free Press, New York, 1982, p. 218. Web.
Georg Simmel, ‘Eros, platonic and modem’ in Georg Simmel on Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings ed. D. Levine. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1971, p. 237. Web.
Vadim Mezhuev, ‘The idea of world history in the doctrine of Karl Marx’, Russian Studies in Philosophy, vol. 51, no. 2, 2012, p. 20. Web.
John Summers, ‘Daniel Bell and the end of ideology’, Dissent, vol. 58, no. 2, 2011, p. 81. Web.
Edward Shils,‘The Sociology of Robert E. Park’, American Sociologist, vol. 27, no. 4, 1996, p. 90. Web.
In today’s society, one’s progress and success is hindered by focusing on culture and tradition. Thus, the only way to be successful in society today is through formal education and a focus on global capitalism/economy. The theory of modernity is that in order to progress in society today, one must start to move away from socio cultural/traditional values as it hinders progress (Abu-Rabi’ 235).
The theory of modernity has recently become a debatable topic in today’s society. Modernity has also often been associated together with technology hence the effect it has had on the society since its introduction (Conrad 65).
In this paper, we will look at cases where such transformations as caused by modernity and technology have occurred leading to success and where they have not, leading to poverty and other issues.
Introduction
Modernity, in simple terms can be defined as an existing modern era such as the one we are currently in, the 21st Century. It is a process which involves social as well as cultural change, making the present fundamentally different from the past (Conrad 67). Human interventions have over the years made it possible for transformations such as urbanization, eccentricity, mass literacy, industrialization as well as proliferation of mass media to occur (Eysteinsson 13). Modernity has also encouraged the advancement in sciences and arts as well as changed education and religion by allowing deep-seated ideas become public (Arnason & Maria 145).
Positive and Negative effects of Modernity
Some individuals have argued that modernity has destroyed traditions as well as valuable cultures while others approve of modernity saying it has helped enhance economic stability and improved the standards of living. Modernity theory tends to try explaining the uniqueness of modern societies through controlling social processes and resulting in increased efficiency (Alexander & Seidman 52).
In the past, modernity or modernism was thought to only mean the amalgamation of lonely local communities, moving towards the traditional values and embracing eccentricity as well as social equality (Abu-Rabi’ 239). But as years go by, there occurs changes within the society and traditional as well as socio cultural values, which were once considered as having played a vital role within traditional societies, are becoming outdated. Modern concepts are being introduced and the society is slowly embracing them (Anderson 123).
Modernity brought with it both positive and negative influences to the society. Some of the positive influences include low infant rate mortality as well as eradication of most fatal diseases (Karl 347). With modernity came the rise of capitalism. Capitalism gave individuals the right to compete in free market as well as gain much wealth (Abu-Rabi’ 244). It also enabled people earn income according to the status they held in society for instance, doctors and engineers earning more income than teachers or casual laborers (Alexander and Seidman 54). As a result, great contribution to the economy was made and other individuals have been enabled to generate wealth as well.
In industries, modernity has made it such that modern systems of communication as well as improved infrastructure and transportation systems occur. This has enabled conveyance and exchange of information much more easier and quicker as compared to how it was done in the past (Mendels 252).
Modernity, science and technology tries to educate the society in letting go of cultural as well as traditional values and embrace modern technology which enhances the progress of a society (Dale 11). It also keeps a society in pace with other developed societies hence establishes and forms solid relationships between them. Technology, the state, religion as well as the law each has acquired their own personal identity (Anderson & Seidman 127). In other words, technology has favored economic growth and freedom of societies through capitalism and materialism (Eysteinsson 32).
Modernity has also had a positive impact on the marital arena in that women have become more liberalized and have more freedom to not only express themselves but also earn equal or more income as their male counterparts (Abu-Rabi’ 239). Traditionally, women were required to be homemakers as well as child-bearers. They were never allowed to work. But the introduction of modernity has brought with it education on the importance of equality for all and has become an eye-opener for most communities (Anderson and Seidman 129). Thus, women are now able to also compete in the free market arena as well as own property and wealth.
Infrastructure and architecture has not been left behind with the introduction of science, technology as well as industrialism. Ways of improving the construction and appearance of modern buildings are coming up, thanks to modern technology (Arnason and Maria 145). Areas which were once impassable are becoming more and more accessible due to introduction of modernity and as a result, job opportunities are created in the process (Conrad 67).
The negative effects of modernity, on the other hand, include introduction of technology which has led to creation of nuclear weapons. With the advancement in the knowledge and skills acquired through modern technology, individuals have learnt to not only create weapons of mass destruction but to also use them as threats to enemy societies (Conrad 73). This in turn leads to a devastating effect on societies as is in the case of civil wars (Anderson 125).
Environmental problems such as pollution have also been created as a result of modernity. This is due to rise of factories and industries which in rare cases often find appropriate ways of disposing off their waste products (Alexander and Seidman 78). In the end, harmful gases as well as toxic wastes are released into the society’s environment, resulting in health issues of the individuals living around the factories and industries (Alexander and Seidman 98).
Through modern education systems, individuals have realized the right of equality owed to them despite different backgrounds, ethnicity or incomes. Though this might seem like a positive influence, it is on the contrary, a negative influence in that discrimination and racism results (Conrad 75). Those individuals or economies having a higher income status tend to influence and take advantage of the ‘smaller’ and ‘weaker’ individuals or economies by manipulating their decisions so as to achieve or acquire more wealth on their side (Polyani 300). This in turn leaves an imbalanced economy as well as societal position.
Although modernity has been seen to lead to success in a society, it has also led to poverty and other issues.
If Poverty then, what is the root of capitalism and the market which makes it that we can abstract another’s misery inorder to have our comforts?
With the onset of modernity, a contradiction arose between requirements of the society and those of the market economy (Eysteinsson 40). Controlling the market economy meant utilization of labor as well as land, thus minimizing the society’s control over them. This in turn ensured a free market and profit flow (Karl 237). Modernity created capitalism and a particularly dangerous form which leads to poverty within the society as a whole (Ibid 254).
In capitalism the case is always that the supply precedes the demand. In modern society competitive markets have arisen with a great desire to create high profits. This has in turn lead to serious crises resulting in increase in unemployment, bankruptcies as well as a steady decline in the production process (Eysteinsson 39).
Capitalism tends to individualize ownership of property. It grants the society a right to private property (Karl 244). It also largely depends on designation of power from the state so as to enforce market regulation (Ibid 248). In the past, production was controlled by use of products but all this changed with the introduction of capitalism (Mendels 243). It opts to throw away unsold goods or products rather than given them back to the society. It only serves where there is a gain in return and in most cases, people cannot and are not in a position to afford such high costs of production (Abu-Rabi’ 243). Capitalism summarizes another’s misery inorder for the ‘rich’ in society to have their comforts.
For production to continue with its existence there has to be exchange of the products. At the same time the market for those products need also expand inorder to keep up with the rate of production (Karl 299). With increased productivity comes decreased labor power but capitalism tends to try lowering production costs so as to obtain surplus profits (Eysteinsson 41).
The rise of industrialization as a result of modernity has lead to increased poverty in that due to the great hunger to accumulate capital as well as profits, it tends to undermine the cultural/traditional values of accepting inequality (Karl 275). Industrialization has also lead to the collapse of traditional communities. Lack of employment created by industrialization has resulted in ‘higher powers’ using the low income earners as a route to earning illegal income via such vices as drug trafficking (Mendels 256).
Over-estimation of market limits for products has caused devastation due to excess industry, excessive means of trying to survive as well as excess civilization (Eysteinsson 42). In the area of food production, a negative effect can also be seen in that due to multi-national corporations taking over and eliminating producers, they tend to ignore certain fundamental phases in production, leading to a less desirable, chemically engineered final product (Karl 280). With the introduction of modernity, immigration from rural to urban areas in search of better work increased thus leaving the farms unattended. It became harder for the increasing population to keep up with the existing production and this led to food scarcity in the society (Mendels 255).
The economy has declined drastically in most societies due to lack of governmental regulations on conditions affecting the economy (Karl 301). With the rich competing for the acquisition of more wealth, the common man is left to bear the brunt thus leading to a decline in living conditions and an unstable economic status (Alexander and Seidman 118). Greed has led to corruption, concentrated wealth as well as foreign debts by societies, contributing to poverty.
On the other hand, increase in economic growth may lead to increased levels of inequalities in urban areas. This is due to the unfavourable investment environment created as a result (Alexander and Seidman 111). Modernity has in the long run reduced the society’s involvement in the formal sector of the economy leading to social unrests and diversion from productive investments to boost the economy as a whole (Anderson 143).
In conclusion, though one’s progress and success in today’s society may be hindered by focusing on culture and tradition, modernity as well as introduction of science and technology has completely changed and dictated one’s way of living, speaking, thinking as well as behaving.
Despite existing conflicts between modernity and traditional/socio cultural values, science and technology has expanded the society’s vision as well as the general understanding of the world. Those values which would otherwise have been considered as traditional as well as modern have come to coexist socially.
Inorder for a society to move from traditional and socio-cultural values into modernity, normal societal behaviors as well as way of thinking needs to be transformed. This can only be achieved through formal education which will ensure a better and productive life. Societies must also try and maintain their traditional values by mingling them with the modern concepts, inorder to have balance between modernity and socio-cultural values.
Work Cited
Abu-Rabi’, Ibrahim M. Beyond the Post-Modern Mind. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 7. 1990. pp. 235-256.
Alexander, J.C. and Seidman, S. (eds.). Culture and Society: Contemporary Debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990. pp. 52 – 140
Anderson, Walter Truett. Reality Isn’t What it Used to Be: Theatrical Politics, Ready-to-Wear Religion, Global Myths, Primitive Chic, and Other Wonders of the Postmodern World. San Francisco, CA: Harper San Francisco. 1990. pp. 123 – 152.
Arnason, H. H., and Maria F. Prather. History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Photography. NY: Abrams, 1998. pp. 142 – 150.
Conrad, Peter. Modern Times, Modern Places: How life and art were transformed in a century of revolution, innovation and radical change. NY: Alfred A. Knopf, March, 1999. pp. 65 – 98.
Polyani, Karl. The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 235 – 305
Eysteinsson, Astradur. The Concept of Modernism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1992. pp 13 – 45.
Winograd, Terry and Flores, Fernando. Understanding Computers and Cognition. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. 1987. pp. 26 – 11
Mendels, F. Proto- Industrialization: The First Phase of the Industrialization Process. Journal of Economic History: 32. 1972. pp.241–261.
Dale, A. Robbins. What do they mean by Traditional Values? Victorious Publications. Grass Valley. 1990. pp. 4 – 20.
Environmental forces are factors that affect the growth, operations and survival of a society within a given context. They include the political environment in a society, its cultural beliefs, government regulations, changes in technology, natural disasters and demography factors among others (Charles and Steg, 2007).
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the five major environmental factors that impact on social changes within a society. In order to understand how environmental factors influence the society it is necessary that we understand what the concept of social change entails.
Social change refers to the alteration or change in the social order of a given society or group of people especially with regard to nature, relationships, behavioral patterns in the society and the social institutions that define them. Social change is also used to refer to progress achieved by the society through evolution and revolution that may have been undertaken by members of that society.
Types of Environmental Forces
From time to time, any society will always experience some changes that will bring about alterations of the community settings that influence the activities that the society is engaged and its performance in general. The following are environmental factors that bring about social change in a society or group of people.
Resources
The amount and type of resources available to a given society will play a significant role in promoting social change (Crompton & Kasser, 2010). Examples of vital resources include water, land and minerals among others which are used in the production of goods and services. The availability of such resources will determine to a great extent the level of production and output the society has.
If factors of production such as land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship are readily available, the production capacity of a society will definitely be high which implies potential for a stable economy. In this regard, goods and services will be readily available for sale in the market and employment opportunities will be created where people have constant source of income which will improve the overall living standards of the people. This will therefore lead to a social change that is positive as the lifestyle of people in the society will improve.
On the other hand, if there are limited resources in a society, there will be stiff competition for them as everyone will be competing for these limited resources thereby leading to potential outbreaks of conflicts among members of the society. This will possibly lead to depletion of the resources which could bring about more conflicts in the society. Therefore, as we have seen availability of resources in a community plays a significant role in determining whether the social change that takes place is positive or negative.
Disasters or calamities
Natural calamities and disasters will influence to a great extent the nature of social change that occurs in a society. Hunger, earthquakes and civil war usually adversely affect a society in that it leads to displacements, migrations, change in lifestyle of the people and even loss life.
During such cases, people are forced to adapt to new ways of life like constructing new homes, relocating to other places and coming up with new methods of sustenance in order to revert to the original way of life. In most cases, natural calamities usually bring about negative impacts and change in the society while in other cases, people get to reorganize themselves on a more solid foundation while they draw lessons from the calamity to better prepare for the future.
In such a situation, the natural disasters will have promoted social change. A good example is seen when flooding takes place, in such cases some people have their homes swept away and as a result new and better homes are built elsewhere where flooding is unlikely to occur. In that case environmental forces have social change for the better.
Climatic Changes
In recent times, the climatic conditions have become quite unpredictable which has adversely affected farming activities globally. This is a serious concern given that farming as an economic activity especially in the developing countries forms the back-bone of the economy. Most often, such countries rely on agricultural exports as their source of income and therefore large proportion of citizens in such countries practice farming both on small scale and large scale.
This implies that much of their investment centers on farming and in the event of unexpected weather patterns like short or excessive rains the entire produce might eventually fail. On the other hand, if the climatic patterns become predictable farmers will be able to invest more into farming without fear as they know that they will reap much. Some of the produce can then be used for domestic consumption while the surplus can be sold to generate income hence improving the living standards of the society.
Degradation of environment
Severe environmental degradation will lead to change in the lifestyle of people around it as it affects them negatively.
Incidences of air pollution, land pollution and water pollution are most often seen to directly affect the health of the people leading to such diseases like breathing complications and water related diseases (Massicotte, 2009). This can at times trigger mass protests of the community members who might decide to demonstrate against such cases of environmental pollution. In conclusion therefore social change is seen to be caused by all of the above listed factors as well as others not discussed in this paper.
References
Charles, V & Steg, L. (2007) Environmental Psychology. Journal of Social Issues, 63 (1): 1-19.
Crompton, T & Kasser, T. (2010). Social Aspects. Journal of Environment, 52 (4): 23- 33.
Massicotte, M. (2009). Activism. Globalizations, 6 (4): 411-431.
Reuveny, R. (2009). Environmental Degradation. Social Science Quarterly, 90 (3): 461-479.
Growth and development is a very complex process. It involves biological, behavioral, cognitive and social changes. These changes occur slowly on the bodies and mind of human beings from conception to adulthood. Several psychologists came up with theories that explain the changes that human beings go through during the development process. Among the most famous theories are Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development.
These theories explain the biological, social, and behavioral development of human beings. Each of them uses a different approach in explaining the changes that occur on the body, mind and behavior of an individual during the development process. The most problematic point in the development of human beings is when they are two years old. Children at this age develop some unique habits and physical aspects that cause lots of problems to their parents.
Behavioral Changes
Children at the age of two experience various behavioral changes. Piaget classifies this group of individuals under the Preoperational Stage of Development (Deloache, 2004). According to him, children at this stage lack operational abilities, are egocentric and have problems with their concentration. He insists that such children cannot differentiate between their perspectives and other people’s perspectives (Deloache, 2004). They also concentrate on one item at a time. Piaget also asserts that these individuals treat inanimate things as if they are animate. For example, they talk to stones the same way they talk to their parents and friends.
The information processing theory compares the memory of a human being to the computer hardware and software. The proponents of this theory argue that as the hardware of the children matures, they understand how to perform complex tasks with more speed and accuracy (Deloache, 2004). According to Vygotsky, children at this age acquire cultures, beliefs, attitudes and problem-solving skills through interacting with more knowledgeable and experienced individuals (Deloache, 2004). He further argues that some of the tasks individuals encounter requires other people’s guidance while others are within their abilities (Deloache, 2004). Parents should help their children acquire the necessary skills in the performance of some tasks through scaffolding.
Social Changes
According to Albert Bandura, learning is a process that occurs in the mind of human beings due to the influence of the people around them (Early childhood: Social development, n.d.). He argues that children learn through observation and imitation. He also insists that children at this age start developing different gender roles due to the rewards they get from their communities: schools, parents and churches. Some children exhibit pro-social habits, which facilitate the process of socialization. These habits mostly aim at pleasing their friends. For example, one may console a crying friend by giving him candies. Bandura further argues that children learn vicariously after seeing the rewards and punishments their elder brothers get after performing certain tasks (Early childhood: Social development, n.d.).
Bronfenbrenner argues that the background of a child impacts greatly on his or her socialization skills (Early childhood context, n.d.). He categorizes parents into the authoritative parent, the authoritarian parent, the permissive parent and the uninvolved parents. He argues that the authoritative parent helps the child in the process of acquiring social skills and performing well in school. He also argues that single parents mostly raise children who end up having poor social skills.
Children also acquire a sense of morality at this age. According to Freud, the components of personality play an important role in the regulation of their actions and ensuring morality (Early childhood: Social development, n.d.). They cannot keep their minds off things that tempt them. Therefore, the superego helps them in controlling their desires, though for short periods. On the other hand, Piaget looks at morality from three perspectives: pre-moral, heteronomous morality and autonomous morality (Deloache, 2004).
He argues that children at this age lack the ability to regulate themselves both emotionally and in cognitive aspects. He advises parents to help their children in the development of self-regulation. Cognitive regulation refers to focusing attention, organization, the abilities of the memory and regulating immoral habits (Deloache, 2004). On the other hand, emotion regulation refers to the ability of the children to control their feelings and interpreting other people’s emotions (Deloache, 2004).
Erik Erikson refers to this point as the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt (Lightfoot, Cole & Cole, 2013). According to him, children go through toilet training. He further asserts that the children strive to acquire control over their physical abilities and freedom from their mothers’ control. He urges parents to guide their children through this stage since a successful passage through it helps them attain autonomy while failure to go through it properly leads to shame and doubt.
Biological Changes
Biological changes involve an increase in breadth and height. They also entail the complication and development of body parts. The Information Processing Model draws an analogy between a computer and the brain of a human being. According to the proponents, the brain has the short-term, long-term and sensory stores. The sensory store notices all stimuli and avails them to the other components for further processing. Piaget observes that children at this age only respond to color but not volume (Deloache, 2004).
Many of them, usually, categorize items basing on their colors and not sizes. They also lack the ability to retain the real appearance of objects in their mind when they assume a deceptive appearance. The short-term store takes the stimuli from the sensory store and keeps it for some time. It is responsible for the concentration span of every person. At this stage of development children concentrate for very short periods. The long-term store keeps information permanently. Children at this development stage have a poorly developed long-term store. Hence, they forget occurrences very fast.
According to Piaget, the preoperational stage is the point where children acquire language (Deloache, 2004). This argument implies that organs that facilitate the production of speech differentiate as an adaption to this function. These organs include the tongue, the voice box, the lips, the teeth and the alveolar ridge.
In summary, development involves biological, behavioral and social changes. Scholars have developed several theories that provide bases for understanding each aspect of the development process. Children at the age of two are still developing in almost all these three areas. They have few and underdeveloped body parts and poor social skills such as egocentrism. However, sometimes they also show some pro-social skills such as doing things to please friends. This stage requires close supervision and guidance from the parents for the children to develop properly.
References
Deloache, R. (2004). Early childhood: Learning and cognition I [PowerPoint slides].
Early childhood context [PowerPoint].
Early childhood: Social development [PowerPoint slides].
Lightfoot, C., Cole, M., & Cole, S. (2013). The development of children. New York: Worth Publishers.
Before looking at the effects of both social exchange theory and expectancy theory on human resource development, it will be paramount to, first, describe what the theories are all about.
Social exchange theory is actually both a social psychology and a perspective of sociology that debunks the social changes and also the stability as a progression in relation to bargained social exchanges between two or more groups of individuals or parties (Rosenberg 1990).
Social exchange theory argues that all relationships between human beings are informed by what is referred to as subjective analysis of cost and benefits; this also involves the comparison of the best available alternatives. Social exchange theory is rooted in the ideologies of economics, sociology and psychology (Schellenberg 1996).
Social exchange theory utilizes some of the assumptions made in both structural and rational choice theories (Turner 2006). Social exchange theorists posit that human behavior is informed by the kind of reward associated with a given behavioral style. This implies that rewards play a significant role in determining a particular manner in which an individual should behave given a specific situation or condition (Rew 2005).
Meanwhile, expectancy theory is major associated with mental or cognitive processes that relates to making of choices or just choosing. It gives an explanation of the process an individual goes through in order to make a choice or choose from available alternatives. Both social exchange and expectancy theories are greatly related to each other. This paper examines the effects the theories have on human resource development (DuBrin 2008).
Effects of social exchange theory on human resource development
It is important to note that the personnel of every organization have some minimum expectations to achieve; in case they fail to get these minimum expectations, they are likely to be de-motivated or under-perform in their organizational duties. In the process of human resource development, it is important to realize that the fact the human resource must be assured of their own benefits as they continue to be part of the organization.
The reality is that the more the employees are sure of getting out of their relationship with organization the more their productivity and the more the effort they put into their work (Dalkir 2005).
The performance of individuals within an organization is very much dependent on favors they get from participation towards achieving the goals of an organization. For instance, for every achievement, every employee expects some favors that are comparable to the input they put in order to make the achievements successful (Marcic & Daft 2008).
Individuals within an organization, especially the employees, normally experience strong motivation to reciprocate the favors they get from their employers or team leaders (Airriess & Miyares 2007).
It therefore means that for the executives of an organization to motivate employees, they must ensure that the employees are appropriate assured of benefits they stand to enjoy by involving themselves in certain activities that lead to the growth of the organization. For instance, during training, employees should be awarded certificates and also be given promotion depending with their competence (Jackson & Mathis 2008).
Again, the employees can be given some study leaf so that they can increase their academic and intellectual capacities; in many cases, companies or employers have always offered promotion and salary increment to employees who return from further studies, especially in cases where the study is crucial for the company or organization’s growth.
In this case, the employees will feel that they stand a great chance to get more rewards for every effort they make towards the growth of the organizations they work for; in other word, they give the company or organization their expertise and get more finances and promotion in return (Dransfield 2004).
Conversely, in cases where employees are not convinced of any benefits they are likely to get in exchange for their services, they are most likely to under-perform or become less motivated to work for the organization in question.
For instance, situations whereby the employees are just expected to deliver on their tasks without varied motivation in terms of compliments or favors; they will be become bored and hence lower their performance or even quit the organization and seek other employers from whom they are likely to get more rewards from their transactions with employers or stakeholders of an organization.
In most cases, employees are concerned with the extent to which an organization is concerned with their wellbeing; this enables them to demonstrate an appropriate level of demonstration. According to theory, employees will most likely demonstrate desirable behavior when they perceive the organization has significant concerns for their wellbeing or welfare.
In relation to this, employees are likely to be motivated to perform more than their task description when they perceive the organization as serving their plights beyond the legal obligation. Contrary to this will definitely make the employees to lose their morale and hence lower organizational productivity (Rao 2004).
How Expectancy Theory Affects Human Resource Development
As has been discussed earlier, expectancy theory gives an explanation on the processes an individual has to undergo in order to make a rational choice or choose the best from available alternative. It was first proposed by Victor Vroom from the Yale School of Management.
According to this theory, employees of a given organization will only get motivation to dedicate their efforts to the organizational activities when they are sure that reward they are receiving is sufficient enough and commensurate with the amount of work they perform within a given period of time and the predictions they have organizational rewards are likely to be of sufficient benefits to them (Wilson 2005).
Expectancy theory therefore requires that organizations or employers should associate their rewards to employees directly to the employees’ performance; moreover, they should ensure that the rewards offered are actually those that are deserved by the employees (Boag 2008). Furthermore, the expectant theory gives an emphasis of employees’ self interest in close relation to the expected outcome (Lussier 2008).
In other words, it emphasizes the alignment of employees expected rewards, expected behavioral traits and the goals of the organization.
In the process of human resource development, especially during training process, the employees will be keen on learning only what they are sure will offer them less pain and more pleasure in terms of rewards; they will choose to learn what if they apply in their daily task requirements will definitely improve their welfare.
Hence, the managers and other organizational executives should employ the strategy of training employees in order to improve their work capability and enhance their belief that marginal effort will definitely lead to enhanced or improved performance (Lussier 2008).
According vroom, motivating employees to enhance their performance lies within the link amongst effort, employees’ performance and motivation. However, the theory posits that for these links to work, the employees must have sufficient resources, the right skills and the necessary support from the organization.
It therefore means that the process of human resource development should offer employees to choose to learn the skills they deem best and that which will be able to enhance their performance and hence accord them more rewards (Longest 2004).
Nonetheless, an important point to put into consideration is that the functioning of the expectancy theory is premised on an individual’s perception. This means that even though an employer or organization may assume it has availed appropriate in terms of motivating employees, it may not work with some employees; others may find the resources motivating while others may not find any motivation in the same resources or motivation.
Conclusion
Social exchange theory is all about social transactions in which an individual or individuals in a group interact with one another on the basis of what he or she is likely to get from such interactions. It means that an individual engages in a social process depending on how much reward is at stake for him or her.
In terms of human resource development, it is crucial to note that employees will only be committed to the organizational goals only if there are some perceived benefits (Schellenberg 1996).
This is the same ground on which expectancy theory forwards its arguments; however, expectancy theory further argues that individuals employ rationality while attempting to make choices on what is likely to offer them more or appropriate rewards.
Both social exchange and expectancy theories are very relevant in terms of human resource development as they both offer a benchmark on which managers and organizations can ensure effectiveness and efficiency of their employees (DuBrin 2008).
References List
Airriess, AC & Miyares, MI 2007, Contemporary ethnic geographies in America, Rowman & Littlefield, United States.
Boag, S 2008, Personality Down Under: Perspectives from Australia, Ova Science Publishers, United States.
Dalkir, K 2005, Knowledge management in theory and practice, Butterworth-Heinemann, New York.
Dransfield, R 2004, Business for Foundation Degrees and Higher Awards, Heinemann, United States.
DuBrin, JA 2008, Essentials of Management, Cengage Learning, London.
Jackson, HJ & Mathis, LR 2008, Human resource management, Cengage Learning, London.
Longest, BB 2004, Managing health programs and projects, John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey.
The French Revolution was based on the will for fundamental changes. Its ideas were very close to the liberal democracy. Economic and social distress were the leading causes of the revolution, as well as unemployment and political factors. The opposition forces led to the French Revolutionary Wars. During the revolution, the First French Republic was proclaimed as well as the old political and social system, Ancien Regime, was abolished.
Structural Theory of Revolution
Value-Added Theory can be easily applied to the given revolution. Smelser, the author, suggests that there are six points necessary for the development of any movement (Harper & Leicht, 2018):
Structural conduciveness. Being under the pre-existing Ancien Regime system, the people of France generated a change, which led to the revolutionary campaigns arguing feudalism.
Structural strains. Social and economic inequality produced a strain in French society.
Growth of a generalized belief system. The valued ideologies of the times of the French Revolution were mainly liberty and equality. Those define both a problem and a solution for the emerged strain.
Precipitating events. Anglo-French War sharpened the issues. It caused a failure of the tax system, a financial crisis, and the rapid growth of the country’s population, which France was not ready for.
Mobilization of participants. The French Revolution had many leaders throughout the timespan. There were influential journalists, such as Jean-Paul Marat, and leaders that represented the voice of France being actively involved in the events, such as Robespierre.
Operation of social control. The ruling noble forces and Louis XVI were responding to the outbreaking revolution.
Outcome
One of the French Revolution outcomes was the creation of a constitutional monarchy that replaced the Ancien Regime. The Convention proclaimed the French First Republic during the revolution. Another outcome was the Reign of Terror, which caused massacres and executions — Louis XVI did fall under the execution. A new highest ranking government was established, being the Consulate, which happened around the time the revolution ended. To sum up, the nation, being constantly under the social, economic, and political disorders, radically re-established its homeland, proclaiming a new government, constitution and rules, and the name of the country.
Reference
Harper, C. L. & Leicht, K. T. (2018). Exploring social change: America and the world. Taylor & Francis Group.
What has been the most significant change in nursing education in the past 30 years?
Nursing education has undergone considerable changes due to the shifts that have taken place in society. Nurses healthcare practitioners now have more responsibilities, so their educational needs also increased. Evidence-based nursing is deeply rooted in the development of life-long learners, which is also one of the pillars of contemporary nursing education (Vanderhoef, 2016). Modern nurses are involved in research, which has led to the substantial advancement of nursing practice in the past 30 years (McLaughlin & Sanchez, 2016). The nursing curriculum can be characterized by significant attention to such areas as diversity, advocacy, community involvement, and so forth. Nursing educators try to make nurses active agents of change aimed at achieving the most favorable patient outcomes.
What factors are the key factors influencing nursing practice and education today?
Technological advances enable healthcare professionals to provide high-quality care within shorter periods, which has led to the opportunity to address the psychological, emotional, and spiritual needs of patients (Jacob, 2016). Nurses have become central figures in the provision of care. They try to identify and meet patient needs in order to make the healing process rapid and effective. The overall development of civic societies made people more active in the process of making decisions. Nursing advocacy is one of the results of this trend.
How much do you agree with Friere’s stance that education should be a form of social revolution?
I totally agree with Friere’s stance concerning the essence of education. When applied to nursing education, nurses should be taught and encouraged to contribute to the development of practice. Through the provision of care and support, nursing professionals can also provide their valuable input in the creation of healthy communities (Goodman, 2014). Clearly, the focus on underprivileged groups’ needs is of paramount importance for the achievement of this goal. To a certain extent, education is becoming a form of social revolution due to its impact on society.
References
Goodman, B. (2014). Paulo Friere and the pedagogy of the oppressed. Nurse Education Today, 34(7), 1055–1056.
Jacob, S. R. (2016). The evolution of professional nursing. In B. Cherry & S. R. Jacob (Eds.), Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management (pp. 1-20). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
McLaughlin, R. A., & Sanchez, Z. V. (2016). Nursing research and evidence-based practice. In B. Cherry & S. R. Jacob (Eds.), Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management (pp. 88-104). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Vanderhoef, D. (2016). The influence of contemporary trends and issues on nursing education. In B. Cherry & S. R. Jacob (Eds.), Contemporary nursing: Issues, trends, management (pp. 37-61). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
The researcher hopes to make use of the participatory action research (PAR) technique to gather the necessary information to facilitate in the implementation of the current project.
This will result in the generation of useful information that will in turn enable the community and project implementers to examine the developmental needs of the current project and come up with the most effective intervention strategies to the problem (Brown and Jones 79). With the PAR tool, the community takes an active role in the project and they relate to the emerging information easily (Goff 6; Greiner et al 34).
The research proposal begins with an introduction of the action researcher. In addition, the proposal shall also explore the purpose of the research. The various stakeholders involved in the project shall also be identified, along with the virus role that they play. The anticipated outcomes of the project shall be identified, as well as the different stages of the project.
The various tools used to collect and analyze data shall also be identified, along with an explanation of how the action researcher hopes to achieve the project’s validity. Moreover, the limitations of the research shall also be explored, in addition to the key issues and ethical consideration in the management of the project.
The focus of the research and how it is relevant to Sustainable Development
The focus of the research is to identify waste disposal problems that the members of El Valle beach town in the pacific coast of Colombia are faced with. Owing to illegal mining and logging, coupled with rampant corruption by government officials, this has resulted in improper modes of waste disposal.
Consequently, most of these waste materials find their way into the local rivers, to the detriment of the ecosystem and the lives of the local community who depends on these rivers for their livelihood.
The intention of the research is to facilitate the participation of the local community in identifying the problem and seeking a lasting solution to it. By their getting actively involved in the project, the community will take a keen interest in the project because they own it. This leads to its sustainability.
Action Researcher
Sebasteian Matiz will be the action researcher of the current project. He is at the moment undertaking his master degree in Sustainable development.
The action researcher intends to spend approximately 6 months at El Vade, a beach town in the pacific coast of Colombia where the community is faced with the problem of poor waste management, resulting in the discharge of wastes into the rivers, thereby endangering the lives of the community. The action researcher hopes to undertake various interactions with the members of the local community.
This will facilitate in his gaining experiential and indigenous knowledge about the problem at hand during the entire PAR process. In order to collect relevant data, the researcher hopes to form focus groups with the members of the community.
He shall also facilitate meetings with the government officials in the regions and the community members as well. Other tools of collecting data include organizing workshops, conducting surveys, and workshops.
Purpose of the research
The purpose of the current research study is to assess the extent to which the ecosystem at the El Valle beach town has been degraded by improper ways of waste disposal borne of illegal mining, illegal logging dynamite fishing, and the discharge of wastes into rivers.
Once data on these activities has been collected and analyzed, it will be easily to recommend remedial measures that need to be adopted by the community in order to put an end to the waste problem that they are currently faced with.
The idea is to empower the community through participation in not only the identification of the problem facing them, but also seeking their suggestions regarding the most sustainable strategies that they need to adopt in order to overcome the problem.
As Hall, Taplin and Goldstein (172) have noted, empowering local communities through active participation in projects ensures the attainment of a lasting solution to the problems facing them.
The PAR process
The main focus of the PAR process shall be on examining the problems faced by the 3500 inhabitants of the El Valle beach town in the pacific coast of Colombia. The intention of the PAR process is not to appropriate but rather, to facilitating a deeper comprehension of the problems at stake (Coghlan and Brannick 46; McIntyre 67).
As such, the members of the community shall be involved in the entire process from the word go, because they are the ones affected the most by this problem.
The fundamental methodological principles of the PAR process are as follows: to start with, the researcher will seek the assistance of opinion leaders in the community so that they can help him convince the members of the community to attend a focus group in which the researcher will facilitate the meeting by listening keenly to the narratives of the locals about the challenges they are faced with, in as far as the issue of disposal of waste to the rivers is concerned.
Thereafter, the researcher hopes to make use of a number of data collection tools:
Methods of data collection
The research hopes to make use of the following tools to collect data:
Focus Groups
In qualitative research, a focus group is one in which the participants get to deliver their beliefs, opinions, and attitudes regarding a certain issue in question (Henderson 28). Participants are also free to interact with other members of a focus group and ask questions as well. Focus groups are a good entry point to various social and cultural groups.
The current research intends to make use of focus groups in which the community members affected by the issue of poor waste disposal can get to voice their concerns regarding this issue. Another reason why this approach is appealing in helping to collect data about the problem at hand is because it is quite easy for the participants to understand the idea.
Consequently, the results are also believable (Marshall & Rossman 115). In addition, focus groups tend to be inexpensive and results can also be obtained quite fast. The researcher can also talk with more participants at once and this increasing the reliability of the results.
Meetings with the local community and government official
Another way that the researcher intends to obtain data regarding the problem at hand is to facilitate meetings between the local community and government officials. In this case, the local community has a chance to voice their concerns about the issues they are faced with to government officials who are in a position to implement sustainable solutions to the problems (Mwasaru 11).
Interviews
Interviews shall be conducted on the members of the community who are directly affected by the problem of improper waste disposal. The interviewees shall respond to a questionnaires developed by the researcher to facilitate in collection of relevant data to facilitate in the development of sustainable solutions to the problem.
Workshops
The researcher shall also help to organise a workshops to be attended by members of the local community and agencies concerned with the preservation of the environment.
The idea is to create awareness to the members of the public about the risk associated with environmental degradation and pollution of rivers with wastes. Once informed, the participants can now take an active role in helping to come up with sustainable solutions to the problem.
Data Analysis
One data has been collected using the above mentioned tools it shall be compiled and analyzed using the SPSS software package. The results shall be presented in the form of table, bar graphs, and pie charts.
Expected outcomes
By undertaking this project, it is anticipated that deep-rooted issues within the community regarding the idea of waste discharge into the rivers shall emerge.
To start with, the researcher expects that the affected community with have an enhanced capacity and confidence to engage government official into taking action to see to it that a lasting solution is identified to overcome the current problem.
In addition, the researcher also expects that the local community will form a community watch group charged with the responsibility of seeing to it that there is no discharge of wastes into the rivers and that those who do so are identified and prosecuted.
The researcher also expects that government officials and the relevant ministry shall also take charge of the situation by implementing an Act that prohibits against pollution of the rivers. Also, the officials are expected to reinforce rules governing the management of natural resources so that those breaking them are punished accordingly.
How will validity be achieved?
In quantitative research, validity enables the researcher to verify the level of truthfulness of the research results (Golafshani 602). In other words, validity tries to establish if the objectives of the research have been achieved. Therefore, maximizing validity results in the realization of more defensible and credible results.
In order to ensure validity of the study, the researcher shall ensure that the conclusions of the findings are derived in such a manner that transferability is assured. In addition, the researcher will ensure that bias does not exist in deriving findings from data.
Limitations of the project
The researcher anticipates the project to be faced with a number of limitations. To start with, the 6 months that the researcher intends to undertake the project may not be enough to exhaustively tackle the emerging issues of the research.
Secondly, there is the issue of limited funds, and this may have an impact on the participation of members of the community and other stakeholders, such as government officials. The issue of community participation may also be faced with resistance at first because they are not used to taking part in radical social transformation initiative.
Ethical considerations and key issues to be managed
While undertaking any research project, it is important to take into consideration any ethical issues that might emerge. This is in keeping with the requirements of institutions of higher learning, government protocol, and the culture of the local community. In this case, the researcher intends to make sure that all the ethical issues that affect the different stakeholders involved in the project are addressed.
To start with, the researcher shall seek the approval of the university administration to conduct the research. Secondly, the relevant local authorities shall be informed that the researcher intends to undertake the project. Further, the researcher shall inform the authorities about the objective of the research and the expected outcomes.
The community members taking part in the research will also be informed about the objectives of the research and their expected role in the project. All information obtained from the participants in the form of surveys or interviews shall be treated with strict confidence. The information shall only be used for purposes of research.
Works Cited
Brown, Tony and Jones, Liz. Action Research and Postmodernism: congruence and critique. Buckingham: Open University Press, 2001. Print.
Coghlan, David and Brannick, Teresa. Doing action research in your own. organization. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage Publications, 2007. Print.
Goff, Susan. Transforming Suppression – Process in Our Participatory Action Research Practice. Qualitative Social Research, 2.1(2001).
Golafshani, Nahid. Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 8.4(2003): 597-607
Greiner, Romy, Larson, Silva, Herr, Alexander Bligh, Victor. Wellbeing of the Nywaigi Traditional Owners, The contribution of the country to wellbeing and
the role of natural resource management. Report for the Burdekin Dry Tropics Board. July 2005.
Hall, Nina,Taplin, Ros Goldstein, Wendy. Empowerment of individuals and recognition of community agency. Action Research, 8.2(2001):171-191.
Henderson, Naomi R. Managing Moderator Stress: Take a Deep Breath. You Can Do This!. Marketing Research, 21.1(2003): 28-29.