Category: Social Change

Introduction

The term social change is used to refer to a shift in the human aspect of biological development which encompasses; social behavior, community relations, nature, social structure, and social institutions to mention a few. A social change starts with a slight change of thought, then behavior, this will then culminate into deviation from the inherited cultural values and finally a rebellion between the conservatives and reformers of an already established social order. The consequences of a shift from a current social structure may either be beneficial or detrimental to society. This essay will look into the possible social changes in the Iraqi culture and what might have triggered such changes. It will also go further to outline some of the noted effects of the shift and determine whether they were innovative or diffusion.

The culture of the Iraqi people has undergone a series of metamorphic processes over the years; it can be unanimously agreed that most of the resultant effects of these changes have been of little benefit to the Iraqi Community, particularly women and children.

Culture

At the beginning (the 1970s), Iraq was one of the countries with a stable economic status in the entire Middle East, but that was before their human structure and natural resources were shaken to their bare foundation by the war with Iran and the United States. The two wars left the country in a state of socio-economic turmoil, insecurity and not to mention corruption under the then-president dictator Saddam Hussein.

The culture of Iraq is one of the oldest in the world. Iraq is the root of the worlds civilization which later spread into other Asian countries and the West: It has the richest heritage ever recorded in any single country in the world. Iraq is the source of some of the world-class sculptures, poets, and painters; their fine architectural works are evident in the design and construction of the old Mesopotamian buildings showing that their excellent mastery of art dates back to ancient times. The country has never stopped celebrating its great achievements of the pre-Islamic times. Before the modernization of the Iraqi culture, the country was strictly Muslim based, different from the current times where it playing home to a variety of religious groups like Christians, Jews, Assyrians, and many others. It has been a common practice in Iraq to spot a quintessence grouped together to take tea in what they called siesta. The Rites of passage of a child depends on how much the child can read and interpret the Quran.

The Iraqi culture respects old age so much, and it is considered a big disgrace to insult any older person, especially in public&the Arab culture from which the Iraqi derived theirs believe that wrinkles bring wisdom, and more of them one has, the more respect he/she is supposed to get. Divorce cases were very few and the institution of marriage was accorded a lot of respect. And just like in any Muslim-dominated country, the women have been discriminated against and are viewed more so like children than adults. The Iraqi political stability seemed to be reverting back in an attempt to recapture its former status before the United States in collaboration with the British forces succeeded in bringing down Saddams regime and restored the sovereignty of Iraq once more (Ismael, 2007 p.337).

Other practices found in the Iraqi culture are so contrary to what people are used to in the West; these practices have persisted for years on end, and they seem not to be ready to fade in the near future. Some of them include:-Their religious practice which is based on the Islamic culture which honors the five pillars of doctrine practice (charity and alms, prayers, faith, pilgrimage to Mecca, and Fasting), their women are ever in a headscarf and wherever they go, they must be escorted by their male relatives or family friend, Their women should never be touched, or stared at, women great with their fingertips not using the palm of their hands and finally, before initiating any business with an Iraqi man, shake hands first. The hand-shake should neither be too tight nor too meek.

Forces of Change

The infiltration of the pure Iraqi culture by other cultures in the wake of Industrialization marked the rebellion between the die-hard social conservatives and the reformers. The ancient social practices were dealt the last blow by the two aforementioned wars which disinterested the social system a great deal. Apart from the reported disruption of the economic growth, the religious practices also took a completely new direction from the initially Muslim culture&some people converted to Christianity, Buddhism and some even resorted to Paganism, civil society groups also emerged to push for equal rights for women, workers, and other disadvantaged groups. With an economy, which was unable to sustain its population, more cases of malnutrition, infectious diseases, rise ion infant mortality and psychological problems arose. The sanctions that were imposed on the country further aggravated the situation (Ishmael, 2009, p.337-339).

But all said and done, the chief root cause of all these problems began with Dictator Saddam Hussein who through his I dont care attitude did some things that did not in any way reflect the wishes of the Iraqi people. His leadership system of iron-handedness has been greatly criticized by most world leaders; it did very little to promoted democracy to Iraqis. The citizens as well as the international community had to step in and return things to their initial status&this, therefore, became the major cause of the social change.

Effects of Change

The reaction to the change of leadership was very drastic and gave people no time to adjust, the society, therefore, needed to employ some survival tactics which proved to be more diffusive than innovative. Most of the actions that the society engaged ingot to be beneficial only after the political arena had stabilized after the ousting Saddam. A country that had one of the most promising economies was taken down to a point where it was just struggling to survive& what an irony. The Future generation of the state is said to be facing health dangers now and if some drastic corrective measures are not taken, the problem is bound to persist for the next hundreds of years to come, thanks to the Cancer and Leukemia cases which have more than tippled due to the toxic DU gas emitted during the war. (Al-Ali, p.342).

Saddam Hussein refused to be convinced to drop his quest to manufacture Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), leaving the UN with no option but to disarm them and impose sanctions. This was to serve as a stern warning, not to the Iraqi government, but also to those other nations who were brooding with a similar idea. Painful it was, but the step had to be taken. The results of the sanctions were so devastating, especially to the women and children of Iraq who grew up knowing nothing apart from, gunfire, bombs, no schools, soldiers all over, and checkpoints all over their neighborhood. The eventual effect of this was Post Traumatic Stress Depression with literally no single Psychiatrist in Iraq. (Ishmael, 2009, p.344).

The post-war period saw active involvement of women that was only witnessed before Saddams regime and the Sanction period. The women were reported to be one of the most highly educated before the changes were effected. But upon the social shift, the education for women collapsed, families broke, and economically, they became stressed. There was therefore a need to counter these negative effects by diverting into more conservative steps to tackle the emerging challenging social transition. With literally no socioeconomic rights during Saddam, and then the economic sanctions, women were the hardest by the changes. The inclusion of women to participate more actively in the political arena in the post-sanctions era has helped the country achieve most of its development strategies where the challenges, struggles, ideas, resources, and problems are all shared equitably between sexes and everyone is showing a spirit of collective responsibility. This concept has helped in the reconstruction and nation-building of the country that was almost brought to ruins& A heavy presence of women in the political, military and economic struggles has been greatly applauded&Not forgetting the ideological reproduction, family guidance, social continuity, the list is endless. (Nadje, p.742).

Conclusion

As a conclusive remark, going by what this research paper has highlighted, it can be said the social change that the Iraqi people have gone through has been one drastic and rocky one; at one point showing all signs of stability and in the next moment threatened with extinction&to a once strongest economy in the Asian continent to a near collapse. All the human development was brought to a standstill with the negative changes effected by poor governance, but with the current state (economical and political), we are sure of seeing a stable social structure in the country.

Works Cited

Al-Ali Nadje. (2005). Reconstructing Gender: Iraqi Women between Dictatorship, War, Sanctions and Occupation. Third World Quarterly. 26(4/5). Military and Government Collection, EBSCOhost. P.739-758.

Iraqis and the Occupation: Women and Social Change in Iraq. Web.

Ishmael T. Shereen. (2009). Dismantling the Iraqi Social Fabric: From Dictatorship through Sanctions to Occupation. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 35(2). Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. P.333-349.

Ibid&(2007). The Cost of War: The Children of Iraq. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 38(2). Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. P.337-357.

A tragedy of a massive scale that was World War II pushed human civilization into a new era that was marked by several shifts in societal norms. It has changed the way of life for numerous countries as they were left in a chaotic, exhausted state. However, World War II also provided many opportunities to rebuild the existing institutions that would suit the needs of modern society. This essay examines the most common social changes stemming from World War II and the reasons behind their occurrence.

This war has pushed many countries over the edge, leading to major political and societal reforms. During wartime, many people received new knowledge that allowed them to transform their lives afterward (Modell & Haggerty 210). Moreover, it revealed how the differences in societal roles negatively affected the potential of a nation, leading to the reinvention of gender roles and the raised topics of racism and discrimination (Modell & Haggerty 211). But one of the most important factors that stemmed from World War II was the accumulated stress of an entire generation (Modell & Haggerty 213). Social structures began to bend under pressure from this stressed majority who was affected by the war and demanded change.

With multiple catalysts stemming from the inventions of the Industrial era, humans began to rapidly change their social structures to ensure that their countries returned to prosperity in the shortest time possible. The changes in institutions that were necessary during World War II and have proven to be efficient were left untouched during the post-war period (Modell & Haggerty 220). The technologies of production that were created during the war changed to serve during peacetime, accelerating both production and consumption (Kammen 166). Moreover, mass media was able to expand due to the established communication lines, leading to the creation of popular culture (Kammen 51). Technological inventions whose implementation was significantly sped up during the war period contributed to the progress of human society.

The correlation between political views in the United States reveals how and why World War II affected society. During the war, the existence of a strong opposition led to the creation of more unified communities, strengthening patriotic feelings in people and increasing social cohesiveness (Modell & Haggerty 206). However, immediately after World War II, the U.S. government has failed to address numerous issues, such as welfare, urban renewal, tax burdens, and crime rates, which led to the disillusionment by people in conservative values (Smith 501). Smith argues that in the post-World War II period, liberal trends outnumbered conservative trends by over two-to-one (502). Modernization became one of the primary drivers for social change, as the ideals of people became more liberal (Smith 500). Social mobility has increased significantly after World War II (Kammen 258). Individual values became more prominently presented in society, while the notion of authority was challenged by democrats (Kammen 259).

In conclusion, World War II created a perfect opportunity for the society of the Industrial era to reform its social and political structures to become more fit to serve the people. Numerous inventions that occurred during wartime for the purpose of gaining an advantage on a battlefield turned out to be helpful after the war. The accumulation and the spread of knowledge by humanity increased, leading to new opportunities and dogmas that aimed to promote education, rationalism, and critical thinking. Many long-standing societal issues have resurfaced and shaped the course of human civilization for the next decades.

Works Cited

Kammen, M. American culture, American tastes: Social change and the 20th century. Knopf, 1999.

Modell, John, and Timothy Haggerty. The Social Impact of War. Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 17, no. 1, 1991, pp. 205-224.

Smith, T. W. Liberal and conservative trends in the United States since World War II. Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 54, no. 4, 1990, p. 479.

What’s social change?

It’s referring to any major change with time in cultural values, behavior patterns,& norms. Through “Major” change, sociologists mean changes yielding deep social concerns. Cases of major social changes having lasting effects include the feminist movement, the abolition of slavery, and the industrial revolution.

Sociologists’ today willingly readily accepted the important part that social movements play in motivating dissatisfied members of society to talk about social change. Efforts to comprehend the nature of lasting social change, plus looking for patterns and causes has led sociologists to suggest the evolutionary, functionalist, and conflict theories of change. All theories of social change also confess the possibility of opposition to change, especially when people with vested interests feel anxious and endangered by possible changes.

Social Processes lead to Social Change (Discovery, invention, and diffusion.)

Social Process

A process is a sequence of phases that lead slowly to a result. Cultures and societies understanding of social process that result in major changes. They are discovery, invention, and diffusion.

Discovery

Discovery the process by which something is learned or reinterpreted. It effects alteration by causing people to hear different things that might alter their perspectives, or alter their monotonous to improve themselves built off of the new information established through discovery. For instance, when travelers started to explore the ocean, they revealed that the Earth wasn’t flat, but quite round. This lead to new maps being made, as well as new canals and trade-routes emerging due to new exploration under the indication that there was no ‘end of the Earth’ to fall off of.

Invention

Invention the creation of something new from previously existing items or processes. Invention alters society by providing it with new things and thoughts which remain to progress into easier, more resourceful procedures. Let’s say, when the airplane was created, it leads to quicker transportation, and space investigation. Inventions assist as indicators as to how fast a society will alter in arrears to the fact that the mineral creations present, then the more creations can be established from those creations, and so forth.

Diffusion

Diffusion the process by which one culture or society borrows from another culture or society. Diffusion is generally influenced by the communication that one society has with another; the more communication societies have, the easier their cultures will start to blend together. Obviously, a part from single culture has to blend well with the existence and actions of another before its embraced. Diffusion happened within America multiple times, when the English colonists developed new planting and reaping ways from the Native Americans; the Native American’s culture gave the colonists means of survival, and therefore the colonists easily embraced their culture.

Factors influencing social change (Technology, Population, Natural Environment)

Other than the three processes for social change. Sociologists have revealed a couple major forces that lead to alteration.

• Cultural Factors: Our social life depends on our principles, ideas, values, and customs. When there’s an alteration in these, it affects the social life. For example, the associations with the children and parents have endured a huge alteration. The love and need for working has replaced as a cause of huge alteration in family affairs and culture. So, socio-economic and cultural factors act as great and challenging factors of social change.
• Biological Factors: Are those aspects which define the structure, selection and hereditary assets of generations. The human group is always altering. Every different generation is unalike the one before it. It’s different in ideas and in many other ways.
• Socio-economic Factors: Marx said that the whole social structure of a country is determined by economic aspects specifically the resources of manufacture and distribution of substantial means of manufacture and distribution. When there are alterations in the means of production it always alters the social organization.

Defining Collective Behavior and its types (rumors, legends, fads, and fashions)

Collective behavior is speaking of the unplanned actions of people who are reacting to the same circumstances.

What’s meant by collective?

When sociologists use this word, they’re speaking about a big number of people who don’t usually work together and who don’t automatically share norms. Sociologists call such gatherings of people collectivity. Circumstances are external actions that cause a retort. Collective behavior includes impulsive social communication in which loosely connected members affect one another’s behavior.

The learning of collective behavior postures a huge problem. Sociologists are used to learning organized not unintended behavior. How’re researchers going to explore a social phenomenon that happens impulsively? In spite of this effort, sociologists have established captivating theories of collective behavior. It turns out that collective behavior includes more configuration and sensibility than seem on the exterior. Sociologists classify multiple types of collective behavior. In the more controlled forms, like crowds and social movements people have physical interaction. We’ll see those interactions in the next part. In a dispersed collectivity people are scattered. On the other hand, they’re in some way following shared rules or reacting to shared circumstances. Behavior between members of dispersed collectivities isn’t very adapted.

People will usually react to specific info in parallel ways, even when physically divided. Fads, fashions, & rumors are collective behaviors typical of dispersed collectivities.

What’s a Rumor?

Rumor is a scheming story of a truth that’s uncertain. They’re normally spread by people about events or other people. The media abuses the public’s appeal with rumors. Entertainment magazines dedicate themselves solely to singers and actors; newspapers are loaded with assumption. These cases propose that rumors and gossip aren’t that different.

An example of a rumor is when there was a warning that when merging a cola and Mentos which is a mixture that would lead to the stomach to blowup. No rumor is true; even so people still spread it and others believe it partially because they’re close to people’s insecurities.

Urban legends

Linked with rumors are urban legends:- are moralistic tales passed along people who swear those stories happened to someone they know. Instead of fairy tales, legends take place in shopping mall, schools and other efficient places. They usually focus on worries and present distress like in-city gangs. A classic story defines alligators wandering the sewers of cities. As warning tales, they advise us against engaging in dangerous behaviors by saying what allegedly happened to someone that did that before. Resembling rumors, they authorize us to play out some of our worries by being terrified by others behavior.

Fads

A fad is a fashion that gains devotion rapidly in a culture, and stays popular for a short time before losing its appeal. The common popularity of a fad rests mainly on its freshness. Recent fads include tattoos, piercings,& snowboarding.

Fashion

A fashion is behavior pattern that’s commonly accepted but is predicted to change from time to time. Fad is embraced by a specific group; fashion is much more common. Fashion changes show up often in stuffs that include personal look like jewelry, clothing; but, architecture and politics are also issue to fashion. Slang is a verbal created fashion. For example, cool, sick, & rad those are all slang terms that were common between young people of multiple decades.

Mass hysteria and panics

Mass hysteria is common, extreme fear and distress for a risk that goes out to be false or blown out of proportions. Periods of mass hysteria are quite rare. One that is frequently-cited is the “War of the Worlds” period. On October 30, 1938, actor Orson Welles aired a radio version of this famous story by H. G. Wells, which included a Martian attack of Earth. The show portrayed the attack happening in New Jersey, and multiple of viewers allegedly thought that an attack was actually happening. This was periods before the Internet, so they called the police, National Guard, hospitals, and got in touch with friends and family members to share their fears. While the next day newspapers carried many stories of stampedes in heart attacks, suicides, and other strong responses to the radio show, these stories turned out to not true.

Defining crowds and its types

A crowd is well-defined as a reasonably huge number of people in close nearness to each other. The crowd responds at once to a shared concern.

There are four types of crowds that’ll be discussed down below:

• Action crowds are brought together by some mutual purpose. The crowd that partakes in an impulsive burst of joy or hatred, or in a strike demonstration, is in this group.
• Casual crowd, “there is a common external focus of interest but not a common interest”. So when a crowd meets to see a street incident, the people who create the crowd seek just to please their prying. Occasionally such crowds may meet out of pure panic. These crowds have nothing else to achieve. Sometimes such a crowd is also considered as a spectator crowd.
• Conventionalized Crowd: Sometimes people are permitted on specific events to be non-traditional in reverence of specific social norms in order to give release to bottled up emotions. For example, while celebrating ‘holi’, holi-celebrators show in their behavior some of the features of crowd behavior. Crowds of this sort are known as conventionalized crowd.
• Expressive Crowd: Sometimes a group of people show in their behavior all the traits of crowd behavior in order to express their feelings. For example, football supporters show their joy by dancing and singing mottos. Same thing goes for grief & sorrow on an accident or any other incident also show the features of crowd behavior.

Contagion Theory

Contagion usually talks about the extent of a disease from a person to another like contagious. But, Contagion theory is the extent of emotion in crowd or gathering. As emotional strength within the crowd raises people will momentarily lose their personality to the crowd. This gives a chance for a manipultive leader to control crowd behavior.

The root of this theory in Gustave Le Bon work of classic 1885, Gustave was a french aristocrat who hated crowds that were made up of many prople. He thought of the people that participated in the crowds to be reduced to subhuman level.

Another version was offered by Herbert Blumer, an American sociologist have abstracted the collective behavior in a more precise way. He presented the term “milling” and according to him while milling, people become very aware and react to each other freely dodging the outer hassles. A person’s liberated movements are removed through milling which results in showing of nosy and irrational behavioral patterns. So in a crowd the separate behavior of members is joined and they do stuff which they thought difficult. He decided his results with the likelihood of appearance of a new social organization or a social change as the outcome of this extreme collective behavior.

References

1. http://www.hobbsschools.net/common/pages/DisplayFile.aspx?itemId=78624
2. “Sociology.” Social Change Defined, www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/social-change-and-movements/social-change-defined.
3. Boundless. “Boundless Sociology.” Lumen, courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/social-change-and-collective-behavior/.
4. “Crowd Types: 4 Main Types of Crowd.” Sociology Discussion – Discuss Anything About Sociology, 18 June 2016, www.sociologydiscussion.com/social-groups/crowd-types-4-main-types-of-crowd/2814.
5. Group Communication, and Interpersonal Communication. “CONTAGION THEORY.” Communication Theory, 10 July 2014, www.communicationtheory.org/contagion-theory/.
6. STUDY.COM, study.com/academy/lesson/collective-behavior-crowd-types-mobs-riots.html.
7. STUDY.COM, study.com/academy/lesson/collective-behavior-crowd-types-mobs-riots.html.
8. Baratam, Chinaraja. “The Factors Influencing for the Social Change.” LinkedIn SlideShare, 14 Oct. 2015, www.slideshare.net/chinarajabaratam/the-factors-influencing-for-the-social-change.
9. “What Is Mass Hysteria?” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322607#What-is-mass-hysteria?
10. Types of Collective Behavior, 2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociology-comprehensive-edition/s24-01-types-of-collective-behavior.html.

Public administration is “centrally involved with the organization of presidency policies and programmes furthermore because of the behavior of officers (usually non-elected) formally to blame for their conduct.’ Many unelected public servants is thought of to be public directors, as well as heads of town, county, regional, state and federal departments like municipal budget administrators, human resources (H. R) directors, town managers, census managers, state [mental health] administrators, and cupboard secretaries. Public directors are public servants operating publically departments and agencies, the least bit levels of presidency. Public administration in India plays a really necessary role, not solely as AN instrument of governance however, a mechanism for social modification and progress within the country. Public administration these days shouldn’t solely defend its voters from internal and external damages, however take a vigorous role within the social, political, economic, and cultural development of the country.

SOCIAL CHANGE DEFINITION

Social modification refers to any important alteration over time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms. By “significant” alteration, sociologists mean changes yielding profound social consequences. Samples of important social changes having long effects embody the commercial revolution, the termination of slavery, and also the feminism.

SOCIAL CHANGE

1. The structural transformation of political, social, and economic systems and establishments to form an additional evenhanded and simply society
2. Proponents target the underlying causes of vital social issues, like condition, discrimination, and poorness.
3. Whereas a spread of organizing and supporting strategies are utilised, social amendment organizations are characterised by policy, cooperation, persistence, and dedication of their members. (Example: associate degree association of individuals with organic process disabilities operating jointly to handle problems with discrimination by empowering its members to advocate for themselves and jointly difficult service suppliers, government agencies and alternative establishments to make sure equal access and rights for ALL developmentally disabled folks)

Public administration may be a nice helpful force in society. Governments usually amendment, however administration rarely experiences violent changes. It provides a part of continuity between the recent and therefore, the new orders. Public administration isn’t solely a preserver of the civilized life as we all know it these days. however, it’s conjointly the good instrument of social amendment and improvement. In India, the trendy democracy has brought within the conception of the state leading to ever-increasing demands on public administration for additional and additional services. This inevitably suggests that additional of administration than before. In state, the government has undertaken large task of leveling down the economic inequalities, increase a socialist pattern of society free from poorness and starvation, spreading education among all, abolishing untouchability, securing of equality of standing, rights, and opportunities for girls and effecting as all spherical economic and social development. The burden of concluding these tremendous social changes during a planned and orderly method rests upon the public administration of the country. If public fails in these tasks, the dreadful various is violent revolution.

E-Governance

E-Governance (Electronic Governance) is the application of knowledge and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to the processes of state functioning to accomplish straightforward, responsible, speedy, responsive, and clear governance. It’s reworking the prevailing government. It integrates folks, processes, data, and technologies for meeting goals of the government The aspects of public administration that are extremely tormented by E-Governance ar the delivery of services, decision-making, information management, communication, human resources and money management and laws. The Government of Asian country recognized that the target of achieving E-governance goes so much on the far side mere cybernation of standalone back workplace operations. It suggests that basically amendment, however, the government operates and this means a replacement set of responsibilities for the chief, law-makers wings and therefore, the grouping. Government departments having most interaction with the public were known to be used of IT. a number of these are: electricity, water, rural services, sanitation etc. a replacement group-Electronic Governance Group-exists within the Department of knowledge and Technology, Government of India, to accelerate the usage of knowledge technology all told spheres of governance.

Right to Information

The growth of democracy and forms went facet by facet. As democracy unfold, the forms enlarged its functions and therefore, the state became additional powerful than before. thus, the necessity was felt for creating the forms responsible to the folks. Implementing the responsibility of state is predicated on an elementary democratic right to grasp. The Right to information Act was glided by the Indian Parliament, that a came in to force in October. 2005. The thing of the Act is to make sure that every one voter are ready to ask for data that is beneath the management of any public authority. The concept is to allow transparency, responsibility and openness in the government administration.

Concluding remarks

India’s democracy is at the center of governance design. It creates opportunities, sustains leadership and generates hope. Sensible governance being central to the Indian democratic expertise can be seen additional clearly once we check out what’s happening in our a part of the planet. The main shifts in India’s national price system created impact each on the nitty and gritty of administration likewise because the intellectual build of the government officials, the police and therefore, the judiciary. This is often not the occasion to investigate however it came within the method of India’s successes and failures within the social, economic, and political domains. However, whenever there’s a significant shift in the political discourse governance gets affected each in its content and stress.

The major challenge is to place in situ institutional arrangements for service delivery that are practicable during an explicit district and are created to operate during a manner that is intelligible to the local folks which conjointly encourages them to participate. Such establishments would be tuned in to the grouping, and fairly economical within the delivery of public services. The construct and apply of fine governance during a country demands there ought to be constructive mechanisms and procedures which will change the three principal actors — government, market and civil society — to playing united and to supplement every other’s capability. The operating of all governments at the Centre and within the States has clearly discovered the existence of powerful interest teams United Nations agency have a robust unconditional interest in conserving the established order. This comes within the method of state changing into the effective agent of amendment and warranter of social justice. The entrenched power cluster perpetually resists makes an attempt to change the established order which too in favour of underprivileged and poor. The poor are for the most part unorganized and can’t be mobilized simply due to their massive numbers. The leadership at numerous levels placed within the task of hanging a balance between the stress of the powerful interest teams and voiceless poor have seldom gone against the powerful. Women are key to sensible governance. Their increasing illustration in democratic establishments have provided stability to Indian polity. Girls will bring constructive, inventive and property solutions to the table. Girls participation in economic programmes must be increased for in girls we to tend to get expendable suppliers, educators, caretakers and leaders. Scholars likewise as directors agree that participation of civil society in decision-making, public sector capability building and rule of law are essential for quality and timely delivery of services. It is being wide appreciated that sensible governance is dependant not just upon sensible policy advises. however additional significantly on the processes, and incentives to style and implement sensible policies themselves. Dysfunctional and ineffective public establishments are progressively seen to be at the center of the economic development challenge. Misguided resource allocations, excessive government interventions, and widespread corruption has helped in protraction of poorness. The weak establishments of governance build associate degree adverse impact on service delivery. Public administration is “centrally involved with the organization of state policies and programmes likewise because of the behavior of officers (usually non-elected) formally liable for their conduct.’ Many unelected public servants may be thought-about to be public directors, together with head of town, county, regional, state, and federal departments like municipal budget administrators, human resources (H. R) directors, town managers, census managers, state [mental health] administrators, and cupboard secretaries.

Public directors are public servants operating publicly departments and agencies, in the slightest degree levels of state. Public administration in Asian country plays a really vital role, not solely as associate degree instrument of governance however, a mechanism for social amendment and progress within the country. Public administration these days mustn’t solely defend its voters from internal and external damages, however take an energetic role within the social, political, economic, and cultural development of the country.

By looking at concepts such as modernisation and urbanisation which arose from the Industrial Revolution, as well as racism, discrimination and the formation of class structures as studied and documented by Web Dubois, one will be able to conclude that these concepts which arose from European and North American sociology is useful to a large extent when studying social change in Africa, specifically looking at the Zambian Copperbelt and Soweto in South Africa.

We first need to define what sociology is and ask what it is, before we can further unpack the question and analyse how the concepts are useful when studying social change in Africa. The standard and common definition for what sociology is, is the study of society. This is a vague definition so I will be using a definition provided by Nicholas Abercrombie as well as Anthony Giddens to further define what sociology is.

Nicholas Abercrombie defines sociology as “The term has two stems — the Latin socius (companion) and the Greek logos (study of) – and literally means the study of the processes of companionship. In these terms, sociology may be defined as the study of the bases of social membership. More technically, sociology is the analysis of the structure of social relationships as constituted by social interaction, but no definition is entirely satisfactory because of the diversity of perspectives which is characteristic of the modem discipline.” (Abercrombie, Nicholas, 2004).

Anthony Giddens then goes on to define what sociology is by saying, “A social science having its main focus on the study of the social institutions brought into being by the industrial transformations of the past two or three centuries. It involves a historical, anthropological and a critical sensitivity.” (Giddens, Anthony, 1986).

We can clearly deduce now by the definitions listed above that sociology is more than just “the study of society”. Sociology is the study of society over notable periods of time where vital human advancements and vital world changes had taken places such as various revolutions with the most notable being the Industrial revolution. By looking at how the Industrial Revolution impacted and affected Britain at that time, we can compare some of the concepts that arose out it such as urbanisation and modernisation, to some of the social revolutions that took place in Africa, specifically the looking at the change on the Zambian Copperbelt which sparked a revolution in Zambia.

The origins of Sociology dates back to times of tremendous social change and transformation. The concept of Sociology could be seen as a result of two major evolutions which had occurred in Europe, The French revolution on 1789 and the Industrial Revolution. (Plummer, John Macionis and Ken, 2012, p. 17). Along with the revolutions came a few notable and social changing effects: a change in the means of labour with most labour now moving from manual labour towards factory based and machine operated labour , the idea of urbanisation as people now left their towns and countryside to seek employment in recently opened factories in the industrial cities, and the growth of a new economy based around capitalism (Plummer, John Macionis and Ken, 2012).

Although the revolutions in Europe brought a lot of positives and new ideas, it also had just as many negative side effects. The drastic change in the means of production left many unemployed and contributed towards extreme poverty. With the growth of capitalism and of factories in the industrial cities, many people flocked to the cities to now find employment. These people subsequently abandoned their homes in the villages and countryside for homes on the cities. Not everybody was able to secure a home in the city due to the limited housing available and this resulted in overpopulation in the cities with many left homeless. This opened the floodgates for a variety of different social issues such as spread of disease, pollution and crime to arise (Plummer, John Macionis and Ken, 2012). As a result of the growth of capitalism, different social classes began to form. Wealthy business owners, now began to exploit their workers in an effort to maximise their profits. To better understand the difference in race and class, we can shift our focus to North America and the work of Web DuBois to further help us understand the certain concepts of class, race and urbanisation.

A pioneer in studying sociology in North America is Web Du Bois. Du Bois was born in a racially-integrated and tolerant town in Massachusetts and attended an integrated school. He studied in Berlin and Harvard, where he was the first African-American to complete a PhD in 1895. He published many pieces and most of his work covered information and studies on the ‘Negro’ population in the city of Philadelphia. (Seekings, Jeremy, 2019)

Du Bois helps us understand the racial segregation between African-Americans and White Americans and mentality which African-Americans in the United States had during the early 20th century. He states in The Colored World Within, “The American Negro, therefore, is surrounded and conditioned by the concept which he has of white people and he is treated in accordance with the concept they have of him.” (Du Bois, Web , 1940). This quote provides us with some insight as to the mentality African-Americans had stating that it’s almost as if African-American are brainwashed into believing that all whites are bad people and whatever they hear in the church, school or at gatherings, have been indoctrinated into them and leads them to believing that it is the complete truth. It also states that they are treated by white Americans with discrimination, misconceptions and unjust practices which dates back to slavery.

Du Bois does also argue that the all the delinquent actions which African-Americans do, does have a remedial cause and relates that back to slavery. Slavery had put African-Americans in the financial and social situations for them years down the line to resort to crime and delinquency to escape the poverty-stricken life which was bestowed upon them as a result of nearly two centuries of slavery. He then also goes on to explain how it’s indoctrinated into the brains of the African American population to think and believe that they are inferior to their white counterparts (Du Bois, Web , 1940).

Du Bois summarises the financial circumstances and class of African-Americans perfectly when he stated, “Above all, the Negro is poor: poor by heritage from two hundred and fourty-four years of chattel slavery, by emancipation without land or capital and by seventy-five years of additional wage exploitation and crime peonage.” (Du Bois, Web , 1940). Since slavery had come into existence, African-Americans had been discriminated against. There was always a significant wage gap between African-Americans and whites. Also, basic city services such as water, sewerage, schools and hospitalisation were always neglected (Du Bois, Web , 1940).

Du Bois on the other hand, described the class structure of the white Americans as majority of them being middle and upper class with a very few being lower class. He also goes on to say that the reason they are in the upper and middle class is for various reasons such as them benefitting from slavery and migrating from the South to the North where there were more jobs readily available and reserved for them (Du Bois, Web , 1940). We can find the information and studies of Du Bois useful when comparing it to the rise of modernity and class structures in Africans countries, mainly in Zambia and South Africa.

In the late 1920s, Northern Rhodesia (now known as Zambia) underwent an immense industrial development as a result of large-scale copper mines being setup up which in effect, transformed the country (Ferguson, James, 1999). One could say this was similar to the Industrial revolution which took place in Britain as both resulted in an economic boom with it making Zambia then one of the richest and most promising African states.

Similarly, to the Industrial Revolution, modernisation and urbanisation took place at a rapid pace. Shortly after the establishment of the Copperbelt, mining towns were setup along it. This attracted European Colonists to settle and try and capitalise on the financial opportunity it brought, as well as attracting locals and natives in search of employment (Ferguson, James, 1999). Robert Bates made the claim that on the exact land and premises where the copper mines are built, if one looks back 50 years ago, the land just consisted of forests. But now stands multiple highly profitable mines, making Zambia one of the world’s leading exporters of copper (Bates, Robert, 1976).

Zambia in 1969 had one of the highest GDP per capita in Africa and even a higher GDP than certain countries such as Brazil and Turkey at the time. (World Bank 1979, 126). However, somewhere along the lines, the “African Industrial revolution” had lost its footing which resulted in nearly two decades of economic decline. Thus, resulting in Zambia’s GDP per capita drastically dropping (Ferguson, James, 1999). Many former Copperbelt workers were now left unemployed and forced to return “home”. For many Zambians, the concept of migration, was a matter of leaving the city where there had previously been work and returning back home to their various villages. This process was coined “returned migration” (Ferguson, James, 1999, p. 82). On returning back “home”, various workers class or social status would have changed. Previously employed workers who previously would’ve classed themselves as middle class would now class themselves as lower class. As a result of colonisation in Africa, white settlers were seen to be the “elite” in the eyes of Africans. This resulted in the formation of status and class groups amongst Africans as mentioned above (Magubane, Bernard, 1971). We can use the recurring concept of class as mentioned in Europe and North America to understand social change in Africa. By looking at the concept of class, we can find similarities between the class status of Zambians and Sowetans in South Africa.

A defining feature when discussing class amongst the locals in Soweto is that of affordability and this is defined as, the ability to consume and maintain a certain lifestyle. The main factor which determines which class you fit into is your financial circumstances, as one would expect (Mosa Phadi and Claire Ceruti, 2013). Based on various studies and surveys conducted by Mosa Phadi and Claire Ceruti, a four-class model availed itself when Sowetans were asked to identify which class they fit in. The classes which came up were: Lower, middle, upper and working class. (Mosa Phadi and Claire Ceruti, 2013)

The key feature of the lower class is deprivation and is linked to poverty. It can be summed up as, there are many things people in this class want to have, but cannot afford it. A recurring problem in this class in unemployment. The defining feature of the upper class is the word ‘everything’ which means that they have everything and have the ability to buy everything whenever they want. The middle class has the feature of affordability and can be described as ‘neither rich nor poor’. Occupants of the middle class range from shack dwellers to successful businesswoman. The working class is defined as anybody who is employed and has debt that is possible only as a result from a normal salary. Majority of the people surveyed and interviewed classed themselves as either middle or working class. (Mosa Phadi and Claire Ceruti, 2013)

We can therefore conclude that it is in fact useful to use European and North American Sociology and the concepts that arose out of it, to better understand social change in Africa. The concept of urbanisation and modernisation applies to both Britain and Zambia with both nations experiencing tremendous amounts of change with many workers leaving the countryside’s and villages to seek employment in cities. The concept of class as mention by Du Bois can be compared to how Sowetans now class themselves. The African-American population and the South African population both have a common trait of slavery and discrimination based on race, which had led them to being placed in such low-class status.

Bibliography

1. Abercrombie, Nicholas, 2004. Sociology: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Polity Press.
2. Bates, Robert, 1976. Rural Responses to Industrialization : A Study of Village Zambia. New Haven: Yale University Press.
3. Du Bois, Web , 1940. The Colored World Within. In: Dusk of Dawn. New York: Harcourt Brace, p. 681.
4. Ferguson, James, 1999. Myths and meanings of urban life on the Zambian Copperbelt. In: Expectations of Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 1-6, 24-37, 82-93, 110-119.
5. Giddens, Anthony, 1986. Sociology: A Brief but Critical Introduction. 2nd ed. Hampshire: Macmillan Education UK.
6. Magubane, Bernard, 1971. A Critical Look at Indices Used in the Study of Social Change in Colonial Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
7. Mosa Phadi and Claire Ceruti, 2013. Models, labels and affordability. In: Class in Soweto. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, pp. 142-163.
8. Plummer, John Macionis and Ken, 2012. Change, transformation and sociology. In: Sociology: A Global Introduction. New York: Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 17.
9. Seekings, Jeremy, 2019. Du Bois: Race and Modernity – Lecture slides. Cape Town: s.n.

Society is complex and at times difficult to understand given how vastly its functionality varies over time. It can, therefore, be useful to look at past sociological theories to understand the social change that we witness during different periods. Within this essay, I will be looking at aspects of both modernity and postmodernity to understand what social changes shaped the generation of these theories and how they interact and differ from one another. To give some context, Modernity began following the enlightenment in the mid-1800s which was characterised by religious faith and a lack of scientific knowledge. Modernity offered a move towards logical thought and trust in institutions and science for answers. Postmodernity followed on from modernity and is much more critical in thought which resulted in a more fluid society and a pluralist approach rather than that offered by the meta-narratives of modernity. Both theories will be explored in this essay with an emphasis on modernity’s trust and belief in institutions followed by an analysis of the use of meta-narratives which are characteristic of modernity compared to the scepticism and plurality of postmodernity.

Modernity has several key theorists, one of which who will be discussed in this essay is Durkheim. Durkheim (1984), believed that institutions and the social norms that are formed by them are what holds society together which help us to understand how we develop our values. However, Habermas (1981) saw that the modernisation of society resulted in a lack of cultural development, this is due to the lack of freedom and overenforcement of structure that was brought about during this era of modernisation. This is seen in the deskilling of workers as a result of Taylorism, which was a major aspect of modernity given the move to efficiency and scientific-based practices which Bahnisch (2000) believed resulted in highly regulated work and relatively decreased overall skill levels of workers. By removing any ability to think for ourselves we inevitably become reliant on institutions to tell us how we should think about matters. This was symptomatic of modernity as many institutions sprang up which aimed to govern the validity of three main areas: science, morality and art. However, questions can be asked of the validity of these governing bodies as well, for example, who is to say those in charge are not corrupt? This is what postmodernity comes to question in the future, however, modernity fell into a trap of trusting institutions without question. This shows that Durkheim’s belief that institutions would help to shape and hold society together was, in fact, correct however did not act as a positive influence and rather acted as a way of ensuring that society of this time became slaves to modernisation and may have inhibited the level of personal and cultural growth that society could experience.

Following on from modernity, postmodernity grew and with it one of Postmodernity’s influential theorist Lyotard. In contrast to Durkheim, Lyotard (1985) was sceptical of believing in institutions to give us information as he believed that information could be used as a form of power. This means that those who are viewed as being knowledgeable tend to hold a large amount of power which may become a way to control individuals and aspects of society. This would only occur if those in power are not adequately questioned on why we should believe them. A simple example of this can be seen today still with the common belief that breakfast is the most important meal of the day despite research such as that by Betts et al. (2014) which suggests that there is no evidence for this. An article by Oksman (2016) indicates that the marketing strategies used by breakfast brands resulted in this belief. Breakfast companies funded research in the area which resulted in spread and belief of biased results. This shows the ability that those in power have to generate false narratives which may be used in a way that is beneficial to their cause, in this example it may not seem particularly sinister however when we look to those with more power, such as those in science and politics, we can see why this power and knowledge relationship which is linked to institutional trust was a cause for concern for Lyotard.

We can also begin to understand social change by looking at the way in which both theories handled analysis of society. Laclau (1989) believes that both theories have not done a particularly great job of providing answers to societal problems, however, suggests that modernity comes the closest to trying to provide answers through the use of meta-narratives which aim to bring together aspects of society to create a concise understanding of how everything interacts within it. Durkheim (1984) believed in a functionalist society, this means that he believed that everyone and everything has a role to play whether good or bad, which shapes society as a result. On the other hand, we have the postmodern approach which views society in a plural way, this means that different aspects of society are seen as happening at the same time however this doesn’t necessarily mean that they are interconnected in the way that meta-narratives believe they are. As a result, theorists of this time such as Lyotard are more inclined to critique individual aspects of society rather than try to give concrete explanations of how everything is connected.

Part of the reason for the switch from meta-narratives to a more plural approach may be as a result of a gradually more progressive way of thinking which stems from societal change. This began within society from enlightenment and its trust in religion, moving to modernity which trusts in science and institutions which was finally followed by a move to postmodernity which employs reflexivity in its dealings with institutions, Heiskala (2011). This shows a clear progression towards more logical thought. However, postmodernity has still not quite reached the right balance between trust and scepticism. Postmodernity has had a positive impact for culturally important movements such as the gay rights movement which occurred as a result of a more open society; however, this openness has allowed some extreme views to become widely accepted as a result of the plurality of opinion. Kata (2010) suggests the creation of the anti-vaccination movement was based around aspects of postmodern thought. This is due to unwarranted misuse of scepticism towards science which is used to argue against the vaccination of children. They are a great example of how misinformed use of postmodernity’s scepticism of fact may cause issues within society, this can be seen as rather than looking at the evidence and critically evaluating it they have moved straight to distrust at the detriment of public health. This shows that despite positive social change occurring modernity’s approach to trust may have been more beneficial in certain aspects as fact wasn’t as fiercely questioned however without postmodernity’s fluidity of thought and questioning of fact when appropriate, we may not have experienced as many positive social changes.

To conclude, modernity and postmodernity have helped us to understand social change. Modernity helps us to understand the thinking of sociologists that existed during the time such as Durkheim. Durkheim saw the social change that was occurring during modernity and his thoughts reflect this as he believed that functionality was the best way to describe the society of the time. Further, Modernity’s trust towards science and institution came as a result of enlightenment with theorists looking to science in an attempt to understand society which then resulted in the formation of meta-narratives that attempted to take all aspects of society and package them in a way that allows us to understand how everything is interconnected. Theorists such as Lyotard, on the other hand, help us to understand the shift that came as a result of this extreme trust and the meta-narratives which failed to offer a solution to societal problems. Lyotard asked that society be more sceptical of that which they trust and to further develop that level of critical thinking which emerged along with the progression of science. He asked that we use our understanding of the world to be more critical and sceptical to prevent blind following of those who seem knowledgeable. Overall modernity and postmodernity do a good job at helping us to understand social change within the eras that they occurred. This can be seen through the movement from blind acceptance to over scepticism that came as society tried to achieve the right balance between these two areas and the issues that came about as a result.

References

1. Bahnisch, M., 2000. Embodied Work, Divided Labour: Subjectivity and the Scientific Management of the Body in Frederick W. Taylor’s 1907 `Lecture on Management’. Body & Society, 6(1), pp.51–68.
2. Betts, J.A., Richardson, J.D., Chowdhury, E.A., Holman, G.D., Tsintzas, K. and Thompson, D., 2014. The causal role of breakfast in energy balance and health: a randomized controlled trial in lean adults. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 100(2), pp.539-547.
3. Durkheim, E., 1984. The division of labour in society, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
4. Habermas, J. et al., 1981. Modernity versus Postmodernity. New German Critique, 22, pp.3–14.
5. Heiskala, R., 2011. From modernity through postmodernity to reflexive modernization. Did we learn anything? International review of sociology, 21(1), pp.3–19.
6. Kata, A., 2010. A postmodern Pandora’s box: Anti-vaccination misinformation on the Internet. Vaccine, 28(7), pp.1709–1716.
7. Laclau, E., 1989. Politics and the Limits of Modernity. Social Text, pp.63-82.
8. Lyotard, J.-F., 1985. The postmodern condition : a report on knowledge, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
9. Oksman, O., 2016. ‘How lobbyists made breakfast the most important meal of the day’, The Guardian, 28 November. Available at : https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/nov/28/breakfast-health-america-kellog-food-lifestyle (Accessed : 27 February 2020)

The only constant thing in every society is change. Henry Pratt Fairchild, an American sociologist defined social change as “variations and modifications in any aspects of social process, pattern and form”. Throughout history, civilizations have been subjected to numerous social changes be it on a small scale or a larger one, short and long term, peaceful or violent, from within and from external factors. Habits have changed, the communication system has changed, the culture and the way people interact with each other. These social changes have triggered drastic changes on the education system and education policies around the world.

Education and social changes are closely interrelated. According to Prof. Vidya Ratna Taneja M.A (London), “Education and social change is a two way traffic. While education preserves, transmits and disseminates the whole culture, social change is the instrument and precondition of educational thought” (Educational thought and practice 1990, p306)

In this paper, we shall address, the impact of two major social changes which by themselves have had a significative impact on education notably technology and gender equality.

Technological factors

At the core, the educational system has remained undisturbed. In spite of the fact that technology dominates mostly every aspects of life and students can now tap into a vast universe of sources, still, we can hardly imagine the class without a teacher or students without their books. But technology is bringing up revolutionary changes in the domain of education. In an article published on the Cambridge assessment site, cited by one Mr.Simon Lebus, an ex-Cambridge assessment Chief Executive titled: “Learning without teachers: it couldn’t happen, couldn’t it?”, where he made the following observation “it is clear to us that technology provides a space for different approaches to learning. There is scope to use it, to take on some of the more routine elements of education, so teachers can concentrate on going beyond the curriculum or focus on areas where students are having difficulty. The technology brings with it too some exciting pedagogical possibilities; the capacity to monitor and analyze how people learn, what they find easy and difficult and tailor lesson accordingly”.

Technology has changed learning to such an extent that with the outbreak of the Covid 19 pandemic crisis, thanks to the internet, students were not left on the sideline but teachers have been able to support students through online classes. “Cyberschooling” has enabled children as well as teachers to work comfortably from their home. This kind of technology has pulled down geographical barriers and has paved the way to a greater accessibility. In an article published by the Unicef titled: “Thank you teacher” children around the world expressed their gratitudes to teachers for helping them to keep learning before, during and after Covid 19 school closures.

Governments throughout the world are ensuring continuity in learning during the time of school closures. They are requiring teachers to use ICT to deliver lessons. In Mauritius , the government has amended the Educational act: The Vice-Prime Minister, Minister of Education, Tertiary Education, Science and Technology, Mrs Leela Devi Dookun-Luchoomun, referring to the amendments being brought to the Education Act in the COVID-19 Act, in which it is stipulated that “they will provide for distance education during temporary closure of educational institutions as well as make provisions for staffs of educational institutions to produce and conduct, distance education and online learning programmes, including broadcast lessons”, as reported by News, May 2020.

Digitised classroom

The Sankoré Project was an initiative to digitise Standard IV classrooms where “the teacher and pupils worked on an interactive lesson”, Mauritius Business, May 31, 2011. Thanks to the French government who donated the various equipment (interactive digital projectors, laptops) and who contributed a lot in order that the project could stand. Now present in every Mauritian primary institutions, “Mauritius has laid the foundation for a digital culture with the support of the Mauritius Institute of Education (MIE) which is responsible for the elaboration and digitisation of educational contents. The MIE also offers training to teachers on the use the ICT tools to enhance teaching and learning.”(News, September 2013)

In year 2018 there has been a real breakthrough with the launching of smart classes for lower grades in primary schools. Pupils in lower primary are now equipped with tablets, smart board and projectors. According to the government, as mentioned in News on Sunday, January 2018, with this project, they are aiming at creating a “nation of innovators” and “technology creators”. “In Mauritius, teaching and learning restricted to classroom sessions prominent with white chalk, dusters and blackboards will belong to the past. Now, we are entering an era of smart classrooms for young learners, which will make learning fun through the use of digital equipment like the tablets and a projector”.

Gender equality

There was a time when girls, be it because poverty, by fear or culture, could not have access to education and were coerced into quitting at a very young age and forced into taking responsibilities at home or getting married. But as time passed, there have been protest voices and an all out war against such a practice by powerful lobbies seeking justice and gender equality in education.

“Gender equality in education is a basic human right – it is also essential to achieving sustainable development. In our increasingly globalized world, the societies that succeed best will be those which guarantee women and girls equal access to education, thereby giving them the skills and the opportunities to develop their talents and interests, so they can contribute to building stronger and more resilient communities.” Irina Bokova, Director-General of Unesco.

In most countries perceptions have changed about women and lots are being done to achieve gender equality in classrooms though many countries are still lagging behind in bridging the gender gap. Recent studies have shown that women are far more literate today than at any point in history and that they are performing just as well as their male counterpart and are more likely to go to university.

Most societies today have acknowledged that promoting girl’s education benefits the community as a whole because educated girls turns out to become the empowered, educated, skilled and self confident women of tomorrow who will take leadership roles within the community and contribute to a healthy society.

“A gender-equal society would be one where the word ‘gender’ does not exist: where everyone can be themselves”- Gloria Steinem, writer, lecturer, political activist and feminist organizer. Practically, in the classroom everything is done to avoid gender stereotyping, for example children are not grouped according to their gender. Every school now are very well equipped with books, toys and other pedagogical instruments to cater for everyone in the class. Children are allowed to pick whatever toys they want without putting restrictions in relation to what they can play with.

On Malala’s Day (12 July 2013), the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education urged governments worldwide to do their part: “Malala’s example inspires untold numbers of mothers and daughters to face down intimidation and fear, and to demand from their local governments what is their most basic right – an education”. Changes brought to education by social changes are very important for every society to grow because social change brings awareness in children hence, gearing them up to face the future and new challenges ahead.

Mental health tends to be treated quite differently from physical health due to people’s attitudes that mentally ill persons are violent. Mental health problems usually happen in a psychosocial context, and this implies that social factors have a significant role in the management of mental illnesses. Nurse practitioners (NPs) have a responsibility of ensuring that individuals with psychiatric mental health disorders have received adequate assistance to avoid stigma and discrimination. Angermeyer, Matschinger and Schomerus (2013) asserted that the perception that people have towards schizophrenia, as well as other mental disorders, has become a public concern, which should be considered by future anti-stigma campaigns.

Generally, NPs are involved in numerous services within healthcare, such as health promotion, diagnosis of acute and complex health problems, disease prevention, as well as counseling individuals, families, and communities. According to Chilton (2015), NPs are capable of treating patients with unique needs, in addition to advocating for healthcare policy that have a significant impact on patients.

Although several campaigns have been done to change people’s attitudes on mental illnesses, society is still apprehensive of people who suffer from mental illnesses, and culture may be blamed for this suspicion. Culture is essential in bringing people together, but it creates human variations, which make people to perceive mental health illnesses in a different way (Jenkins, 2012). Consequently, NPs should intervene by educating the community on how to accept individuals with mental illnesses and assisting them to seek medical assistance in their localities.

As an NP, I can contribute to social change by being an advocate in educating the community on how to handle people with mental health disorders by viewing them as physically challenged, rather than criminals or violent persons. Mental illnesses should be recognized as physical health issues in order to encourage individuals with mental health illnesses to seek treatment, as well as other forms of assistance (Bennett, 2015). My responsibility is to convince community leaders to offer favorable environments that can promote healthy behaviors, such as organizing local tournaments where young people can interact through sports.

Collaboration of NPs with community partners can assist in meeting the individualized needs for patients with mental illnesses. As an agent of social change, I am willing to work with other healthcare professionals to offer health services within the community and ensure that individuals with mental illnesses are accepted as other ordinary people in the community. The social stigma that individuals with mental challenges experience result from the lack of understanding the conditions they are in, as well as lacking someone to share their experiences (Bennett, 2015). Talking to the mentally ill individuals can help in fulfilling their aspirations and discovering their strengths.

Since NPs are charged with the responsibility of prescribing medication to all types of illnesses, they can contribute to social change by offering pharmacological therapy to the mentally ill patients, so that they can be relieved caregivers the burden of taking care of such individuals. Most caregivers and primary care providers lack sufficient training to handle individuals with mental illnesses; hence, the promotion of mental well-being by NPs through medication counseling can help in promoting social change in community-based settings (Kverno, 2016). My role in this context is to identify individuals who have failed to recover through counseling and involve them in the treatment plan that would enhance their recovery.

Introduction

No one can step into the same river twice,because everything in the world is in perpetual motion which helps the universe to be made up.Our society is an organic and complex synthetic,facing inevitable change and it is influenced by culture,politics,economics,technologies and other aspects with time.Social change has been defined in different theoretical orientations and concisely can be viewed as the changes in the social mechanisms,which can be embodied as the alteration of cultural symbols,rules of conduct,social organizations or value systems(Giddens, 2013, p. 111).Two of the most important aspects of social changes are specified to the change of social structure and the change of social relationship.Also,it cannot be denied that technology has played a significant role in social change.Social revolutions are tied together with technology,rather than technological tools,the original cause is that technology has changed the way people work and think.

How technology changes societies

The social system is an open system that exchanges material,energy and information with the outside world all the time. Meanwhile,it adjusts its original institutions to adapt to the new environment,and then social changes have formed. In the primitive society,the low-level productivity was just to meet the need for survival of human beings. During that time ,strictly,people did not have the concept of technology(Giddens, 2013, p. 124). The development of technology has promoted social change.

It was the germination of science and technology that had made mankind step into the pre-modern society:people created stone tools, discovered fires,created words,and thus promoted social change. According to Harris(1978, cited in Giddens, 2013, p. 129), a famous anthropologist,pre-modern society can be divided into four main types:hunting and gathering societies,agrarian societies,pastoral societies and traditional societies or civilization. The technological inventions of the Stone Age made hunting and fishing possible for human beings;and the creation of the plow brought the second social revolution and helped people have more stable food sources,at that time agricultural society was born.

Artificial fires made people bid farewell to the darkness and expanded the capacity of time and space;historical record and dissemination of knowledge derived from the invitation of writing;the creation of the compass promoted the development of the maritime industry and promoted the process of trade. The emergence of machines based on inanimate power resources (such as steam and electricity) ushered in industrial society. Mechanized production replaced traditional manual manufacturing and freed labor force,subverting the way society was organized,leading the collapse of traditional and feudal societies and the emergence of capitalism(Giddens, 2013, pp. 119-123).

Marked by the invention of microchips,modern technologies,including internet computer nuclear technology and new energy technology,have greatly improved the level of world productivity and completely subverted the mode of human production and the way of interaction between people,and strengthened the intelligent industry which speeded up the process of social change and brought globalization(Giddens, 2013, p. 127).In primitive society, people paid much attention to the division of labor and cooperation, and they were far away from war. There was almost no inequality in power and wealth.

When it came to horticultural and pastoral societies, people relied on farming and raising livestock. Governed by the chiefs or kings,the population of society began to grow and social stratification appeared. In non-industrial civilized society, word and printing were used widely,the development of art and science becoming unprecedented prosperity. Ruled by a king or an emperor,the balance of wealth and power suffering a huge tilt(Raiu, 2011, p. 393).

Generally,in the history of mankind, technological innovation has played a decisive role in social change. If these tools had never been invented,people might have lived on hunting and gathering. Technology has not only become an internal independent factor in the modern productivity system, but also become a decisive factor and become the driving force behind the development of modern productive forces. The development of science and technology,through the transformation of productivity as an intermediary,and through the profound impact on the socio-economic structure, ultimately led to changes in the entire society.

The effects of technology on social change

The development of technology helped people put down the plow, left the farmland, and stepped into the industrial society. Originated in Europe,modern technology lead the emergence of industrialization,without which,people might continue to rely on inefficient traditional handicrafts(Tomory, 2016, p. 160). As Economic historian David(2003, cited in Giddens, 2013, p. 119) suggests, modern technology not only helps people to make more products,but also creates objects that were never produced by hand in any way. Industrialization broke up the feudal society and gave birth to a new economic operating model called capitalism, of which power and wealth were monopolized by capitalists. In modern society,the impact of technology on social change is becoming more and more direct and significant. Represented by computers,the third technological revolution has completely changed all aspects of people’s lives as well as determining the political and military economy of a country,having accelerated the recovery and development after the Second World War.

However,the acceptance of industrialization and the gap in technology have made great differences in the development of different countries. For example,the technology varies greatly across European countries and the differences are in expansion,which has brought about a significant gap in labor productivity(Filippetti & Peyrache, 2015, p. 533).

Over the long process of human history, technology is one of the cores of social change, but as we can witness ,the inequality of wealth,power and resources brought by the development of technology can never be ignored.

Technology and globalization

There are many ways to connect with the external world,whether at home or at work in a society with highly developed telecommunications infrastructure,such as telephone,digital television,satellite television,email and Internet. Including the popularity of information technology,these technologies promote the compression of time and space,which has helped worldwide instant messaging become a reality(Giddens, 2013, p. 127). The way people communicate has changed,if they want to chat with their families or friends across the Atlantic what they have to do is just turning on their smartphone.

Aqueil(2014)points out that the emergence of globalization is the result of the global economy which benefits from trade and technology. The booming development of information and communication technologies has promoted globalization. However for less-developed countries, the unequal distribution of economies and sources has been aggravated by the information gap.

Technological Pessimism

From the perspective of techno-pessimists,the development of technology has triggered the disappearance of species,the lack of resources,the explosion of population,the nuclear terrorism,and the polarization of the rich and the poor ,threatening the survival of mankind.

Jeremy(1996) redefined a second law of thermodynamics from a philosophical perspective and argued that the process of human civilization is actually a way to continuous decline. The enormous energy consumption of modern industrial society has brought great confusion to the world. The faster the social development is, the more the energy is consumed,which has increased the degree of environmental chaos, so ‘the world is always falling'(Rifkin, 1996, p. 18).Rifkin(2010) also points out that for the Millennial Generation, the convenience of internet helped them communicate in an international social networking ,but their dependence on technological connectivity might lead to the collapse of the expressive skills for the young(Rifkin, 2010, p. 30).

Dennis(2004)makes a similar point:If the consumption of population,food,industrial pollution and resource will increase as the current trend, population grows exponentially, which leads to the collapse of the whole society(Dennis, 2004, p. 367).

The development of technology is providing convenience to people,but at the same time,it is increasing the consumption of resources, making people more dependent on technology.

Technology affects the changes of social relationship and structure

The development of technology has brought about great changes, not only the transformation of the relationship between human beings and nature, but also changing the way people interact with each other. Represented by computers and the Internet,modern technology has established a direct channel which helps people to communicate and feedback their information.

American computer scientist Paul(2018)uses the conception of ‘common symbiosis’of biology to describe a new relationship between human beings and technology. He emphasizes that the computer is an important ‘community partner’ in human society,in which the relationship between people and machines becomes an indispensable condition in social life. Furthermore,human beings and networks form a new relationship ‘group symbiosis’ in this social ecosystem.In the future,with the development of computer technology, people can experience social life with computers that can simulate human emotions and activities(Paul, 2018, p. 45).

This means computers and networks will become a unique species in human society that can establish symbiotic relationships with people and influence the social relationships of people in reality,which is amazing but also scary:the machine has human emotions of human beings,but the machine is always just a machine.

Phillip and Karim Gherab(2012) point out that since the middle of the 20th century, the development of the modern scientific and technological revolution has made the integration of science, technology and production an irreversible trend(Phillip & Karim, 2012, p. 260).

In this sense, technology has became an independent element of the modern productive system.On the basis of transforming productivity, technology has changed the social division of labor and further changed the industrial structure,occupational structure and social stratum structure of the society, thus causing changes in the entire social structure.

Conclusion

From individuals to countries, the available resources are enriched,and communicative mode has become more and more diversified,technology having been the engine to drive the change of society including the revolution from primitive society to information society,the appearance of industrialization capitalism and globalization. The impact on society from technology is largely determined by economic factors,but it also extends beyond the economic field. Technology affects politics and culture and itself is affected by both also. Although modern society is only a small part of human history, it has undergone rapid and major changes due to the promotion of technology.The development of technology has brought about the changes in social structure and social relations.But technology has also brought excessive consumption of energy, and even environmental problems,and it also increased inequality between developed countries and undeveloped countries.

References

1. Ahmad, A. (2014). Globalization of Science and Technology through Research and Development. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 2, 283-287. doi: 10.4236/jss.2014.24031
2. Giddens, A. (2013). Globalization and Social Change. In W. Philip (Ed.). Sociology(7th ed., pp. 108-151). Cambridge:Polity Press.
3. Donella, M. (2004). The limits to growth : the 30-year update. Chelsea Green Publishing Company.
4. Edmore, M. (2012). The impact of technology on social change: a sociological perspective. Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development, 2(11), 226-238.
5. Filippetti, A. and Peyrache, A. (2015). Labour Productivity and Technology Gap in European Regions: A Conditional Frontier Approach. Regional Studies, 49(4), 532–554. doi: 10.1080/00343404.2013.799768
6. Judy,W. (2008). Life in the fast lane? Towards a sociology of technology and time. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(1), 59-77.
7. Paul, A. (2018). Internet of Things – Will Humans be Replaced or Augmented?. Marketing Intelligence Review, 10(2), 42-47.doi: https://doi.org/10.2478/gfkmir-2018-0017
8. Phillip, K. and Karim, G. (2012). Technology, Culture, and Society. Emerging Digital Spaces in Contemporary Society(pp.254-276). Palgrave Macmillan Limited.
9. Rifkin, J. (1996). A New Social Contract. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 544(3), 16-26. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.sheffield.idm.oclc.org/stable/1047960
10. Rifkin, J. (2010). Are Millennials Cursed?. In These Times, 34(2), 30-31.
11. Raiu, S. (2011). Structure and function in primitive society. Revista Romana de Sociologie, 22(3), 392-395.
12. Tomory, L. (2016). Technology in the British Industrial Revolution. History Compass, 14(4), 152–167. doi: 10.1111/hic3.12306

Art for Social Change

Today we are dwelling in a society where life is rapidly dropping its meaning, not for everyone however at least for the over whelming majority. For most of the human beings life has come to be nothing but stupid drudgery, a monotonous routine, automatic nearly robot like repetition of tasks day in and day out.

Everything which we do today, from the consumption meals to our amusement and even worship has been grew to become into a capability of profit for the corporations. In ancient cultures the times of consumption of food i-e breakfast, lunch and dinner have been viewed as moments of meditation and reflection. It used to be a time for families to come and sit down together, say grace or supplicate to the Lord to thank Him for His blessings. But in today`s society the profundity of it all has been converted into notions of fun, pleasure and enjoyment. Fast food businesses have correctly been in a position to connect labels of thrill, journey and even lust with the consumption of food. Why? Because it sells. Nothing sells higher than triggering the most basic needs of the lower self. This is the motto and the secret to present day marketing.

Similarly art varieties have also been commercialized today, possibly extra than whatever else. Art is the expression of human self or creativity and is the byproduct of culture, so anywhere there is tradition art is bound to follow. The reason of this article is no longer to delve into the depths of the evolution of art for it is a topic too brilliant to be dealt with right now but if we genuinely take an overview we can see that the remarkable monuments and relics left in the back of through the historical civilizations such as the Egyptians, Mayans, historical Mesopotamians etc are a testament to the fact that these civilizations had clearly first-rate artists.

For some it may be strange but the rule holds real for the Islamic civilization as well. The upward jostle of Islamic civilization in Arabia delivered with it its own special artwork forms. The Arabs have been proud of their poetry, many companions of Prophet Muhammad [Peace and advantages be upon him] had been masters of the Arabic poetry, the Holy Quran itself consists of a chapter named “The Poets”. Even although Holy Quran is no longer a e book of poetry however the verses of Quran are weaved together in such a marvelous and sublime manner that it feels like a Divine orchestra is at play each time every person recites the Quran. Furthermore the companions of Holy Prophet [Peace and benefits be upon him] composed poetry to reward him. Today the poetic verses in praise of Prophet Muhammad [Peace and advantages be upon him] are taken strictly as sacred and religious, which they are however traditionally these poems and compositions especially in the early Meccan society had been also a form of social expression. At a time when the tribal chiefs have been resisting the message of Islam, the companions of Prophet Muhammad [Peace and advantages be upon him] used the form of poetry for in addition propagate the message of Islam and in doing so they used art as a capacity of social change.

Poetry however is no longer the solely artwork structure observed in Islamic culture, as time stepped forward Muslims delved into different forms of arts such as song which grew to become a central phase of Mehfil a Sema however it was once Islamic structure and calligraphy which possibly stood out the most. The octagonal pillars and Ottoman technology minarets, arches and domes, intricate calligraphy, floral patterns and geometric designs. All are symbols which can be heavily considered in Islamic architecture now not just traditionally however even today

Reference:

• https://operationpakistan.wordpress.com/2017/05/07/art-for-social-change/

Theory of Change:

Theories of Change had been developed as an method to planning and evaluation in the 60s. Theory of Change has been influenced via Freirean questioning on how to create social trade through empowering individuals (James C. Theory of change review: a record commissioned by Comic Relief; 2011). A ToC used to be developed through Weiss and others inside the tradition of theory-driven evaluation. (Weiss C. Nothing as realistic as proper theory: exploring theory-based evaluation for complete community initiatives for youth and families. In: Connell JP, editor. New strategies to evaluating neighborhood initiatives: concepts, methods, and contexts. Washington, DC: Aspen Institute; 1995. p. 65–92). Despite some integral differences in their theoretical underpinnings, many of these tactics are used interchangeably or together (Blamey A, Mackenzie M. Theories of change and sensible evaluation. Evaluation. 2007;13(4):439–55. doi:10.1177/1356389007082129).

Theory of Change offers a designated and direct understanding of the hyperlinks between things to do that lead to the desired goals. This appreciation also leads to higher comparison and measure of progress and in the long time period an perception of impact both planned and unplanned. It as an strategy describes how a programme brings about particular long-term outcomes through a logical sequence of intermediate consequences (Vogel I. Review of the use of ‘Theory of Change’ in worldwide development. UK: Department for International Development (DFID); 2012).

Theory of Change is frequently developed using a backward mapping strategy which starts with the long-term outcome and then maps the required technique of alternate and the short- and medium-term outcomes required to attain this (Andersen A. A neighborhood builder’s method to concept of change: a practical information to idea development. New York: The Aspen Institute; 2004).

During this process, the assumptions about what wishes to be in location for the ToC to take place are made express as well as the contextual elements which influence the ToC. Additional factors of a ToC can encompass beneficiaries, research evidence supporting the ToC, actors in the context, sphere of influence, strategic preferences and interventions, timelines and indicators. These elements are normally presented in a causal pathway/ plan and/or narrative precis (Vogel I. Review of the use of ‘Theory of Change’ in global development. UK: Department for International Development (DFID); 2012).

ToC causal pathway is a distinct and visible description of how and why an predicted alternate is probably to manifest in a certain context/setting. This describes what we do? i.e. activities/initiatives (outputs), so that we reach the a range of milestones which would lead to our desired goals.

It first identifies ‘what success would seem to be like?’ i.e Our ‘vision’ and maps backwards from this to perceive all prerequisites (outcomes) that ought to be in region and what assumptions we have made to gain these outcomes?

ToC differs from other theory-driven approaches to evaluation in spite of similar origins. For example, although logic fashions outline the inputs, processes, outputs and effects of a programme in a similar manner to ToC, they can be rigid and do no longer make specific the causal pathways via which exchange happens in the way that ToC does (De Silva MJ, Breuer E, Lee L, Asher L, Chowdhary N, Lund C, et al. Theory of Change: a theory-driven method to decorate the Medical Research Council’s framework for complicated interventions

Trials. 2014;15:267. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-15-267).

Reference:

• https://pill.org.pk/theory-of-change/

Worldwide Artists designers movements writers work for social change

Field of Vision: A Garden for Others

Image: Courtesy Of Jenny Kendler

In December 2015, artist and environmental activist Jenny Kendler used to be commissioned to create a butterfly backyard in downtown Louisville, Kentucky. In creating Field of Vision: A Garden for Others, Kendler used reclaimed wood, ultraviolet LED lights and milkweed to create a backyard in Louisville that would draw human beings again to an often-overlooked river, whilst additionally supporting susceptible butterfly populations.

Kendler first designed the backyard for pollinators, growing the art to specially attracted monarch butterflies to a area where they should feed and lay eggs. All the factors are meticulously intentional — the milkweed attracts butterflies, for example, whilst blacklight replicates the far-superior sight butterflies have in contrast to humans

Invisible Homeless

Image: Mark Simmons

Homeless populations are regularly omitted on the street. A British artist desired to venture this, creating a glass sculpture of a snoozing body resting on a mattress of cardboard, to symbolize how homeless human beings struggle to be seen on town streets.

The glass figure, which was on display in Bristol, England, in late December 2015, was once created in collaboration between artist Luke Jerram and UK-based formative years homelessness charity 1625 Independent People

• ref.https://mashable.com/2016/09/24/public-art-social-good/#JXe4PZO.SOq1

In 2012, a image design convention in Belgrade, Serbia, called “Graphic Designer: Author or Universal Soldier.” underscored the notion that designers need to produce content material past their clients’ wishes and fight for human values. It used to be iterated that designers have the energy to tackle social, cultural, and political issues with their designs (Ma?ašev).

Thus, “design activism” got here to be—using plan to discover feasible answers to questions or problems in the community. Stemming from diagram thinking, diagram activism is experimental and inventive, producing high quality selections to the popularity quo, inspiring people to support a reason or spark change. Designers are taking applicable issues, addressing them and voicing their opinions in their work through a range of channels.

Using diagram for activism requires a extensive vary of socially and environmentally responsible actions in graph and planning. From neighborhood advocacy in American internal cities to recovery efforts from natural disasters, the involvement of graph and planning professionals supports the value of sketch activism in making fantastic social change. A neighborhood Raleigh example of format activism is with picture clothier Skillet Gilmore. He has voiced his opinion on repealing HB2 with the aid of collaborating with Grayson and Tina Haver Currin’s giant “Shame on Pat McCrory” banner to create “Shame” t-shirts for the community to additionally voice their opinion on the subject matter (“5 Best Things That Happened at Hopscotch”). Gilmore also created Stand Against HB2 live performance posters for North Carolina Musicians United for EqualityNC (Allen).A “Shame Pat McCrory” banner used to be hung over the Raleigh Mexican restaurant, Centro, along with quite a few other businesses. The banner used to be then turned into t-shirts and offered on Gilmore’s site, Crawlspace Press. A component of the proceeds went to Equality NC’s Action Fund. Photos by means of Tina Haver Currin and New Raleigh

• https://design.ncsu.edu/student-publication/design-as-a-vehicle-for-social-change/

Art As Medium For Social Change In Pakistan

In the early post 1947 a long time the artists in Pakistan adopted modernism no longer as perpetuation of the First World DOMINATION but as a metaphor for alternate and monetary freedom. Society was once no longer being seen in stereotypes or idealized photographs however as an evolving nation faced with the challenges of transition.

The art that emerged from the studios of modernists, because of its economically advantaged status,came to dominate the countrywide art scene by means of the 1960s.The artwork of the East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)painters had a great have an impact on on their counterparts in Lahore Karachi Rawalpindi and Peshawar who had but to attain that mature appreciation of the discipline.Artists such as Zainul Abedin had already bridged the gulf between FOLK artwork and Contemporary art.

Zainul Abedin, one of the best-known artists at the beginning of Pakistan, played a key function in promotion art throughout the country, in particular in East Pakistan. He studied painting at the Government School of Art in Calcutta from 1933 to 1938 and then taught there till 1947 before shifting to Dhaka. His work first attracted public interest in 1943 when he produced a effective sequence of drawings on the famine in Bengal. As the founder major of Dhaka’s Institute of Fine Arts, he soon turned it into the fantastic artwork college in Pakistan. Not only used to be his art practice exemplary for his students, he used to be also revered for his administrative competencies which he judiciously exercised to promote artwork and crafts in both wings of the country. After Bangladesh’s independence in 1971, he got here to be regarded as the founding parent of present day Bangladeshi art.

His exercise was divided between modernist experimentation and depiction of people and tribal factors in East Bengal’s culture. As Badruddin Jahangir has pointed out, Zainul Abedin avoided painting “pictures of Muslim glory” like Chughtai did. He, instead, portrayed peasants and bulls from rural Bengal. Human beings and animals in his work appear as labouring our bodies and heroic figures engaged in struggle. He also recognised the need to create a rooted cutting-edge high way of life due to the fact the Bengali bhadralok (middle class) high culture of those instances was once viewed as Hindu tradition and was as a consequence disapproved of through the West Pakistani ideologues. He argued for and practised a “Bengali modernism” based on people themes, abstracting them into motifs characterised by way of rhythm and association of coloration and pattern.

The greatest practitioner of calligraphic modernism is Pakistan’s most celebrated artist Sadequain (1930–1987). His upward jostle to outstanding repute commenced in 1955 when he exhibited his works in Karachi with the assist of Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, a liberal customer of arts. Sadequain quickly obtained many prestigious authorities commissions. A giant wide variety of murals he executed between 1957 and his demise have bolstered his fantasy as a struggling but heroic artist. His tremendous 1967 mural at Mangla Dam, titled The Saga of Labour, is based totally on Iqbal’s poetry and celebrates humanity’s progress through labour and modernisation.Sadequain charted a special artistic trajectory. He remained shut to the state that promoted calligraphy at some point of the Islamisation of the Seventies and Eighties but he exhibited elements of transgressive Sufism thru his persona. His superstar popularity also allowed him to address an target market wider than the urban elites. As Lahore-based artist Ijaz ul Hassan (born in 1940) has aptly noted: “[Sadequain] in no way hesitated to glorify the inherent strength and innovative spirit of man, and his potential to build a better world … [He] was the first to have liberated painting from private homes and modified it into a public artwork … ”