The world’s cultural traditions are significantly different and demonstrate the diversity of people, which is a positive aspect for the development of the world. However, some practices are outdated, harmful to people, and violate human rights. The Girl Not Bride organization fights against one such tradition of child marriage that harms the mental and physical health and development of thousands of young girls around the world. My interest in this topic is based on my belief that all people should have the right and freedom to choose their path, but children most often cannot influence their destiny and require help. Therefore, in this paper, I will present the Girls Not Bride organization that emerged as a result of social change in the culture of marriage and is the cause of it today.
Girls Not Bribes as an Agent of Social change
Girls Not Bribes was founded in 2011 by a group of independent global leaders and today operates through local and international organizations such as schools, educational, social, and health centers (“About us,” n.d.). The organization offers membership to all facilities that wish to join the movement. At the same time, anyone can donate directly to these members to support their work. Girls Not Bribes is an agent of social change as it changes the culture and perceptions of marriage in countries and families where child marriage is considered the norm. In addition, the instrument and consequence of this change is the improvement of the education of girls and women and their rights, which often limit countries with a tradition of child marriage.
Girls Not Brides: Mission and Methods
The Girls Not Brides’ mission is to end the tradition of child marriage by changing the population’s attitude towards this practice, which will increase girls’ opportunities for education, health, and career development. The main work methods are promoting the prohibition of child marriages in society through education of the population about its harm, providing funds and educational opportunities for children from families in need (“How we work,” n.d.). In addition, since many countries do not have laws against child marriage, the organization also contributes to the development of legal initiatives and advocacy campaigns.
Analysis of the Change
Analysis of the organization shows that the change to which its activities are directed can be attributed to several types of changes. First, the elimination of child marriages requires a shift in women’s and children’s roles in families, since such a tradition is caused by the attitude towards them as property but not as an individual. Secondly, this problem also requires a shift in the emphasis on the function of the family because child marriage is usually used to solve financial issues (Koski et al., 2017). The problem also affects the micro and macro levels, as it begins with a change in the perception of child marriage by individuals, who later require changes in the state, and, as a result, the practice is banned throughout the world. However, since the problem is widespread and difficult to solve due to cultural traditions and social issues, the change is long-term.
The change was caused by a shift in the perception of child marriage in society. Just a century ago, early marriage was a necessity because women depended on their parents and then on their husbands financially and socially, since they had no rights. In addition, infant mortality was much higher, and the reproductive age was lower due to the lack of quality medicine, so women became mothers at a young age (Koski et al., 2017). However, in the modern world, these problems have diminished, and society has recognized the harm of child marriage on individuals’ development. Consequently, the change in attitudes towards child marriage began unintentionally, but today it is a deliberate and planned effort by states and international organizations.
Significance and Need for Change
Child marriage is a common problem not only in the countries of East and Africa but also in the United States. This practice has a detrimental effect on the lives of individuals and society in general. For example, girls married under 18 tend to be less educated and have more health problems due to early pregnancy and stress, which affects their ability to have a high-paying job (Koski et al., 2017). These features are reflected in society’s state, since a low level of education, a high level of morbidity, mortality, and violence affect the country’s economic and social capabilities. However, reducing child marriage solves this problem by increasing girls’ educational and economic opportunities (Male & Wodon, 2018). Moreover, an increase in education and a higher level of earning, in turn, reduce the number of child marriages (Male & Wodon, 2018). Consequently, the problem is cyclical, and Girls Not Brides have chosen the right methods to solve it.
Influence of Organization and Its Work
Girls Not Brides has influence and promote social change on three levels. The organization is changing the lives of some girls by protecting them from child marriage and giving them opportunities for education and personal development. The organization develops advocacy campaigns and initiatives to help states pass laws against child marriage and change how society perceives this practice (“How we work,” n.d.). As a result, the organization has a global impact as it operates in 100 countries around the world and engages the international community in the implementation of social change to end child marriage. Consequently, Girls Not Brides promotes social change on a micro and macro level, which increases the chances of its success.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Girls Not Brides is an effective agent of social change as it has the resources and influence at the individual, local, and global level to overcome the problem of child marriage. The organization and the need for change arose as a consequence of a shift in social perception of the acceptable age for marriage due to the development of society and economics. However, the complete elimination of child marriage will also be a consequence of the organization’s activities. At the same time, while this goal is long-term globally, some girls and their families can experience its results in their lives in a short time.
The social advancement in society over the past years will help me predict social patterns over the coming years. Understanding these trends enables me to conceptualize how my roles and responsibilities as a nurse would significantly change to meet the increasing demand for caregiving. From the demographic statistics provided in chapter 25, there has been population increase, and infant mortality decrease in the 20th century as compared to the 19th century (Macionis, 2021).
This note indicates a significant increase in demand for nursing services. Additionally, the change in consumption patterns and lifestyles has increased the prevalence of cancer and other chronic diseases, prompting intensive scientific research and sophistication in medical technologies (Macionis, 2021). This advancement necessitates that I familiarize myself with the latest medical equipment and diagnosis methods that I would utilize in my profession. Moreover, the adoption and use of the internet and mass media platforms have made it easy to share medical information, resulting in health awareness amongst people; therefore, professional ethics relating to nursing would be essential in practice.
Although science and technology have solved many problems, they have negatively impacted the environment through pollution, with unsafe disposal of medical wastes being a significant public health concern. Exposure to such wastes results in fatal infections and diseases.
Similarly, the incineration of the wastes emits toxins into the air, when inhaled, results in respiratory illnesses (Medsharps, n.d.). Therefore, it would be mandatory for me to adhere to safe waste disposal practices that yield minimum negative impact to my patients, colleagues, society, and the environment. Finally, Chapter 25 shows that understanding different traditions would be necessary to blend the new technologies that do not contradict the existing knowledge (Macionis, 2021). Therefore, as a nurse, I will ensure that new medical methods conform to patients’ expectations while keeping track of their responses to these approaches.
References
Macionis, J. J. (2021). Social change: Modern, and postmodern societies. In Society: The basics (pp.526-550). Pearson.
Medsharps. (n.d.). Medical waste disposal: What are the challenges? Web.
Nowadays, social entrepreneurship is one of the most effective methods to solve current societal problems. Its advantage over some other methods is explained by combining business skills with the desire to improve people’s lives. The former helps to bring innovations, and the latter – to use novel decisions for the benefit of others. It is explained by the fact that social entrepreneurs not only need to think about efficient money expenditure but also about ensuring revenues. Therefore, to better understand social entrepreneurship, this essay attempts to contrast this approach with other social movements and discuss which types of societal changes it can bring.
Social entrepreneurship is similar to other methods that help address various community and environmental problems due to the leader’s responsibility to organize other people around certain ideas. However, on the one hand, it differs from the reformatory and revolutionary movements as social entrepreneurship rarely aims at changing the existing social structures. On the other hand, this approach differs from alternative and religious movements as it does not seek to change the attitudes and behaviors of overall society to achieve its goals. Therefore, considering the stages of the social problem, it is argued that the appearance of social entrepreneurship belongs to the alternative stage when people attempt to bring change outside of the system.
Based on the aforementioned information, it can be hypothesized that social entrepreneurship can mostly affect changes that are not related to the social organization, such as initiating new laws and regulations and human attitudes and behaviors. Rather, this method can be effective in addressing the issues that do not necessitate big structural transformations. Therefore, social entrepreneurs can successfully fight poverty, racism, and local environmental problems, to name a few.
In conclusion, it is necessary to mention that although social entrepreneurship is associated with micro-level attempts to change the world, I believe that it can cause macro-level improvements as well, even though it is difficult. For instance, through media communications, businessmen can significantly affect the cultural norms of society members. In this regard, the case of Weird Enough Productions can be a good example. Tony Weaver Jr. – the company creator – was very concerned about the lack of African American heroic figures in media; rather, black people were mostly represented negatively (Weaver, 2016). Therefore, the social entrepreneur decided to initiate a company that would create comics about heroes who belong to some minority groups.
References
Weaver, T., Jr. (2016). Analysis of representations of African Americans in non-linear streaming media content. Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, 7(2), 57-67.
The 19th century was a turning point in the development of views on the socio-economic structure of human society. This was particularly evident in the emergence of the Marxist socialism, which made people reconsider traditional social systems. The ideas of social and class equality, the cooperation of people for the common good, the equal distribution of material wealth among all the members of society inspired many intellectuals of that time. However, some thinkers, such as Beatrice Potter Webb, did not fully accept Marxism, supporting only some of its ideas and methods.
The phenomenon of socialism is primarily associated with the theories of the German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx. The key peculiarity of Marx’s position is “his relation to the revolutionary socialistic movement” (Veblen, 2015, p. 2). According to the Marxist philosophy, capitalism and its inherent class inequality are a dead end for humanity, and the only logical way out is the radical socialist revolution. Allegedly, this revolution would bring human society to its natural state: the unselfish and equal cooperation for the sake of the common good. In Marx’s view, the central point of the social economy is “a theory of Value,” which consists in the equality of any labor. Furthermore, according to Marx, a socialist state should be managed by a single government, which will ensure the social equality of all the citizens (Veblen, 2015).
Beatrice Potter Webb, a British sociologist of the late 19th – early 20th century, was a supporter of the moderate and democratic socialism. Together with her husband, Sidney Webb, they joined the Fabian Society, for which their works on sociology were an important theoretical core. Although Webb and other members of the Fabian Society admired Marx’s ideas, their vision of socialism differed in a number of ways. First of all, they rejected the Marxist radical revolutionism, promoting instead the idea of social evolutionism. The Fabians believed that evolutionism “combined social and biological science and neutralized revolutionary ideas, but the theory of evolution ended up suggesting the idea of a gradual change” (Potter, 2017, p. 14). Secondly, while advocating for the idea of collectivism, Webb also acknowledged the need for the local self-government, namely, the municipal government. What is also peculiar about Webb’s socialism, is that she rejected the typical Marxist belief in the strictly scientific organization of society, since, in her opinion, “science deals only with the processes of life; it has little to say of the purpose of life” (Potter, 2017, p. 160). All these differences made Webb’s socialist ideas more acceptable to British society.
In many respects, Webb carefully distanced herself from Marx’s views that were likely to face criticism in the capitalist societies. In addition to Marxist revolutionism, she also rejected the notion of socialism as an exclusively working-class movement, claiming that it was a task of the middle-class intellectuals to create their own, enlightened socialism. What is more, Webb did not directly confront capitalism, considering it an important evolutionary stage of social progress. Admiring the latest reformations and achievements of American society, she saw it as an apex of the contemporary social progress, particularly in terms of industrial development and democratically elected authorities (Ferrari, 2017). Finally, unlike Marx, Webb also recognized that different types of labor actually do have a different value and thus should be rewarded correspondingly.
The views of the British socialist Beatrice Potter Webb were quite different from Karl Marx’s ideas. Her position is fairly considered as moderate socialism since she rejected the radical revolutionism peculiar to the Marxist philosophy. Instead, Webb supported the ideas of a gradual change and intellectual flexibility, fully acknowledging that human society is far too complex to fit into the framework of classical Marxism.
References
Ferrari, R. (2017). Roundtrip to Anglo-Saxon Democracy: Beatrice Potter Webb’s appraisal of industry and society. In V. Bavaro, G. Fusco, S. Fusco, & D. Izzo (Eds.), Harbors, Flows, and Migrations: The USA in/and the World (pp. 217-236). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Potter, B. (2017). On Marx and the Politics of Economic Discourse. Two Unpublished Manuscripts and Other Writings. R. Ferrari (Ed.). Bologna, Italy: University of Bologna Press.
Veblen, T. (2015). The socialist economics of Karl Marx and his followers. Redditch, UK: Read Books Ltd.
Black Lives Matter is one of the significant social movements affecting the human understanding of race. It is committed to eradicating systemic racism in America. This phenomenon includes, for example, racial prejudice among police officers and judicial injustice against black people. Black Lives Matter involves different branches in more than ten American states. A movement arose after the senseless murder of African American teenager. A year later, a court consisting of five white people and only one black woman acquitted the police officer. The court’s decision caused massive protests from the African American population.
The Black Lives Matter movement is not about individual flaws but the perceived general injustice of the American system, capitalism, and white people’s supremacy. Black Lives Matter and its leaders were definitely part of the American tradition. Their values and beliefs can be traced back to the history of democracy and individual rights founders. The current COVID-19 situation aggravated the Black Lives Matter conflict. In the United States, pandemic-related racial divisions have also exacerbated the general problem. Thirty percent of all infected in the country are people with black skin color (while the black population in the United States is approximately twelve percent).
The Black Lives Matter movement can be described through the relative deprivation theory. According to Ferris and Stein (2020), this theory explains the action of the deprived or oppressed group of people trying to protect their rights. Compared to other groups, black people have been exposed to oppression from the government and society. This social movement is concerned with equalizing the rights of black and white people. Black Lives Matter has contributed to a significant change in the world. Black people try to satisfy their moral and physical needs, which they are deprived of as members of society.
This movement is widely spread worldwide, questioning the current society’s order. People from different countries started to comprehend the scale of the racial problem in America. This movement provoked the discussion about the deprivation of black, empowering people to be tolerant of differences. Thanks to the Black Lives Matter movement, society advanced to a new level of moral development. The necessity of promoting racial and cultural acceptance was highlighted. However, the next step in striving for equality should be governments. The intensity of the protest will not lead America and any other countries towards democracy. It is caused by the fact that each conflicting side is seeking a dictatorship for itself and at least wants to declare their own rights through mass public protests. This global problem requires wiser and large-scale decisions.
Thus, the Black Lives Matter movement has had a significant impact on society. COVID-19 has made visible all the problems, including inequality and injustice, accumulating over the years. In the depths of rejection, people are inclined to endow particular groups with greater advantages. Racism can be considered as part of a self-defense reaction. If white people admit that people with black skin are equal to them, they will find themselves in a tub of unequal in the global world. To solve these inequality issues, superior peoples should be ready to share wealth, mobility, or social capital with the deprived. Some people believe that racial inequality cannot be eliminated entirely because of human nature striving for supremacy over others achieved through comparison. Therefore, the problem of social inequality exists in all countries and must be fought further.
Reference
Ferris, K., & Stein, J. (2020). The real world: An introduction to sociology. W.W. Norton & Company.
The gist of Justice Stevens’ opinion in Citizens United verse Federal Election Commission is that organizations are lawfully created bodies that carry out activities and are allowed specific legal protections equivalent to those granted to people. The state determines their rights and privileges (Massey, 2016). According to Justice Stevens, the court’s majority decision to overturn a century of legislative restrictions on election spending by corporations and unions is based on the First Amendment’s protection of right to free speech, which applies only to genuine people and groups of persons.
Companies supersede the nineteenth century, but their current incarnation and involvement in the community, political, and fiscal policy changed and developed so dramatically in the last era that it is difficult to comprehend. Contemporary social transformation without analyzing the importance businesses have played in cultural and social structure transformation (Massey, 2016). They own and manage the majority of the world’s wealth; they are a pillar of the economy and a means for accumulating riches.
The Corporation’s History of Transmission
In 1600, the British, the Dutch, and other successful trading firms functioned under state charter to collect cash for trips, facilitate business, and fight any opposition they confronted from other states’ trading firms and the residents at the places of their ventures. The British East India Firm, a privately run business, had more than two hundred and fifty thousand troops under its control at one time to complete its mission of establishing supremacy over the world (Massey, 2016. The British royal, such as the Dutch crown, leased or subcontracted the empire to private corporations.
How Large Corporations Direct Social Change
In at least five aspects, big businesses are a driving factor behind the social transformation. First, the companies are deeply involved in repurposing and discovering different uses for old technology and building discoveries that help and drive what we do as consumers. Secondly, companies have structured and opposed labor for more than a century, defining how work should be performed and the norms regulating professional life (Massey, 2016). Third, the management of capital and the aims for which capital is deployed determines their size and economic stability.
Fourth, huge companies control the physical environment with their images, goods and services, and the sensitivities that push people to engage to the fullest of their capability in the realm of product consumption and beyond (Massey, 2016). Finally, corporations are vital to the political system, playing a significant role in promoting legislation that helps them and resisting policies that would limit or impede their ability to operate as privately operated, income businesses.
Economic liberalization or nonregulation of financial activities, for instance, having the government do nothing. Those are some of their objectives in state intervention. Statistics and research are mobilized to show that any limits or regulations are pointless. Sometimes it is better for major firms that the issue never obtains an airing, rather than fighting back unpleasant recommendations regarding how the government should handle such concerns (Massey, 2016). Any hint of difficulty is disregarded simply as a non-issue or something that falls outside the government’s jurisdiction.
Large Corporations and Resistance to Social Change
There are barriers to social transformation in the major companies, just as there are instances of resistance to technology, social movements, and other agents of social transformation ( Massey, 2016). There is also opposition to the trend of societal transformation because of company practices. However, big firms are expected to maintain their affairs because they are part of the existing condition.
For years, reporters and researchers attempted to understand why companies oppose or weaken measures to curb their influence over resources (Massey, 2016). Public interest groups have proposed limiting their control over tax policies and economic legislation, enacting more restrictions, and boosting administration and community supervision. Companies frequently successfully reject these regulations and any alteration to their activities, whether acting alone or through trade associations.
The strong States and Social Change
The opportunity of the nation’s grew extensively with the exceptional of rebels and denial, nobody within the ideological range, self-governing and preservation disagreed that government should offer safety and physical security for its people or involve themselves in war. The current nations made and preserved the worth of the currency and control funds. States constructed and operated learning institutions, bridges, roads, waste treatment plants, and airstrips; it was a move that was regarded as the end of the Iris Summers lifetime (Massey, 2016). The United States enhanced hospitals, improved public resources, and prolonged people’s rights, which showed a great driver of social alteration since it provided solutions to the problems to its people.
Public Health; Reducing Disease and Accidental Death as a Public Good
The death rate in women giving birth was about one thousand for every delivery. The state made vaccinations for several kid illnesses in the research facilities, the administration injection agendas quickly proliferated. In 1950, the United States issued polio vaccine to the public institution with the help of the state health programs. About three million individuals succumb to car accidents (Massey, 2016). The public well-being programs should aim at the speed limits, better driving, put strict measures of traffic rules and put measures on the lessons provided to the drivers and tutor drivers.
National Progress through Control of Nature
The United States regarded the waterway used for movements as a community good. For example, the construction of the leeves to manage the flooding of the Mississippi and the wide range of dam creation programs on almost every large river in the West was an exertion of people’s power over nature ( Massey, 2016 ). The repossession of the wilderness helped the state to have control of the regions and the resources for development and weakened, evacuated, and secluded indigenous individuals with significant disruption and brought individuals of European lineage to the regions.
The Judicial Road to Civil Rights
The state uses important ways such as passing and implementing rules to promote social transformation. The legal systems carry out important duties to ensure that cases follow legal precedents and the civil liberties computed in the sets of law (Massey, 2016). Sometimes the court tries to catch up to people’s ideas and shifting practices. However, the court’s verdicts are part of the social alteration, particularly when the citizens and huge companies fail to stand for the people’s rights. The United States was a victim of the circumstances, but it was obligated on the judicial system to overcome the logjam and ensure that it had an unbiassed society.
State Driven Social Change in Modern China
The foreign control that led to discrimination to the army and decline in the economy of China. in the past two centuries, pushed the nation away from nation-building and got rid of the old-style and social development (Massey, 2016). Leaders from the Chinese Communist Party made the nation stronger and got rid of the deficiency and universal weakness. The leaders who had dreams to make a stronger nation and overcame every aspect of life had the opportunity to lead the Chinese Communist Party and perform economic and social alterations.
Reference
Massey, G. (2016). Ways of social change: Making sense of modern times. SAGE Publications.
One should note that Chapter 9 explains some concepts and ideas about the future and progress of society and the state as a whole. Garth Morgan Massey in his book claim, that most modern people are confident in their abilities to control situations and change events and phenomena for the better (p.321). However, only the power of reason harnessed to the inquiry can change persons’ “disadvantage” in the best light (p. 321). Thus, the writer calls this aspect a kind of progress and lists several essential concepts regarding this phenomenon.
First of all, he states that different people, groups, and societies may have other thoughts, ideas, and beliefs about progress. Some see such improvements in more global events, and some do not expect drastic changes at all but want to live “well.” Further, as evidence to these words, Massey attaches the thoughts and ideas of some famous personalities. Hence, according to David Harvey, people strive to accumulate and increase material goods and abundance to improve life (p.321-322). Supporters of postmodernism reflect on these issues and assure that the contemporary world is the self-referential world, and modern times is a “tangle of myths.” Especially in the age of consumerism, people tend to accumulate in a flow of multiple events, but they are not as happy as they would like.
Lester B. Brown claims that a modern world is a mess; previous experience dictates further human actions, such as future changes in climate, population, amount of water, product prices, and states (p. 322-323). Additionally, technologies “absorb” a person’s soul, depriving it of authentic, natural human qualities. Tim Jackson believes that one can achieve benefits without economic and financial growth because many other elements are necessary for humankind (p. 323). Moreover, some famous writers see dystopia only at the point of returning to the remnants and legacy of the past and in unity with nature (p. 323).
Secondly, the author expresses the following concepts regarding the future of humanity. By their character and essence, people strive to learn as much as possible about themselves and others, about the environment and the future (p. 324). As a rule, the probability of assessing the future is high if we evaluate the actual, objective factors and prerequisites. For example, George Orwell could “look into” the world of the future in the book “1984” or Herman Kahn in the book “The Year 2000” (p. 325). They were right because they predicted the moments such as high technology, control, instant data transfer, and more. Massey also agrees with the statements of these creative personalities and is sure that a modern man has so overloaded with information that only a tiny proportion of them are beneficial and essential (p. 325). Even in the files of the government of some countries and some large companies, such a vast amount of data is stored that it seems very real to construct a picture of future events (p. 325).
Thirdly, the writer states that progress and social change are a natural process and the course of things, influenced by globalization and trends in corporate behavior and thinking (p. 326-329). Moreover, the source of social change does not matter much since the human factor is one of the most basic and vital (p. 327-328). Moreover, teachers also influence changes, and their work is significant for the development of the new generations (p. 331). For example, many other nongovernmental organizations help younger people develop skills and abilities that influence problem-solving, such as Teach for America or AmeriCorps (p. 331). Changes and shifts are a necessary process that the Government and the people should work on together, considering each party’s voice. Social change activity implies responsibility for decisions, and even the slightest action, could entail inevitable consequences. However, ethical and moral concepts should also not be neglected in this regard (p. 333-334). No changes take place without human participation, and everyone can make a valuable contribution to the future and progress development (p. 338).
Reference
Massey, G.M. (2015). Chapter 9. Making social change: Actively engaging a desire for social change. In G.M. Massey (Ed.), Ways of social change: Making sense of modern times (2nd ed.) (pp. 320-338). SAGE Publications.
The culture and established norms in every society tend to undergo considerable changes over time which can be repressed for a certain period but eventually are unavoidable. Researchers in the field of sociology have been studying the concept of social change for decades, and there is a variety of frameworks which describe the exact mechanics behind the phenomenon. Although every approach seeking to provide a thorough account of the social change aspects has significant insights, the political opportunity theory delivers the most comprehensive analysis of the matter. Essentially, social change occurs as a result of the presence of engaged and organized individuals and political conditions which are conducive to the transformation in society.
A New Culture and Engaged Individuals
The most important component in every social change is the people who are not satisfied with the status quo and desire to transform the existing situation for the better. Usually, such people are individuals who experience oppression or are deprived and mistreated by the authorities and laws of the country. Essentially, there must be a group of people who consider the political and social system in place as unjust and discriminatory against them and their rights. Moreover, such a group should not only be unsatisfied with the current state of affairs but also have a certain idea about positive changes which need to be introduced. Additionally, the individuals who are directly affected by the mistreatment can be supported by those who are not impacted by the discriminatory policies.
There have been many social movements in history which can serve as an example for the aforementioned information. For instance, in the 1950s, in Montgomery, the Jim Crow laws implied ensuring segregation between white and black riders in local busses. As a result, the African-Americans were prohibited from becoming drivers for the bus companies in the region. Moreover, the black riders were required to pay a fare at the front of the bus and then go to the back of it where the area for people with the “untouchable” status was1. Rosa Parks and her supporters became the engaged individuals who were dissatisfied with the discriminatory laws and openly defied them as a form of protest. People such as Rosa Parks experienced direct oppression by the authorities, and they decided to oppose them through violations to achieve a positive change.
Organizational Infrastructure
At the same time, the actions of a small group of people are still not sufficient to produce a change of a scale which could affect the entire society. In order to achieve success in transforming the social and political system of the country, a more organized effort is required from people. As a result, the engaged individuals who share the same vision, values, and interests have to form an organization which could amplify their message to a larger audience. Moreover, formal organizations ensure the mobilization of new people and help to educate them on the existing social problems which need to be solved through change. Organizations also facilitate the accumulation of resources needed for the successful achievement of the goals of the movement.
The story of Rosa Parks and protests in Montgomery had an effect on local authorities, but it did not change the condition for African-Americans in the entire country. The major role in the advancement of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s was played by notable organizations. For instance, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, led by Martin Luther King Jr., provided support for non-violent protestors and publicity for their activities. There was also the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), another organization which was instrumental in the dismantling of the segregation system.1. The organizations managed to mobilize large numbers of people and eventually cause a change in the perspective of a significant share of the population on the injustice targeted against African-Americans.
Political Opportunities
Nevertheless, an organized group of engaged individuals who share the same views also need to rely on the political system. In other words, in order to ensure that the message of the protestors is heard and their demands for a change are implemented, there must be certain opportunities. Political opportunities can arise as a result of several factors, including the division among elites. The lack of repressive laws and the guarantees of basic political freedoms are also political opportunities. Countries where populations have a limited number of civil rights, tend to be more democratic. As a result, whenever a large social movement emerges, such countries quickly respond to the demands of the protestors.
The civil rights movements would not be possible without the U.S. Constitution and the rights guaranteed by it to the people. The first amendment of the American Constitution guaranteeing “the right of the people peaceably to assemble” and freedom of speech was essential for the success of the civil rights movement in the 1950s-60s2. Additionally, the movement also had the support of certain politicians who promoted the idea of racial equality and justice. For instance, Ivan Allen was a mayor of Atlanta during the years of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. As a liberal, Allen actively participated in the desegregation efforts, although some of his actions were criticized by the activists3. Nevertheless, the activity of politicians such as Allen and the basic constitutional freedoms became the political opportunities for the civil rights movement.
Socialization
The three aforementioned components constitute the main factors which enable people to effect social change. At the same time, once the change is implemented, the need for socialization arises in order to ensure that the new situation is now accepted as normal. It is natural that every major social movement receives criticism from the people who oppose it since they are satisfied with the status quo. Such people also can continue to demonstrate their dissatisfaction even after the change has occurred. Therefore, a certain period of time must pass before all members of society, or at least the majority, have accepted the new terms as the new status quo. Even after the passing of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, many white politicians and organizations maintained their opposition to the law4. At the same time, today, half a century later, the Civil Rights Act does not raise any concerns and is widely recognized as one of the main milestones in American history.
Conclusion
Social change is a process which occurs in a situation when three components are in place, engaged individuals, organizations, and political opportunities. The civil rights movement of the 1950s-60s constitutes an example of how the aforementioned elements came together to produce social change in the form of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. At the same time, every social change requires further socialization to become a new reality and be accepted by the majority of people. Thus, in order for social change to be successful, not only political actions are needed, such as protests, but also the acceptance of the wider public.
According to Ball and Youdell (2009), there is a hidden privatisation in public education. The authors say that “international agencies and national governments have hidden education agendas to privatise public education”. In some cases, privatisation is quite explicit in educational policies while in other cases, it is hidden. Privatisation is pursued as a solution to the shortfall in public education.
In other cases, privatisation takes the form of choice, effectiveness, devolution, and accountability during policymaking. Ball and Youdell say that the policies may not be explicitly articulated in terms of privatisation. Instead, the policies may introduce techniques and values used in private schools to improve the performance of public schools. This implies that public schools are gradually being turned into businesses.
Governments use privatisation as a policy tool and not as a means to give up its responsibility to manage problems within the society.
There are two main forms of privatisation evident from the research work of Ball and Youdell. Endogenous and exogenous privatisation is what the two researchers use to refer to the two forms of privatisation. In the latter, public education is opened up to the private sector with aim of making profit. Participation of private sector is used to manage public education. This form is direct and explicit.
The second form identified by the authors is endogenous, where ideas and techniques applied in private education are borrowed and used in public education. From their findings, privatisation does involve not only educational services and education but also policies. In relation to policies, privatisation of education can take a number of outlines, including research and consultation.
Privatisation in education has changed employment conditions and labour relations. It has created a situation where teachers are employed based on performance contracts. People with no qualification in teaching can have a chance to teach on low pay. The worth of students is based on competition and the labour market.
The knowledge and skills of students are perceived to be either desirable or not based on the liabilities and assets relating to their knowledge and skills. Students with high levels of academic abilities are generally easy to teach and manage. As a result, such students would be highly attractive and sought after by employers. On the contrary, the students with low academic abilities are disregarded by employers.
The inequality caused by social class in education has led to the development of stereotypes. Post schools are considered to perform better than public schools due to the privileges they enjoy. However, this is only a stereotype because certain public primary schools have constantly achieved good results.
Additionally, private schools are said to have liaison officers that check lesson plans on regular basis while public schools do not. There is also more pressure for teachers in private schools to keep their jobs because they are required to perform. These are just but stereotypes since teachers in public schools also target results and are pressured to perform well.
Anderson (1994) supports the findings of Ball and Youdell. He says that there is a strong relationship between social class and systems in education. Schools are considered to be social organisations that play important functions in the structure and functioning of societies.
For instance, schools play the role of socialising those being educated, transmitting culture, developing employable skills among those being educated, bringing about personality and behavioral change, promoting physical mental and moral growth, bringing about desirable changes in the economic, social, and technological areas, enhancing social integration, and empowering individual to develop independent thinking and decision making abilities.
Social relationships in education is also characterised by negative aspects such as stratification, class formation, ethics and racial differentiations, social control and acquisition of power by individuals, and acquisition of competitive instead of cooperative attitudes in society.
Education is a social institution in which there are various phenomena, organisation and so on. There are for instance, schools, colleges, universities, and other training facilities. All of which is made up of two main components, namely, the instructors of different ranks and the learners. Social relationships impact education through its contribution to the process of teaching and learning.
In social organisation of schools, the teacher is usually described as the adult representative of the society. The honour accorded to teachers is attributed to the role they play as the adult representative of the society. However, if the appropriate means and resources to carry out the activities of an organisation are lacking, the goals may not be realised.
The teaching activities carried out by teacher distinguish schools to be unique structures in the society. The teaching and learning activities facilitated by teachers spearhead the attainment of goals of the school. As a result, teachers play important roles, including that of instructors, guides, counsellor, evaluator, judge, decision-maker, leader, surrogate parent, and disciplinarian.
A growing child inevitably is taught by and learns from various situations such as other children, parents, siblings, family, community members, teachers, and by observation. All these situations form a learner’s learning environment. These learning environments have the capacity to influence and determine a learner’s acquisition of mental, physical, and social knowledge.
They also have the capacity to influence the learner’s attitudes for interactions, present and future abilities, integration and cooperation, behaviour change and personality growth, individual experiences, competencies, as well as discriminations.
This implies that if the nature of social environment is such that there is keen interest, coordinated effort, and adequate provision, the growing child will develop as a well balanced, socially adjusted, and emotionally stable person ready to learn.
On the other hand, if the social learning environments are such that there is indifference, ignorance, social discord, improper family care, condoning of deviant behaviours, and lack of guidance, the growing child is likely to grow to be an ill-fated, ill-behaved, and socially maladjusted person. The ability and opportunities of such a child to lead a full life in society would be greatly impaired.
Due to the impact of the social learning environment on a child, it is important for education systems to make learning environments equal to all. Social class creates differences in education which impact on outcome and quality of education.
It causes the outcome and quality to be uneven across various educational institutions in a country. For instance, private schools have been found to create a learning environment that brings out the best out of children. This is obviously due to a number of factors.
In developed economies such as Australia, the more affluent a society is the better the schools. Schools in suburban districts offer better opportunity and schooling experiences than the schools in a less social class district. The institutions are well funded and offer quality education in return. Education inequality is evident in most societies and communities in Australia.
The public education system is deserted by wealthy families. Students from poor backgrounds make the largest percentage of children attending government schools. Seventy-five percent of rich families in Australia and other developed countries have their children in private and catholic schools.
As mentioned earlier, private schools are funded well and offer better opportunities and quality of education. In contrast, funding for public schools comes from the government and sometimes the funds may not be adequate to meet all the needs of the institutions. In normal cases, private schools outperform public schools due to a number of benefits they enjoy compared public schools.
Several efforts have been initiated to ensure equality in education. One such strategy for equality is busing aimed at improving the social mix of students. The use of this strategy implies that money alone cannot be used to bolster academic quality. Cooperative efforts from teachers, students, and parents make significant contribution to the outcome of education in the presence of social inequality.
In other words, if all the schools were to be equally funded, schools with a good social mix of students would perform better than others. Similarly, students with a background where educational values are encouraged would perform better than those from a contrary social background.
Scholars in the field of sociology and education have argued that the practice by most parents to get the best for their children is egocentric and antisocial. It is common to find parents, especially from wealthy backgrounds taking their children to highly expensive schools in order to get the best education.
According to Anderson (1996), most educational systems in both developed and underdeveloped countries will never be worthy of the society until children of all social status and background are able to attend the same school.
Therefore, in the terms of this scholar, an educational system is considered socially just if it is able to secure good, desirable education for all children. In the current educational system in Australia, characterised by economical inequality and hierarchical provision of education, there is a lot to be done to realise the ideas of Anderson.
Education is also affected by social class through economic differences across Australian states. Some states, especially South Australia and Tasmanian, have the highest numbers of low-income families. Students from such states are less likely to enjoy social mix in their schools. In high-income states, the level of disparity is quite low as students from all background have a high chance of enjoying social mix in their schools.
In order to make social improvements in education, scholars have come up with various ideas. It is established that a large percentage of education funding is spent on pupils who are privately educated. Private schools greatly contribute to elitism and social divisions. Therefore, it is only prudent to abolish the idea of private schools. The structures in the society undermine the fundamentals of social justice.
These structures categorise individuals in the society according to classes which disadvantage others but benefit a few. The elite in the society may have little concern for state schools because their children hardly attend state schools. The upper class and elite have the political and economic power to demonstrate commitment in improving the state of public schools and create equality in education.
Education is used to enhance critical consciousness and enabling human beings to pursue completeness by acting consciously upon their abilities and limitations. This basically implies that education is used to enhance human creativity. Creativity as a concept signifies the ability to cause to exist or bring into being something that never existed before. The second philosophy entails epistemology or the concept of knowledge.
Education basically involves acquisition of knowledge, skills, and other types of information by the learners. Therefore epistemology entails, examining the nature, condition and extent of knowledge in the learners.
The major goal for training of school instructors is to prepare students to become better citizens in the society. The standard for critical pedagogy is aimed at social change and promoting active citizenship. The inequality in education affects the way instruction is delivered.
Critical pedagogy has been introduced in teacher training as a strategy for social transformation, which addresses injustices and inequality in education. Instructors are considered to be agents of transformation because of their role to empower students to become active citizens.
The concept of epistemology used in education influences several aspects of education, such as development of curriculum, teacher-learner interaction, and methodology. Knowledge that is gained in the classroom takes two forms: knowledge involving practical skills and knowledge involving the mind. The knowledge involving the mind is basically theoretical and is expressed as ideas in propositions and statements.
When applied in education, the concept of knowledge is important in both forms of theoretical and practical. Theoretical knowledge is necessary for general knowledge, while practical knowledge is important for providing evidence to theory.
The source of learner knowledge will come through both empiricism and rationalism. The learners have to be engaged to use their minds to extract knowledge from experience they go through in their daily lives. In the development of curriculum, there has to provide for learners to make use of their experiences and come to the knowledge of things.
At the same time, practical sessions, especially for certain disciplines, help the learners acquire knowledge by getting their hands-on experience. Every other discipline creates uses practical means to explain concepts; these are the circumstances that the learners experiences on daily basis, and also the objects that they interact with in their immediate surroundings.
Creativity, on the other hand, is a concept that would allow the learner to be more human by exploiting their human abilities. It is only through creativity that human beings are able to make the environment around them a better place of living and a place that meets their needs.
Human beings have to, therefore, assume a subjective role in their immediate environment by being involved in creation of objects and ideas that never existed before. This concept can be applied in the execution and implementation of curriculum, especially during instruction.
References
Anderson, R. (1984). Some reflections on the acquisition of knowledge. Educational Researcher, 13(10), 5-10.
Ball, S. J., & Youdell, D. (2009). Hidden privatisation in public education. NUT Education Review, 21(2), 73-83.
Ballantine, J., & Larres, P. M. (2007). Cooperative learning: a pedagogy to improve student’s generic skills. Education + Training, 12(2), 126-137.
Banks, J. A. (2007). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Connell, R. (2011). Working-class families and the new secondary education. In Confronting equality: Gender, knowledge and global change. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Hatton, E. (1996). Teaching children in poverty: Three Australian primary school responses. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 17(1), 39-52.
Leonard, V., & LeBrasseur, R. (2008). Individual assignments and academic dishonesty: Exploring the conundrum. The Australian Educational Researcher, 35(1), 37-56.
Rowe, E., & Windle, J. (2012). The Australian middle class and education: A small-scale study of the school choice experience as framed by ‘my school’ within inner city families. Critical Studies in Education, 53(2), 137-151.
Many scholars view the world wars witnessed in the 20th century as agents of social change. This is because the wars supported egalitarianism in society where roles were distributed based on merit and expertise but not based on gender. The twentieth century period was an era of liberation to women since their rights were recognized in society. One scholar noted in 1942 that the achievements of women during the world wars would save them from being treated as homemakers, who were simply relegated to the domain of the home1.
This paper will therefore try to relate the war, specifically the two world wars, to the position of women in society and social change. It can be observed that the war gave women some advantages in the international system as opposed to men. Women were allowed to join professions that were previously reserved for men due to one reason or another.
The International System and the Role of Women
The international system exists according to the Hobbestian state of nature. This is where only the strong states survive since life is short-lived, brutal and anarchic. In other words, there is no Leviathan in the international system. Women consider themselves weak because men use their physical strength to oppress them. Goldstein observes that women detest the postulations of the realist theory since the theory does not open the black box.
Women believe that gender variations occur at an individual and group level. To feminists, the realist theory only considers the interaction of states but not units, which include women. Social change and communal awareness transpire mainly through scientific developments, class divergence, and political accomplishments.
Every societal structure is situated within them and is exposed to the power of the state-class system, a local milieu, and a global system of nations and economies2. The world-system viewpoint perceive nations and state-run financial systems as located within a global capitalist nexus, with a distribution of labor equivalent to its elements, that is, the center, the margin, and the semi-periphery.3 Consequently, no main social change takes place outside the global milieu.
Therefore, to comprehend the positions and status of female members of society or adjustments to the structure of the family, for instance, it is essential to scrutinize the financial development and political transformation, which are influenced by local and universal developments.
As it can be observed in various discussions concerning female’s employment, the structural factors related to class position, state lawful policy, developmental policy, and global market variations combine to configure the rapidity and tempo of women’s assimilation in the labor force and their access to financial capital. Some organizations and systems influence and are influenced by social changes in a Marxist-inspired world-system viewpoint.
The organizations are entrenched within a class system, including the system of manufacturing, accretion, and surplus allocation. Furthermore, a variety of gender collections and customs such as approved positions of males and females through tradition or law, artistic comprehension of feminine and masculine abilities affect the position of women in society as regards to social change.4
In Britain, women had taken over jobs in various sectors by the end of 1914. Surprisingly, the war provided women with an opportunity to work in ammunition factories. More so, women volunteered to work in various humanitarian organizations such as the Red Cross.
Through the war, women showed what they were capable of doing both at home and in their places of work. What women delivered during the First World War changed the perception of many in society. The society appreciated the contribution of women yet it was reluctant to offer some privileges to them. For instance, women were paid almost equality as men since they received two-thirds of what men were paid.
Unexpectedly, the state granted women the right to participate in political affairs. For that case, women were allowed to select candidates of their choice and were allowed to participate in elections fully. This meant that they could present their candidature during elections as long as they qualified.
The investigation of gender regarding war entails an assessment of the standards, classifications, opportunities, postulations, and behaviors utilized differentially to males and females in the situation of conflict. States subsist in what is viewed as a bloodthirsty and unsafe global milieu.
For this reason, states have always prioritized their national securities. Due to national security interests, huge military finances, martial recruitment of male populace, overseas incursions, and the limitation of public freedoms have been vindicated. Most people view the safety of the state as an essential value that should always be supported. This is particularly factual during war. The prerequisite of state security has always been and remains to be a male prefecture.
Most women support what are believed to be lawful needs for state war, however the main aim of defining and protecting the sovereignty of the nation has been the duty of males, an undertaking that has seen men rewarded in various cultures. To surrender one’s life for one’s nation in warfare has been perceived as the premier type of loyalty, but a failure to battle is the sign of a coward or proof of biological or psychological sub-maleness.
It should be noted that women have engaged in non-combatant wars and have succeeded in achieving their dreams. Such women include Elizabeth 1, Catherine the Great, Indra Gandhi and Margaret Thatcher. Despite of this, the role of women in war has always been overshadowed by the actions of men.
In other places such as in the Hispanic military, women have participated in combatant battles. Unfortunately, the society perceives women as people who are always in need of protection. 5Jean Elshtain in her works ‘Women and War’, alleges that the role of women in society should be comprehended in relation to the actuality that war is presently institutionalized in the international system.
Recently, scholars have noted that war affects men and women differently. This is due to the emergence of feminism theory, which tries to evaluate the position of women in society. The question has centered on the exact effects on females that war demands since during war, gender distinctiveness happens to be polarized as militarism and maleness infuse throughout culture6.
This is not to dispute the fact that pacifism as such is accredited to genetic tendency but that women are misrepresented in the decision-making, both in national and in the military sector. 7Caprioli has recommended that the relationship of women with peace is one that has occurred specifically due to their defused situation. There are various varieties of feminism and a collection of approaches as to how gender equality could be restored to the advantage of both men and women.
Feminists concede that the gendering of societal life based on male-female dialectic generates prejudice that further leads to traditional blueprints. At the time of war, these may perhaps rematerialize in a destructive way and could be legitimately authorized. From the above analysis, various feminist organizations emerged in society to challenge their deprived position after the Second World War.
Gender Roles in War
Joshua Goldstein notes that the roles of women in conflicts have been greeted with variations among scholars of history and political science. In the western militaries for instance, Goldstein observes that the society has allowed women to join professions in the military that were reserved for men. In fact, women are considered soft sports since many illegal groups such as those in Rwanda and Burundi target them.
Rape has been employed as a war instrument in many places such as Yugoslavia and Mexico. Goldstein does not engage in a debate as regards to the role of gender in war but instead he tries to differentiate between the interests of various feminist groups. He also observes the relationship between feminism and the realist theory, which is one of the most powerful theories in explaining the role of actors in the international system.
According to Goldstein, the major aim of feminism is liberation from the house of bondage. As stated by Goldstein, each category of feminism aims at liberating itself from certain injustices. In this case, liberal feminism aims at achieving egalitarianism between men and women in society. The feminists under this category argue that women have the right to participate in any activity including war. To them, this is achieved through legal and political reforms.
This would not change societal structure. Radical feminism relates its problems to the capitalistic economy that is controlled by men. In this regard, such groups aim at revising the existing social structure. In relation to war, the crusaders under this category argue that war is a tool used by men to subjugate a perpetuate women.
In many cases, warlords would target women since they are easy to defeat. Women would then be deprived economically since they do not have the power and the means to resist incursions. Conservative feminism tries to understand its surrounding. Libertarian feminism asserts that people are owners of their lives meaning that they have the power to determine their own destinies, including war decisions.
Separatist feminism argues that women should concentrate on helping themselves meaning that heterosexual relationships are irrelevant to women. In this regard, women should engage in war to protect their fellow women8. In this line of thinking, women should always be involved in making critical foreign policies that would amount to war. Furthermore, economic determinism is an issue of concern to women.
Women single out capitalism as being an impediment to their achievement in society. Capitalistic ideologies discriminate women from accessing resources in society. Socialist scholars differentiate themselves from Marxism by arguing that injustices can only be abolished through revising the social structure and having sound economic policies in society. Cultural feminist movement aims at ensuring women are self-sufficient and self-reliant.
Towards the beginning of 1990s, a new wave of feminism emerged, which advocated for the rights and freedoms of adolescent females. The movement wanted the government to come up with policies that would protect young women from societal injustices such as rape and sexual harassment. In this case, young women had to be allowed to come up with make-ups of their choices including clothing and sexual allure. They were to be recruited in the disciplined forces in the same way as men.
Goldstein underscores the fact that it is imperative to consider time, culture and country when understanding the activities of feminist organizations. Women started fighting for their rights during the 19th century in the US and UK. They were mostly focused on promoting equality, marriage rights, parenting and ownership of property. Towards the end, the movement shifted its attention to political power and authority.
The movement wanted the state to allow all women to participate in elections. This meant that women were to be allowed to vote for candidates of their choice. Furthermore, women had to be allowed to contest for various positions during elections, as long as they qualified. Feminist groups advocated for abolition of slavery, which was seen as a road to elimination of male domination. In 1919, the constitution was amended to cater for the interests of women.
The Nineteenth Amendment to the US constitution granted women the right to participate in political processes. After the achievement, women did not relax instead they took their struggle a notch higher by demanding for more powers and freedoms. The new wave was termed as the second wave of feminism. The second wave aimed at eliminating social injustices as opposed to political issues. In this case, women wanted to be provided with social services such as childcare services, proper housing, medical cover and free education.
The third wave feminism begun in 1990. The feminism organizations at this time aimed at lobbying the government to implement policies contained in the second wave. Third wave feminism focused on micro-politics and universalizing feminism. In this case, it delinked feminism from white women and tried to understand it as a common problem to all women in the world. Third wave feminism understood the position of women in society through a post-structuralism perspective.
The second wave applied the ideas of Marx, which are radical and unrelenting. The second wave feminist scholars argued that no social structure is maintained through oppressing and exploiting a section of its members. The movement aimed at generating a female dominated society. On the other hand, the third wave feminism observed that it is not easy to change a social structure. In this case, each person should be involved in the process of change.
Achievements of Feminist Organizations after the Second World War
Feminist groups managed to do away with various forms of discrimination against women after the Second World War. The government in the US decided to abolish laws that segregated society based on gender in 1960s, just after the Second World War. Through the activities of feminist groups, women were granted rights such as reproduction rights. This meant that women were allowed to determine their destinies as regards to pregnancies.
The high court decided in the case involving Roe and Wade that women could abort pregnancies on grounds of health. Through this achievement, women took charge of families because they could seek for family planning contraceptives. Women were relieved from domestic chores meaning that some took over political positions.
As a consequent, division of labor was also extended to women because some of them could be relied upon during policy formulation. In early 1990s, the UN charter was formulated to safeguard the interests of women in all parts of the world. Through the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW, women’s rights were documented as international bill of rights that the state had to grant unconditionally.
Through the feminist activities, language used in society was unbiased meaning that it was inclusive and non-sexist. This has greatly shaped women’s participation in global political processes including voting and government appointments. For instance, the word ‘Miss’ may perhaps be utilized to signify both married and unmarried women. Before the world wars, unmarried woman were not to be entrusted with leadership.
This affected women before but it is no longer an issue in the contemporary world. In the religious front, women managed to convince the faithful that it was not God’s will for men to oppress women. In this regard, women should were allowed to participate in religious activities actively.
Consequently, women were ordained as bishops in various denominations after the war, although some were still conservative such as catholic. Culturally, women managed to lobby the government to institute stricter laws that would cater for their rights. It was a criminal offence to engage a woman in sex without her consent after the Second World War in the US and UK. Criminals charged with forcible rape received severe punishments, a move that was aimed at discouraging the vice.
Challenges of Feminism after the Second World
Although women have managed to do away with problems affecting them, there are still some issues to deal with. The first one is related to labor market, which favors men in many ways. The government should come up with policies that aim at empowering women economically. Since the Civil War, women are still incorporated in the financial system as underdogs. Wealth lies in the hands of men implying that women are likened to the proletariat who produces goods that he or she does not consume.
In most families, male partners are known to control political and economic affairs, which are more important in an individual’s life. At work places, women are forced to work and produce goods and services just like men. Women are further required to take care of homes. This is unfair because both partners must share domestic roles in case they both work. The government should therefore look for ways to eliminate this problem because it affects the productivity of women in society.
It is factual that the US has more male senators and governors. This is because the government does not have a clear policy that empowers women politically. In this case, women should be funded by the state during campaigns in order to realize gender balance. Scholars concede that women should be empowered through management. In this case, bosses should aim at assisting women employees to realize their goals.
The government should ensure that each organization conforms to the provision of the constitution, which states that each person should be allowed to exercise his or her democratic right without interference from anybody. Empowerment of women is inevitable in case millennium development goals are to be realized in the country. Poverty cannot be eradicated in case women are left behind in development9.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that women have never enjoyed their rights in political history. Their rights and freedoms are usually hampered by factors such as religion, male patriarchy, social structure and culture. After the Second World War, the society witnessed the potentials of women. At this time, various feminine groups emerged, with each advocating for diverse rights.
The modern day activism is realistic in that it focuses on achieving equality but not domination. The feminist groups have achieved many objectives and goals such as abolition of sexist language, revising the social structure and participating in political processes.
List of References
Caprioli, M 1995, “Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, no. 2.
Carver, T 1995, Gender is not a Synonym for Women, Lynne Rienner, Boulder.
Elshtain, J 1996, Women and War, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Enloe, C 2000, Manoeuvres: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Goldstein, J 2001, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Hansen, L 2001, “Gender, Nation, Rape: Bosnia and the Construction of Security”, International Feminist Journal of Politics, Vol. 3, no. 1.
Shaw, M 1988, Dialectics of War, Pluto, London.
Summerfield, P 1984, Women Workers in the Second World War: Production and Patriarchy in Conflict, Croom Helm, London.
Footnotes
1Summerfield, P 1984, Women Workers in the Second World War: Production and Patriarchy in Conflict, Croom Helm, London.
2 Hansen, L 2001, Gender, Nation, Rape: Bosnia and the Construction of Security, International Feminist Journal of Politics, Vol. 3, no. 1.
3 Shaw, M 1988, Dialectics of War, Pluto, London.
4 Caprioli, M 1995, “Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, no. 2.
5Elshtain, J 1996, Women and War, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
6 Enloe, C 2000, Manoeuvres: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives, University of California Press, Berkeley.
7Caprioli, M 1995, “Primed for Violence: The Role of Gender Inequality in Predicting Internal Conflict”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, no. 2.
8 Goldstein, J 2001, War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
9 Carver, T 1995, Gender is not a Synonym for Women, Lynne Rienner, Boulder.