Category: Social Change

Introduction

Adult education encompasses the alternative educational curriculum designed for adults who, for one reason or another, dropped out of school before acquiring essential basic skills needed in life. Adult education has profound social benefits and as such, an agent for social change.

Adult education is of significant value as a means of addressing social problems and providing solutions to issues affecting disadvantaged groups in society. It provides means of bridging the social inequalities that exist in contemporary societies with regard to reproductive health and social empowerment, especially in relation to economic, cultural and political engagement.

Adult education, when considered according to the practices and principles of community-based education has the potential of reducing and even eliminating existing social inequalities. Community-based education for adults is based on the assumption that any community, urban or rural, has the capacity to generate solutions to its own problems. It serves as an instrument for promoting and strengthening social capacity to address various social challenges.

The United Chinese Enrichment Services Society (SUCCESS) is one such a program that involves diverse community development initiatives to foster adult education for a Chinese immigrant community (Guo 107). The organization, based in Vancouver, Canada, provides accessible adult education and social services to new Chinese immigrants. Success has created a community of immigrants that plays multiple roles in relation to the provision of adult education.

These include provision of adult education programs, facilitation of community development, and advocating on behalf of the Chinese immigrants in relation to citizenship. The SUCCESS education programs and services addressed the needs of the adult immigrant community, and as such, facilitated social change.

History of SUCCESS

Immigrant communities in countries such as Canada face challenges such as the language barrier and social skills that deter them from fully participating in the society. Additionally, mainstream government agencies may not efficiently provide services that meet the social and cultural needs of immigrant communities. It is against this backdrop that SUCCESS was established. It saw its dawn in 1973 to enhance accessibility of adult education programs and other social services to new adult immigrants from China (Guo 111).

Initially, SUCCESS started out as a Chinese Connection Project (1973-1979) funded by Health and Welfare Canada to enhance accessibility of social services to new immigrants primarily from Hong Kong, China. The services provided during this period comprised of language skills, taught through the English Language as a Second Language (ESL) classes and settlement services.

Between 1979 and 1989, the immigrants from Hong Kong substantially increased following the Sino-British pact. This meant that SUCCESS had to increase the volume of its services to match the high number of immigrants. SUCCESS also had to expand its services to different locations as the immigrants continued to settle in different geographical locations beyond Chinatown region, Vancouver. From 1989 to 1998, SUCCESS expanded tremendously both in its program offerings and scope.

It incorporated a number of services and programs for immigrant communities (Chinese and non-Chinese immigrants). The high numbers and the changing composition of the immigrant population forced SUCCESS to expand its program offerings to suit immigrants from other regions. Currently, SUCCESS offers a number of professional programs to immigrant communities mainly from China, enhancing community development and education for citizenship, and providing advocacy services for the immigrants.

Issues Addressed by SUCCESS

Since its inception, SUCCESS has played a pivotal role in promoting community development for the Chinese Community. In particular, the organization primarily addresses issues to do with citizenship and settlement procedures of new immigrants, adult education to enhance social participation, and advocacy services.

With regard to citizenship, SUCCESS provides educational programs that enable new immigrants to acquire citizenship and settle in Canada. The organization also directs immigrants to the appropriate service providers, including translation services to overcome the language barrier and enable them to seek services from immigration agencies in Canada. The organization also advocates on behalf of immigrants in relation to public participation and discrimination.

For instance, SUCCESS initiated a nationwide protest campaign against stereotypes broadcasted in Canadian mainstream media that satirized the accent of new Chinese immigrants. To address social exclusion, language barrier and facilitate participation of new immigrants in community development, SUCCESS programs cover six broad areas.

These include language and settlement procedures training, reception of immigrants at airports, training on employment opportunities, counseling services, training on small business ventures, and community services.

The stakeholders of this organization include various Chinese organizations, the media, volunteers involved in providing interpretation services and the federal government. The Chinese organizations such as the Chinese Benevolent Association, the Chinese Cultural Centre and the Chinese Merchants association provide social services, business training and language training services to new immigrants. Many mainstream organizations also provide a variety of services to immigrants under the auspices of SUCCESS.

These organizations include the law enforcement, the healthcare institutions, schools and the media. The different classes of government in Canada (municipal, provincial and federal) are involved in funding of SUCCESSs immigrant services (Guo 109). In particular, the provincial governments fund educational and health services for immigrants.

The Role of Adult Education in Social Change

In the context of Chinese immigrant community, the lack of services that address the social needs had a significant impact on their social development. Thus, SUCCESSs educational programs and services served to transform the social status of the immigrants by improving accessibility to economic opportunities in Canada. According to Derwing, adult education geared towards social change involves educational activities that transform the society within which they are implemented (194).

As such, with an objective of transforming the society in which they operate, there should be an organization of educational activities. Adult education can serve as an instrument for transmitting new values with an aim of bringing about social change.

CIT perceives adult education as a means of creating a renewed sense of motivation and transmitting fundamental values and attitudes that allow people to tackle new challenges in whichever social context they find themselves. SUCCESS educational programs instill new forms of perceptions that enable new immigrants cope with cultural change and participate in community development.

The main purpose of adult education is to equip adults with necessary skills and knowledge that enables them to manipulate their social environment well and attain individual and community development.

In this sense, adult education confers social freedom for the survival and development of individuals and by extension, the community. SUCCESS recognizes that adult education can serve to expedite social/community development, hence the provision of necessary skills to immigrants to enable them participate in community development.

Grossi examines the lack of participation by the public in their community development (123). He argues that cultural stereotypes facilitate a sense of indifference in oppressed populations with regard to seeking solutions to their plight. This prevents them from actively seeking a solution to their own problems.

Thus, participation is a crucial process that involves the masses in formulating their own goals and working together to achieve them. Among the stakeholders in SUCCESS educational initiatives are Chinese organizations such as the Chinese Benevolent Association and the Chinese Cultural Center, which understand the needs of the immigrant community. This means that the educational programs and development projects undertaken by SUCCESS reflect the social needs of the Chinese community.

Derwing argues that the planning and implementation of the adult educational initiatives should not rely entirely on expert opinion; rather it should involve a needs assessment that involves the participation of the individual members (201). The challenges faced by new Chinese immigrants, including language barrier, and citizenship and settlement difficulties were identified by the Chinese organizations that form the principal stakeholders of SUCCESS.

The idea is to enable the new immigrants to participate in their own development and as such, be agents of social change. Through SUCCESSs adult education programs and services, the immigrants are able to inquire and obtain necessary information that enables them to address their problems in the context of the larger Canadian society.

Since adult education facilitates the development of the community within the larger society, it is, therefore, an instrument for social change as community development reflects social mobility and transformation. In the context of Vancouver, the immigrants have less skills and knowledge resources to participate in the development. Thus, being a minority, they are prone to challenges such as unemployment, lack of opportunities and social alienation from the mainstream society.

Social change means changed perceptions and lifestyle patterns with regard to providing solutions to problems and making life better for the entire community. According to Derwing, the role of social change is to transform attitudes, values, knowledge and skills (192).

Accordingly, the purpose of SUCCESS concurs with Derwings assertion. It facilitates the acquisition of language skills and knowledge by immigrants that enable them to operate in Canadian society. Additionally, SUCCESS advocates on behalf of immigrants to eliminate social exclusion and foster their participation in the larger community development.

The Principles and Values of Community-Based Adult Education

Friere suggests that education for the oppressed or minority in the society helps them to become conscious of the social determinants in their lives (93). He argues that social change only occurs when each individual becomes aware of the social determinants in his/her life and undertakes to transform them for the common expedient. In other words, to effect social change, it requires both the learner and the instructor to engage in the process of reflection, dialogue and action, i.e. praxis.

Friere defines praxis as a reflection on a particular action that translates into an improved action (94). In this regard, the social stereotypes and the lack of skills such as language skills can impair the minority individuals reflection on an action often because of lack of motivation to pursue social justice in the context of mainstream society.

In Vancouver, prior to the inception of the SUCCESS program, the lack educational programs and services to cater for the needs of the immigrants, means that they were socially disadvantaged. The SUCCESS programs equipped the immigrants with fundamental skills and advocated for a social environment conducive for their development to improve the quality of their life.

Therefore, praxis is an essential principle for adult learning. It entails stimulating individuals inbuilt reflection to bring about an appropriate action. Praxis can serve much in transmitting skills, knowledge and attitudes to adult learners and as they put the new attitudes and skills into practice, they reflect on their actions (Derwing 202). Central to the theory of adult education is the vital role played by reflection on subsequent actions.

Adult learning process involves four cardinal stages; firstly, the individuals encounter with a particular experience, which in this context was a language barrier, limited opportunities, citizenship, and settlement difficulties experienced by early Chinese immigrants into Canada. The second stage involves reflection and analysis of the experience; this influenced the early Chinese immigrants to establish SUCCESS to assist other immigrants to cope with new challenges.

The third stage involves seeking action in response to the experience. Hence, SUCCESSs provision of programs and services tailored to meet the diverse needs of the new immigrants. The last stage involves the use of a new approach to tackling issues; SUCCESSs programs enabled the new immigrants to integrate in the community and seek solutions to challenges they faced in the wider Canadian community.

The principle of praxis enables adult learners to develop their learning plans in such a way that participants are able to apply what they learn. In this way, the members are able to reflect their actions both as the decision-makers and as subjects in their cultural contexts. SUCCESS involved Chinese organizations and individuals in the development of the training programs.

Thus, in this case, the educators and the learners interacted directly in any of SUCCESSs programs. Additionally, the staff comprised of immigrants settled in Canada, who understand the native languages and culture of the new immigrants. This ensured the meeting of the diverse needs of new immigrants, especially with regard to settlement procedures.

The development of the counseling services had the cultural and linguistic aspects of immigrants in mind. A multilingual staff English, Cantonese and Chinese Mandarin) offered the counseling services to the clients native languages. Additionally, the Chinese organizations, in partnership with SUCCESS, offered the advocacy and community development services.

Immigrants, who once participated in SUCCESSs programs offered support for this cause in the grassroots. Thus, the principle of praxis results to a designed approach with set objectives such that the content taught reflects these objectives. In other words, the members of the community have to take an active role in tackling the social problems that they face.

The expansion of SUCCESS to incorporate non-Chinese immigrants reflects a multi-sectoral approach to community development. Grossi describes the best practice principles for adult education organizations (124). He contends that the organization must formulate multiple goals and actively involve most participants in community development.

SUCCESS involved multiple Chinese organizations, former participants as volunteers, mainstream organizations and the government to achieve its three-pronged goals; providing adult education programs, advocacy and liaison services and facilitation of citizenship and settlement for immigrants. Additionally, Rose suggests a multiple approach to adult education in order to have maximum impact on the community.

This is the contingency approach, which requires the analysis of the cultural values, the community characteristics and the nature of the social problem in order to design appropriate educational programs. SUCCESSs programs and services address the challenges that face new immigrants to Canada.

Analysis of Oppression

Oppression in the context of the immigrants involved cultural stereotypes and social inequalities arising from limited opportunities and necessary skills by immigrants relative to the rest of the population in Vancouver. This form of oppression is known as marginalization, where individuals especially minority population are excluded from the mainstream social and economic activities. In Canada, the 13.4% of the general population are minority groups (Derwing 197), with the majority born and raised in foreign countries.

Their language skills and knowledge do not match those required in a contemporary Canadian society owing to the cultural differences. As such, the minorities cannot participate fully in their community development. Derwing contends that marginalization is the worst form of oppression as it excludes individual from social life (198). This has the potential of resulting to material deprivation, especially when the oppression extends to the economic sector.

Additionally, Grossi identifies two injustices that arise from material deprivation in contemporary Western societies. The first injustice relates to the provision of social welfare services (121). In Canada, prior to the establishment of SUCCESS, government-funded welfare services, e.g., language training programs to enable new Chinese immigrants integrate into the society were lacking.

This amounted to oppression; a practice SUCCESS sought to combat through various adult education initiatives that impart necessary skills to immigrants to enable them participate in their own development. The second injustice regards the exclusion of particular individuals or groups from full citizenship rights.

This makes these groups to depend on bureaucratic institutions for social support services, and as a result, they are subject to punitive treatment by policies imposed by these institutions. Additionally, this denies the marginalized group the right to satisfy their social and health needs in a culturally appropriate way. SUCCESS combats this directly through its advocacy and liaison services and programs, job training and culturally appropriate counseling services.

Social exclusion is oppressive in the sense that it prevents individuals from participating in social cooperation and community development. It denies the oppressed group access to social and health services of high quality as those for the mainstream society. In this way, social exclusion creates social inequalities with regard to the provision of services. Derwing contends that with or without social support, marginalization breeds a sense of uselessness and disrespect for the marginalized groups (201).

Thus, while marginalization primarily encompasses injustices in resource distribution, it extends to cultural and social deprivation by limiting social interaction and cooperation. SUCCESSs programs and services aimed to bridge the social gap between the immigrant community and the mainstream society. It also gave the Chinese immigrants an opportunity to interact in economic and social contexts in order to foster their development as a community.

Conclusion

Adult education is a vital instrument for addressing social problems affecting disadvantaged groups. SUCCESSs programs and services aimed at providing necessary skills and knowledge to new immigrants primarily from Hong Kong, China, who faced difficulties integrating in the mainstream society.

The immigrants faced language barrier and lack of welfare services, which amounted to oppression. SUCCESSs service offerings were three-pronged; language training, facilitation of citizenship and settlement procedures and enhancing community development. SUCCESSs approaches concur with Frieres praxis principle that regards community-based education as an agent for social change.

Works Cited

Derwing, Tomy. Instilling a passive voice: citizenship instruction in Canada. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1997. Print.

Friere, Petr. The Politics of Education. Massachusetts: Bervin and Gravey, 1985. Print.

Grossi, Foster. Adult Education and Rural Development. Convergence 13.3 (2004): 121-125

Guo, Shibao. Adult Education for Social Change: The Role of a Grassroots Organization in Canada. Convergence 10.4 (1999): 107-119.

Introduction

Generally, the social, economic, and political morphology of a society sets the context for an individuals behaviour. Normally, these sets of behaviour seek to provide individuals with the means and ways to survive in these dynamic societies. Emotional confidence and social justice are exceptionally instrumental in ensuring that these social constructs bring the most in satisfying the basic human needs (Maiese 2003). The preserve of a societys ideologies is traceable in what the society and it members cherish.

Gender and adulthood, for example, are concepts that denote social and cultural constructs. A society usually assigns to every individual a tag on the expected behaviours individuals must pose in line with the values and physiognomies that are attributable to both males and females separately. How these perceptions reinforce the society as an institution depends on the values, laws and the aspirations shared by society and its members collectively. The popular perception that all people living in developed nations have higher living standards than those in developing countries is a total fallacy. The discourse expounds on the existence of people living ordinary lives even in these high-end regions.

Structural realignments

In most cases, political exclusion, exploitation, marginalisation and inequity between men and women, or among different members in a society characterise these relationships. These structural forces give rise to a system of winners and losers where individuals are defined within a particular social setting (Plumwood 2009). Structural realignment usually results in power struggles, contentions, and movements that aim to bring humanity to their expectations.

The metamorphosis of gender relations in Australia, for example, has been rapid, yet profound, especially in bringing socio-economic and political changes in the history of humanity. Early in the 20^th century, both the genders practically took different roles in the society. For instance, the place of a woman in the society was viewed generally to be somewhere at home, while a man occupied a vocational place in the public sphere (Gibson 2002, p. 51). Noticeably, the inequality aspect begins out rightly at the family unit.

Moral concepts

The ethics of every society though, is embedded in the ideology of what is wrong or right, what is bad or good, especially with regard to individuals character (Gibson 2002, p. 48). Societal ethics as explored in the traditions of old parochial societies embedded in the origins of the agreeable social relations and attitudes cherished by the society. Additionally, these relationships were expressed in the patterns or forms of behaviour that the society considers to bring about ethical interaction between members of different sex in the society.

The essence of which was tied to social harmony in especially in light of what favours men (Hogg 2001, p. 349). The beliefs and ideas about moral and social constructs were the prototype of the ancient Australian society, and were stipulated in the decorum of the unwritten laws of the day, analysed and inferred upon the people by the moral thinking of the time. Relationships, especially marriage have been sacred duties not only in the Australian context, but also in other civilised societies across the world today (Lieberman 2012, p. 23). Gender interactions seen under these lenses are the foundation stone that bond relationships that enrich communities by bringing forth new life into the world and new hope for the society

Gender roles

While the differences, especially in the gender roles offers that many women in the society are confined in the domestic net, the tussle against gender equality represents the many men in the society who are adept at their masculinity and would always want the status quo unchallenged (Mayberry, Nicewander, Qin, and Ballard 2006, p. 113).

This is so because the common rule that informs these unbiased structures favours them. Unbiased legislation of the position of women in the society in general is a perpetuation of how this society loathes gender equality. Expressly, the much of the agitation for gender equality has been upped in Australia to explore the general concerns of women in the society, singling out the role of women against their male counterparts.

Knowing that the family unit is a mirror presentation of the society, Hogg (2001, p. 355) opines that the core of the society is equality of purpose, and sums it up within the scope of marriage, parenting, and domesticity. Womens symbolic confinement at homesteads, being victimised and dominated by men highlights the numerous inequality instances all over Australia (Mayberry et al. 2006, p. 115). The Australian gender equality factor has been thought provoking; it has been filled with the richness that explores feminine determination despite their fate. This quest has often been used to castigate the status of men in the society as being strategic to the extinction of the feminine situation.

The populists movements

In the American politics, both the populists and the progressive movements shared several similarities within their body politic, although they had differences that spring from ideological variances (Wacquant 2002, p. 43). The populists movements developed from the Agrarian spirit informed by the fear that Communism was rapidly gaining excessive influence and control over the political rivals in America. Eventually, the Democratic Party was later consummated by populism while the Republican Party absorbed the progressives mainstream.

Over time, the progressive adherents have skipped ship abandoning the Republican Party, as it perceived seizure by religious groups and other right wing factions affected its image. Of significant mention is that both of the movements emerged in America in the late 19^th and 20^th centuries, and it was during this time that these realignments took shape (Stromquist 2005, p. 145). However, it must not escape mention that there still exist deeply basest differences that informs the foundation of the two movements. The basis of the progressivism opinion sprung from scientific innovation, as well as the thirst to advance urban settlements.

Populism mirrored progressives opinions for the better part of the 21^st century though it was a movement for a popular course characterised by the advancement of the masses determined to scale up the ladder of class system. Essentially, it was from this movement that inspired the Grange and Farmers Alliance, which eventually gave birth to the modern day labour movement (Johnston 2003, p. 31). These developments show how determination even in the face of adversity can empower humanity in very special ways.

Progressive movements

Progressive movements had much of the success due to their focus on reforming the American political landscape rather than rooting entirely for economic dispensation (Stromquist 2005, 155). According to Johnston (2003, p. 32) the progressive think tank saw the wickedness of the state and was disgruntled by the unchecked corruption which was almost, all pervasive  the business sector was rotten. Moreover, the legal system had no moral authority to check the deprivation of man and the exploitation of women and children as farm and domestic labourers became a major concern (Wacquant 2002, p. 47).

The spark behind the American population dalliance with the progressive party was its formidable stand against unfair electoral system, which had practically poisoned the American political fabric. The composition of the progressive movement, as Stromquist (2005, p. 156) notes, was mainly made up of the middle class, bringing together both men and women who partook of the interests of both the rich and the poor whose aspirations might have been left out of the populism vendetta (Johnston 2003, p. 35). The big brains behind the progressive movement saw and utilised the large corporate interests of the greater American population who feared their displacements considering the influx of a huge number of immigrants who were there to offer various services.

During this time, the labour unions were increasingly losing momentum, with majority of the American workers turning to the progressive movement as a substitute for their course. In addition, much of the American population viewed the progressive movement as a formidable force to block the spreading wave of socialistic aggression. According to Stromquist (2005, p. 175), the progressives viewed their principal objective in terms of transforming the lives of ordinary American citizens by virtually reforming every institution that affect the American public life.

Limitations of the movements

According to Johnston (2003, p. 30), the main limitation of the populist movement was that the individuals who were championing its course were neither part of the working class nor from the socialist movement. This unbecoming stand, according to Johnston (2003, p. 33), never allowed the populist movement an opportunity to have much influence on the already established capitalistic society. Secondly, the movement had its own internal wrangles emanating from leadership concerns and the control of its resources (Johnston 2003, p. 35).

These persistent internal wrangles never augured well with the smooth running of its affairs, making most of its adherents to shift allegiance to the Progressive movement, which seemed well organised and composed. Given its strong inclination to the ruling class, its opponents, especially the democrats took this advantage to demean their standing on various reform agenda (Johnston 2003, p. 37). In an attempt to build a popular movement, the populist movement also engaged in radical activism that did not endear it to the right thinking American public who viewed change as a legal process that must be pursued through the laws of the land.

Discussion

Despite the tremendous expansion of the society to open up opportunities for all, women not only in Australia, but also in various parts of the world continue to receive compromised attention including schooling and access to other facilities. This scenario seems to propel the ideologies of most societies, yet there is promising evidence that opportunities for women can promote the well-being of the society as a whole. A case situation is the sturdy link between the education of a girl, her subsequent employment, and income (Signorelli, Taft, and Pereira 2012, p. 12). Records have it that women with better education bear few children with higher probabilities of surviving infancy. This reflects on their healthy later life, hence their likelihood to attain better education, acquire better jobs with better pay. Therefore, whenever the society denies women these opportunities, children, families, and communities suffer altogether.

Conclusion

Therefore, it is true that a society develops within social constructs. The foundation of these social constructs revolves around the notion that they are ordinary in essence or that they are intrinsic within a society and for that matter, unalterable. On the other hand, gender constructs as well as the conceptualisation of adulthood are shaped primarily by ideological, socio-economic, and interpersonal relationships. Under these lenses, adult human females rightly qualify to be as women while grown-up boys would be called men.

This no doubt is the preserve of every societys ideology. However, it is important to understand that the social constructs that the society uses to evaluate and assess individuals are based in the lenses of the right-thinking members of the society, which sometimes may not be right. The world is characterised by different social, economic, and political affairs that cause huge stratification in the society. The social aspect is a broad subject that analyses displacements and social changes. Forceful displacement of the low class is a negative effect of gentrification, which can lead to homelessness; these people are forcefully displaced from their historical habitats.

Those who decide to remain experience a high increase in the prices of basic services, which is a viewed as exploitation of the local inhabitants. Additionally, gentrified people lack political and economic power to demand their rights, as they are unable to meet the new targets. Again, there is loss social diversity with the coming of the middle and upper income earners. These groups of people are always reserved; therefore, little engagement in societal issues that bring people of different races, religions and ethnic groups together. With the constant changes in the socio-economic and political systems, ordinary lives are evident across the world.

References

Gibson, R2002, Seven Versions of an Australian Badland, University of Queensland Press, St. Lucia, Queensland.

Hogg, R 2001, Penalty and Modes of Regulating Indigenous Peoples in Australia, Punishment & Society-international Journal of Penology, vol. 3, pp. 359-377.

Johnston, R 2003, The radical middle class: Populist democracy and the question of capitalism in progressive era: Oregon politics and society in twentieth-century America, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

Lieberman, F 2012, Society, and culture. A focus study: gender. Web.

Maiese, M 2003, Social structural change: The necessity of social Structural change. Web.

Mayberry, R, Nicewander, D., Qin, H., and Ballard, D 2006, Improving quality and reducing inequities: a challenge in achieving best care, Baylor University of Medical Centre, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 103118.

Plumwood, V 2009, Shadow Places & the Politics of Dwelling, Australian Humanities Review, vol. 4, n.pag.

Signorelli, M. C. Taft, A. and Pereira, P 2012, Intimate partner violence against women and healthcare in Australia, Charting the Scene, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 4-23.

Stromquist, S 2005, Reinventing the people: the progressive movement, the class problem, and the origins of modern liberalism: The working class in American history, University of Illinois Press, Chicago.

Wacquant, L 2002, From slavery to mass incarceration: Rethinking the race question in the US, New Left Review, vol. 13, pp. 41-60.

Introduction

American society has been experiencing some sort of dynamism which has been marked by various aspects of the peoples lives. In this article the author highlights the issues that have brought about social change in the American society. Decline in congregations by the people for instance in clubs for social endeavors has been noted to be on the decline with the passing of a few decades. The author of this article aims at bringing out the picture of the changing phenomenon of social capital in the American society. He achieves his objectives by first of all distinguishing social capital from the other forms of capital like the human capital and the physical capital. The author raises the fact that just like the other forms of capital that have value to the society social networks too are of value and have indeed being undergoing transformation. The origin of social capital is explained in this article and furthermore there is an explanation on what kind of society can be said to be in possession of social capital. This according to the author started in the 20^th century and was meant to reiterate on how human life can be made even more productive by the use of social connections between the people of America. The various aspects of social capital are well elaborated in this article with the writer pointing out that there are individual and collective components of social capital. The private and public aspects of social capital are also mentioned with the author explaining that the benefits of social capital are varied and can come in different forms for instance there are certain external factors that affect this phenomenon and they touch on the wider community other than the individual who makes the social connections that characterize social capital. There is emphasis on the fact that social capital benefits both the public and private entities. This is evidenced when the author mentions that even bystanders stand to benefit from an investment that has been made in social capital. Issues of reciprocation are also characteristic of the social change in the American society. This is because there is a norm that someone does the good for others in anticipation that they will do the same in return. For instance it has been mentioned that if one does not attend other people funerals then they too will not appear in his funeral. With this kind of reciprocity efficiency in the society has been greatly enhanced because of the trust that is associated with such connections. The various forms and sizes of social capital have also been highlighted ranging from the family, Sunday school class, community and even internet chat just to mention but a few.

Discussion

Social capital has also been pinpointed to be directed towards antisocial behavior like bombing and other ill motives. This is true because a number of gangs in the American streets present a form of social capital that is misplaced in agenda and thus ends up engaging in unlawful behavior. It has also been brought out how some other forms of social capital come from formal organizations for instance the Parents Teachers Association which is formulate for the benefit of the students.

The differences between Bridging social capital and the boding social capital have also been pinpointed in this article. That bridging capital has an overall intention of benefiting the whole society while on the other hand the bonding capital can be viewed to be focused on individual well being. There is also statement of the fact that bridging capital has a long sustained impact connection and ties than the bonding capital which can be said to be short-lived within the individuals of the society. Social dimensions such as the spirit of religion has been pointed to be the ones that bond people together for instance the Black church in the United states brings together people from different races. The author does not go very far in terms of describing the distinctiveness between the two forms of social capital. But still he sticks to his endeavor to get into the evolving social trends in the entire book. There is emphasis on the need to keep the conceptualized differences in the minds for the sake of the future information. In intellectual circles the debate about social capital in not a very interesting issue as mentioned in this article because politics have dominated all spheres of the peoples life such that issues that regard to social capital have been neglected. This can be attributed may be to the fact that politics in the society have proved to be taking center stage and prominence because of the impact they have on social and economic lives of the people. In my view this has made people to divert their attention from the fundamentally essential social capital factors that can even rise up against politics if at all they were to be given the adequate attention they deserve. The author has also underscored the fact that the role of national myths has also created influence because they emphasize so much on what individual heroes are capable of doing while not mentioning that collective efforts can even take the community to greater heights.

Though not admitting to it, what comes out clearly from this article is that social capital in the American society has been on the decline with marked weaknesses in the way people make connections and ties with one another.

Throughout the history there has been a weakness in the community connections in America. But this is in contrast viewed from the civil engagements that Americans have been involved point of view.

Conclusion

Social change in the American society is a phenomenon that has come out to be quite uneven because of its polymorphous nature. It requires adequate resources and evidence so as to come up with more valid information concerning the social dimorphism that has shaped the social capital in American society. Such evidence needs to pinpoint on the emergent issues that are actually responsible for social change in America. In my view this is quite essential because it is from such premises that one can come up with a valid argument that indeed American social capital has been experiencing weakening with time. Such an argument should incorporate all aspects of the society and its people. This is so because overlooking some aspects of the people would not amount to an all inclusive ideas that can substantiate on the fact that social change in American society has been characterized with declining power of social capital. I think in this line of thought it will become so easy to demystify the uncertainty behind social change in the American Society.

References

Putnam , Robert 2000, Thinking about Social change in America, Chapter 1, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York and London, Simon and Schuster, pp. 15-28.

Large Corporation in Modern Times

The gist of Justice Stevens opinion in Citizens United verse Federal Election Commission is that organizations are lawfully created bodies that carry out activities and are allowed specific legal protections equivalent to those granted to people. The state determines their rights and privileges (Massey, 2016). According to Justice Stevens, the courts majority decision to overturn a century of legislative restrictions on election spending by corporations and unions is based on the First Amendments protection of right to free speech, which applies only to genuine people and groups of persons.

Companies supersede the nineteenth century, but their current incarnation and involvement in the community, political, and fiscal policy changed and developed so dramatically in the last era that it is difficult to comprehend. Contemporary social transformation without analyzing the importance businesses have played in cultural and social structure transformation (Massey, 2016). They own and manage the majority of the worlds wealth; they are a pillar of the economy and a means for accumulating riches.

The Corporations History of Transmission

In 1600, the British, the Dutch, and other successful trading firms functioned under state charter to collect cash for trips, facilitate business, and fight any opposition they confronted from other states trading firms and the residents at the places of their ventures. The British East India Firm, a privately run business, had more than two hundred and fifty thousand troops under its control at one time to complete its mission of establishing supremacy over the world (Massey, 2016. The British royal, such as the Dutch crown, leased or subcontracted the empire to private corporations.

How Large Corporations Direct Social Change

In at least five aspects, big businesses are a driving factor behind the social transformation. First, the companies are deeply involved in repurposing and discovering different uses for old technology and building discoveries that help and drive what we do as consumers. Secondly, companies have structured and opposed labor for more than a century, defining how work should be performed and the norms regulating professional life (Massey, 2016). Third, the management of capital and the aims for which capital is deployed determines their size and economic stability.

Fourth, huge companies control the physical environment with their images, goods and services, and the sensitivities that push people to engage to the fullest of their capability in the realm of product consumption and beyond (Massey, 2016). Finally, corporations are vital to the political system, playing a significant role in promoting legislation that helps them and resisting policies that would limit or impede their ability to operate as privately operated, income businesses.

Economic liberalization or nonregulation of financial activities, for instance, having the government do nothing. Those are some of their objectives in state intervention. Statistics and research are mobilized to show that any limits or regulations are pointless. Sometimes it is better for major firms that the issue never obtains an airing, rather than fighting back unpleasant recommendations regarding how the government should handle such concerns (Massey, 2016). Any hint of difficulty is disregarded simply as a non-issue or something that falls outside the governments jurisdiction.

Large Corporations and Resistance to Social Change

There are barriers to social transformation in the major companies, just as there are instances of resistance to technology, social movements, and other agents of social transformation ( Massey, 2016). There is also opposition to the trend of societal transformation because of company practices. However, big firms are expected to maintain their affairs because they are part of the existing condition.

For years, reporters and researchers attempted to understand why companies oppose or weaken measures to curb their influence over resources (Massey, 2016). Public interest groups have proposed limiting their control over tax policies and economic legislation, enacting more restrictions, and boosting administration and community supervision. Companies frequently successfully reject these regulations and any alteration to their activities, whether acting alone or through trade associations.

The strong States and Social Change

The opportunity of the nations grew extensively with the exceptional of rebels and denial, nobody within the ideological range, self-governing and preservation disagreed that government should offer safety and physical security for its people or involve themselves in war. The current nations made and preserved the worth of the currency and control funds. States constructed and operated learning institutions, bridges, roads, waste treatment plants, and airstrips; it was a move that was regarded as the end of the Iris Summers lifetime (Massey, 2016). The United States enhanced hospitals, improved public resources, and prolonged peoples rights, which showed a great driver of social alteration since it provided solutions to the problems to its people.

Public Health; Reducing Disease and Accidental Death as a Public Good

The death rate in women giving birth was about one thousand for every delivery. The state made vaccinations for several kid illnesses in the research facilities, the administration injection agendas quickly proliferated. In 1950, the United States issued polio vaccine to the public institution with the help of the state health programs. About three million individuals succumb to car accidents (Massey, 2016). The public well-being programs should aim at the speed limits, better driving, put strict measures of traffic rules and put measures on the lessons provided to the drivers and tutor drivers.

National Progress through Control of Nature

The United States regarded the waterway used for movements as a community good. For example, the construction of the leeves to manage the flooding of the Mississippi and the wide range of dam creation programs on almost every large river in the West was an exertion of peoples power over nature ( Massey, 2016 ). The repossession of the wilderness helped the state to have control of the regions and the resources for development and weakened, evacuated, and secluded indigenous individuals with significant disruption and brought individuals of European lineage to the regions.

The Judicial Road to Civil Rights

The state uses important ways such as passing and implementing rules to promote social transformation. The legal systems carry out important duties to ensure that cases follow legal precedents and the civil liberties computed in the sets of law (Massey, 2016). Sometimes the court tries to catch up to peoples ideas and shifting practices. However, the courts verdicts are part of the social alteration, particularly when the citizens and huge companies fail to stand for the peoples rights. The United States was a victim of the circumstances, but it was obligated on the judicial system to overcome the logjam and ensure that it had an unbiassed society.

State Driven Social Change in Modern China

The foreign control that led to discrimination to the army and decline in the economy of China. in the past two centuries, pushed the nation away from nation-building and got rid of the old-style and social development (Massey, 2016). Leaders from the Chinese Communist Party made the nation stronger and got rid of the deficiency and universal weakness. The leaders who had dreams to make a stronger nation and overcame every aspect of life had the opportunity to lead the Chinese Communist Party and perform economic and social alterations.

Reference

Massey, G. (2016). Ways of social change: Making sense of modern times. SAGE Publications.

One should note that Chapter 9 explains some concepts and ideas about the future and progress of society and the state as a whole. Garth Morgan Massey in his book claim, that most modern people are confident in their abilities to control situations and change events and phenomena for the better (p.321). However, only the power of reason harnessed to the inquiry can change persons disadvantage in the best light (p. 321). Thus, the writer calls this aspect a kind of progress and lists several essential concepts regarding this phenomenon.

First of all, he states that different people, groups, and societies may have other thoughts, ideas, and beliefs about progress. Some see such improvements in more global events, and some do not expect drastic changes at all but want to live well. Further, as evidence to these words, Massey attaches the thoughts and ideas of some famous personalities. Hence, according to David Harvey, people strive to accumulate and increase material goods and abundance to improve life (p.321-322). Supporters of postmodernism reflect on these issues and assure that the contemporary world is the self-referential world, and modern times is a tangle of myths. Especially in the age of consumerism, people tend to accumulate in a flow of multiple events, but they are not as happy as they would like.

Lester B. Brown claims that a modern world is a mess; previous experience dictates further human actions, such as future changes in climate, population, amount of water, product prices, and states (p. 322-323). Additionally, technologies absorb a persons soul, depriving it of authentic, natural human qualities. Tim Jackson believes that one can achieve benefits without economic and financial growth because many other elements are necessary for humankind (p. 323). Moreover, some famous writers see dystopia only at the point of returning to the remnants and legacy of the past and in unity with nature (p. 323).

Secondly, the author expresses the following concepts regarding the future of humanity. By their character and essence, people strive to learn as much as possible about themselves and others, about the environment and the future (p. 324). As a rule, the probability of assessing the future is high if we evaluate the actual, objective factors and prerequisites. For example, George Orwell could look into the world of the future in the book 1984 or Herman Kahn in the book The Year 2000 (p. 325). They were right because they predicted the moments such as high technology, control, instant data transfer, and more. Massey also agrees with the statements of these creative personalities and is sure that a modern man has so overloaded with information that only a tiny proportion of them are beneficial and essential (p. 325). Even in the files of the government of some countries and some large companies, such a vast amount of data is stored that it seems very real to construct a picture of future events (p. 325).

Thirdly, the writer states that progress and social change are a natural process and the course of things, influenced by globalization and trends in corporate behavior and thinking (p. 326-329). Moreover, the source of social change does not matter much since the human factor is one of the most basic and vital (p. 327-328). Moreover, teachers also influence changes, and their work is significant for the development of the new generations (p. 331). For example, many other nongovernmental organizations help younger people develop skills and abilities that influence problem-solving, such as Teach for America or AmeriCorps (p. 331). Changes and shifts are a necessary process that the Government and the people should work on together, considering each partys voice. Social change activity implies responsibility for decisions, and even the slightest action, could entail inevitable consequences. However, ethical and moral concepts should also not be neglected in this regard (p. 333-334). No changes take place without human participation, and everyone can make a valuable contribution to the future and progress development (p. 338).

Reference

Massey, G.M. (2015). Chapter 9. Making social change: Actively engaging a desire for social change. In G.M. Massey (Ed.), Ways of social change: Making sense of modern times (2^nd ed.) (pp. 320-338). SAGE Publications.

Introduction

The culture and established norms in every society tend to undergo considerable changes over time which can be repressed for a certain period but eventually are unavoidable. Researchers in the field of sociology have been studying the concept of social change for decades, and there is a variety of frameworks which describe the exact mechanics behind the phenomenon. Although every approach seeking to provide a thorough account of the social change aspects has significant insights, the political opportunity theory delivers the most comprehensive analysis of the matter. Essentially, social change occurs as a result of the presence of engaged and organized individuals and political conditions which are conducive to the transformation in society.

A New Culture and Engaged Individuals

The most important component in every social change is the people who are not satisfied with the status quo and desire to transform the existing situation for the better. Usually, such people are individuals who experience oppression or are deprived and mistreated by the authorities and laws of the country. Essentially, there must be a group of people who consider the political and social system in place as unjust and discriminatory against them and their rights. Moreover, such a group should not only be unsatisfied with the current state of affairs but also have a certain idea about positive changes which need to be introduced. Additionally, the individuals who are directly affected by the mistreatment can be supported by those who are not impacted by the discriminatory policies.

There have been many social movements in history which can serve as an example for the aforementioned information. For instance, in the 1950s, in Montgomery, the Jim Crow laws implied ensuring segregation between white and black riders in local busses. As a result, the African-Americans were prohibited from becoming drivers for the bus companies in the region. Moreover, the black riders were required to pay a fare at the front of the bus and then go to the back of it where the area for people with the untouchable status was¹. Rosa Parks and her supporters became the engaged individuals who were dissatisfied with the discriminatory laws and openly defied them as a form of protest. People such as Rosa Parks experienced direct oppression by the authorities, and they decided to oppose them through violations to achieve a positive change.

Organizational Infrastructure

At the same time, the actions of a small group of people are still not sufficient to produce a change of a scale which could affect the entire society. In order to achieve success in transforming the social and political system of the country, a more organized effort is required from people. As a result, the engaged individuals who share the same vision, values, and interests have to form an organization which could amplify their message to a larger audience. Moreover, formal organizations ensure the mobilization of new people and help to educate them on the existing social problems which need to be solved through change. Organizations also facilitate the accumulation of resources needed for the successful achievement of the goals of the movement.

The story of Rosa Parks and protests in Montgomery had an effect on local authorities, but it did not change the condition for African-Americans in the entire country. The major role in the advancement of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s was played by notable organizations. For instance, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, led by Martin Luther King Jr., provided support for non-violent protestors and publicity for their activities. There was also the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), another organization which was instrumental in the dismantling of the segregation system.¹. The organizations managed to mobilize large numbers of people and eventually cause a change in the perspective of a significant share of the population on the injustice targeted against African-Americans.

Political Opportunities

Nevertheless, an organized group of engaged individuals who share the same views also need to rely on the political system. In other words, in order to ensure that the message of the protestors is heard and their demands for a change are implemented, there must be certain opportunities. Political opportunities can arise as a result of several factors, including the division among elites. The lack of repressive laws and the guarantees of basic political freedoms are also political opportunities. Countries where populations have a limited number of civil rights, tend to be more democratic. As a result, whenever a large social movement emerges, such countries quickly respond to the demands of the protestors.

The civil rights movements would not be possible without the U.S. Constitution and the rights guaranteed by it to the people. The first amendment of the American Constitution guaranteeing the right of the people peaceably to assemble and freedom of speech was essential for the success of the civil rights movement in the 1950s-60s². Additionally, the movement also had the support of certain politicians who promoted the idea of racial equality and justice. For instance, Ivan Allen was a mayor of Atlanta during the years of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. As a liberal, Allen actively participated in the desegregation efforts, although some of his actions were criticized by the activists³. Nevertheless, the activity of politicians such as Allen and the basic constitutional freedoms became the political opportunities for the civil rights movement.

Socialization

The three aforementioned components constitute the main factors which enable people to effect social change. At the same time, once the change is implemented, the need for socialization arises in order to ensure that the new situation is now accepted as normal. It is natural that every major social movement receives criticism from the people who oppose it since they are satisfied with the status quo. Such people also can continue to demonstrate their dissatisfaction even after the change has occurred. Therefore, a certain period of time must pass before all members of society, or at least the majority, have accepted the new terms as the new status quo. Even after the passing of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, many white politicians and organizations maintained their opposition to the law⁴. At the same time, today, half a century later, the Civil Rights Act does not raise any concerns and is widely recognized as one of the main milestones in American history.

Conclusion

Social change is a process which occurs in a situation when three components are in place, engaged individuals, organizations, and political opportunities. The civil rights movement of the 1950s-60s constitutes an example of how the aforementioned elements came together to produce social change in the form of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. At the same time, every social change requires further socialization to become a new reality and be accepted by the majority of people. Thus, in order for social change to be successful, not only political actions are needed, such as protests, but also the acceptance of the wider public.

Bibliography

Amdt1.4.1 Freedom of Assembly and Petition: Overview.Constitution Annotated.

Anderson, Carol. White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2016.

Holt, Thomas C. The Movement: The African American Struggle for Civil Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021.

Joseph, Peniel E. Stokely: A Life. New York: Basic Books, 2014.

Footnotes

1. Holt, Thomas C. The Movement: The African American Struggle for Civil Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021.
2. Amdt1.4.1 Freedom of Assembly and Petition: Overview. Constitution Annotated.
3. Joseph, Peniel E. Stokely: A Life. New York: Basic Books, 2014.
4. Anderson, Carol. White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2016.

Thesis

In todays society, ones progress and success is hindered by focusing on culture and tradition. Thus, the only way to be successful in society today is through formal education and a focus on global capitalism/economy. The theory of modernity is that in order to progress in society today, one must start to move away from socio cultural/traditional values as it hinders progress (Abu-Rabi 235).

The theory of modernity has recently become a debatable topic in todays society. Modernity has also often been associated together with technology hence the effect it has had on the society since its introduction (Conrad 65).

In this paper, we will look at cases where such transformations as caused by modernity and technology have occurred leading to success and where they have not, leading to poverty and other issues.

Introduction

Modernity, in simple terms can be defined as an existing modern era such as the one we are currently in, the 21^st Century. It is a process which involves social as well as cultural change, making the present fundamentally different from the past (Conrad 67). Human interventions have over the years made it possible for transformations such as urbanization, eccentricity, mass literacy, industrialization as well as proliferation of mass media to occur (Eysteinsson 13). Modernity has also encouraged the advancement in sciences and arts as well as changed education and religion by allowing deep-seated ideas become public (Arnason & Maria 145).

Positive and Negative effects of Modernity

Some individuals have argued that modernity has destroyed traditions as well as valuable cultures while others approve of modernity saying it has helped enhance economic stability and improved the standards of living. Modernity theory tends to try explaining the uniqueness of modern societies through controlling social processes and resulting in increased efficiency (Alexander & Seidman 52).

In the past, modernity or modernism was thought to only mean the amalgamation of lonely local communities, moving towards the traditional values and embracing eccentricity as well as social equality (Abu-Rabi 239). But as years go by, there occurs changes within the society and traditional as well as socio cultural values, which were once considered as having played a vital role within traditional societies, are becoming outdated. Modern concepts are being introduced and the society is slowly embracing them (Anderson 123).

Modernity brought with it both positive and negative influences to the society. Some of the positive influences include low infant rate mortality as well as eradication of most fatal diseases (Karl 347). With modernity came the rise of capitalism. Capitalism gave individuals the right to compete in free market as well as gain much wealth (Abu-Rabi 244). It also enabled people earn income according to the status they held in society for instance, doctors and engineers earning more income than teachers or casual laborers (Alexander and Seidman 54). As a result, great contribution to the economy was made and other individuals have been enabled to generate wealth as well.

In industries, modernity has made it such that modern systems of communication as well as improved infrastructure and transportation systems occur. This has enabled conveyance and exchange of information much more easier and quicker as compared to how it was done in the past (Mendels 252).

Modernity, science and technology tries to educate the society in letting go of cultural as well as traditional values and embrace modern technology which enhances the progress of a society (Dale 11). It also keeps a society in pace with other developed societies hence establishes and forms solid relationships between them. Technology, the state, religion as well as the law each has acquired their own personal identity (Anderson & Seidman 127). In other words, technology has favored economic growth and freedom of societies through capitalism and materialism (Eysteinsson 32).

Modernity has also had a positive impact on the marital arena in that women have become more liberalized and have more freedom to not only express themselves but also earn equal or more income as their male counterparts (Abu-Rabi 239). Traditionally, women were required to be homemakers as well as child-bearers. They were never allowed to work. But the introduction of modernity has brought with it education on the importance of equality for all and has become an eye-opener for most communities (Anderson and Seidman 129). Thus, women are now able to also compete in the free market arena as well as own property and wealth.

Infrastructure and architecture has not been left behind with the introduction of science, technology as well as industrialism. Ways of improving the construction and appearance of modern buildings are coming up, thanks to modern technology (Arnason and Maria 145). Areas which were once impassable are becoming more and more accessible due to introduction of modernity and as a result, job opportunities are created in the process (Conrad 67).

The negative effects of modernity, on the other hand, include introduction of technology which has led to creation of nuclear weapons. With the advancement in the knowledge and skills acquired through modern technology, individuals have learnt to not only create weapons of mass destruction but to also use them as threats to enemy societies (Conrad 73). This in turn leads to a devastating effect on societies as is in the case of civil wars (Anderson 125).

Environmental problems such as pollution have also been created as a result of modernity. This is due to rise of factories and industries which in rare cases often find appropriate ways of disposing off their waste products (Alexander and Seidman 78). In the end, harmful gases as well as toxic wastes are released into the societys environment, resulting in health issues of the individuals living around the factories and industries (Alexander and Seidman 98).

Through modern education systems, individuals have realized the right of equality owed to them despite different backgrounds, ethnicity or incomes. Though this might seem like a positive influence, it is on the contrary, a negative influence in that discrimination and racism results (Conrad 75). Those individuals or economies having a higher income status tend to influence and take advantage of the smaller and weaker individuals or economies by manipulating their decisions so as to achieve or acquire more wealth on their side (Polyani 300). This in turn leaves an imbalanced economy as well as societal position.

Although modernity has been seen to lead to success in a society, it has also led to poverty and other issues.

If Poverty then, what is the root of capitalism and the market which makes it that we can abstract anothers misery inorder to have our comforts?

With the onset of modernity, a contradiction arose between requirements of the society and those of the market economy (Eysteinsson 40). Controlling the market economy meant utilization of labor as well as land, thus minimizing the societys control over them. This in turn ensured a free market and profit flow (Karl 237). Modernity created capitalism and a particularly dangerous form which leads to poverty within the society as a whole (Ibid 254).

In capitalism the case is always that the supply precedes the demand. In modern society competitive markets have arisen with a great desire to create high profits. This has in turn lead to serious crises resulting in increase in unemployment, bankruptcies as well as a steady decline in the production process (Eysteinsson 39).

Capitalism tends to individualize ownership of property. It grants the society a right to private property (Karl 244). It also largely depends on designation of power from the state so as to enforce market regulation (Ibid 248). In the past, production was controlled by use of products but all this changed with the introduction of capitalism (Mendels 243). It opts to throw away unsold goods or products rather than given them back to the society. It only serves where there is a gain in return and in most cases, people cannot and are not in a position to afford such high costs of production (Abu-Rabi 243). Capitalism summarizes anothers misery inorder for the rich in society to have their comforts.

For production to continue with its existence there has to be exchange of the products. At the same time the market for those products need also expand inorder to keep up with the rate of production (Karl 299). With increased productivity comes decreased labor power but capitalism tends to try lowering production costs so as to obtain surplus profits (Eysteinsson 41).

The rise of industrialization as a result of modernity has lead to increased poverty in that due to the great hunger to accumulate capital as well as profits, it tends to undermine the cultural/traditional values of accepting inequality (Karl 275). Industrialization has also lead to the collapse of traditional communities. Lack of employment created by industrialization has resulted in higher powers using the low income earners as a route to earning illegal income via such vices as drug trafficking (Mendels 256).

Over-estimation of market limits for products has caused devastation due to excess industry, excessive means of trying to survive as well as excess civilization (Eysteinsson 42). In the area of food production, a negative effect can also be seen in that due to multi-national corporations taking over and eliminating producers, they tend to ignore certain fundamental phases in production, leading to a less desirable, chemically engineered final product (Karl 280). With the introduction of modernity, immigration from rural to urban areas in search of better work increased thus leaving the farms unattended. It became harder for the increasing population to keep up with the existing production and this led to food scarcity in the society (Mendels 255).

The economy has declined drastically in most societies due to lack of governmental regulations on conditions affecting the economy (Karl 301). With the rich competing for the acquisition of more wealth, the common man is left to bear the brunt thus leading to a decline in living conditions and an unstable economic status (Alexander and Seidman 118). Greed has led to corruption, concentrated wealth as well as foreign debts by societies, contributing to poverty.

On the other hand, increase in economic growth may lead to increased levels of inequalities in urban areas. This is due to the unfavourable investment environment created as a result (Alexander and Seidman 111). Modernity has in the long run reduced the societys involvement in the formal sector of the economy leading to social unrests and diversion from productive investments to boost the economy as a whole (Anderson 143).

In conclusion, though ones progress and success in todays society may be hindered by focusing on culture and tradition, modernity as well as introduction of science and technology has completely changed and dictated ones way of living, speaking, thinking as well as behaving.

Despite existing conflicts between modernity and traditional/socio cultural values, science and technology has expanded the societys vision as well as the general understanding of the world. Those values which would otherwise have been considered as traditional as well as modern have come to coexist socially.

Inorder for a society to move from traditional and socio-cultural values into modernity, normal societal behaviors as well as way of thinking needs to be transformed. This can only be achieved through formal education which will ensure a better and productive life. Societies must also try and maintain their traditional values by mingling them with the modern concepts, inorder to have balance between modernity and socio-cultural values.

Work Cited

Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. Beyond the Post-Modern Mind. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 7. 1990. pp. 235-256.

Alexander, J.C. and Seidman, S. (eds.). Culture and Society: Contemporary Debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990. pp. 52  140

Anderson, Walter Truett. Reality Isnt What it Used to Be: Theatrical Politics, Ready-to-Wear Religion, Global Myths, Primitive Chic, and Other Wonders of the Postmodern World. San Francisco, CA: Harper San Francisco. 1990. pp. 123  152.

Arnason, H. H., and Maria F. Prather. History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Photography. NY: Abrams, 1998. pp. 142  150.

Conrad, Peter. Modern Times, Modern Places: How life and art were transformed in a century of revolution, innovation and radical change. NY: Alfred A. Knopf, March, 1999. pp. 65  98.

Polyani, Karl. The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 235  305

Eysteinsson, Astradur. The Concept of Modernism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1992. pp 13  45.

Winograd, Terry and Flores, Fernando. Understanding Computers and Cognition. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. 1987. pp. 26  11

Mendels, F. Proto- Industrialization: The First Phase of the Industrialization Process. Journal of Economic History: 32. 1972. pp.241261.

Dale, A. Robbins. What do they mean by Traditional Values? Victorious Publications. Grass Valley. 1990. pp. 4  20.

Introduction

Environmental forces are factors that affect the growth, operations and survival of a society within a given context. They include the political environment in a society, its cultural beliefs, government regulations, changes in technology, natural disasters and demography factors among others (Charles and Steg, 2007).

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the five major environmental factors that impact on social changes within a society. In order to understand how environmental factors influence the society it is necessary that we understand what the concept of social change entails.

Social change refers to the alteration or change in the social order of a given society or group of people especially with regard to nature, relationships, behavioral patterns in the society and the social institutions that define them. Social change is also used to refer to progress achieved by the society through evolution and revolution that may have been undertaken by members of that society.

Types of Environmental Forces

From time to time, any society will always experience some changes that will bring about alterations of the community settings that influence the activities that the society is engaged and its performance in general. The following are environmental factors that bring about social change in a society or group of people.

Resources

The amount and type of resources available to a given society will play a significant role in promoting social change (Crompton & Kasser, 2010). Examples of vital resources include water, land and minerals among others which are used in the production of goods and services. The availability of such resources will determine to a great extent the level of production and output the society has.

If factors of production such as land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship are readily available, the production capacity of a society will definitely be high which implies potential for a stable economy. In this regard, goods and services will be readily available for sale in the market and employment opportunities will be created where people have constant source of income which will improve the overall living standards of the people. This will therefore lead to a social change that is positive as the lifestyle of people in the society will improve.

On the other hand, if there are limited resources in a society, there will be stiff competition for them as everyone will be competing for these limited resources thereby leading to potential outbreaks of conflicts among members of the society. This will possibly lead to depletion of the resources which could bring about more conflicts in the society. Therefore, as we have seen availability of resources in a community plays a significant role in determining whether the social change that takes place is positive or negative.

Disasters or calamities

Natural calamities and disasters will influence to a great extent the nature of social change that occurs in a society. Hunger, earthquakes and civil war usually adversely affect a society in that it leads to displacements, migrations, change in lifestyle of the people and even loss life.

During such cases, people are forced to adapt to new ways of life like constructing new homes, relocating to other places and coming up with new methods of sustenance in order to revert to the original way of life. In most cases, natural calamities usually bring about negative impacts and change in the society while in other cases, people get to reorganize themselves on a more solid foundation while they draw lessons from the calamity to better prepare for the future.

In such a situation, the natural disasters will have promoted social change. A good example is seen when flooding takes place, in such cases some people have their homes swept away and as a result new and better homes are built elsewhere where flooding is unlikely to occur. In that case environmental forces have social change for the better.

Climatic Changes

In recent times, the climatic conditions have become quite unpredictable which has adversely affected farming activities globally. This is a serious concern given that farming as an economic activity especially in the developing countries forms the back-bone of the economy. Most often, such countries rely on agricultural exports as their source of income and therefore large proportion of citizens in such countries practice farming both on small scale and large scale.

This implies that much of their investment centers on farming and in the event of unexpected weather patterns like short or excessive rains the entire produce might eventually fail. On the other hand, if the climatic patterns become predictable farmers will be able to invest more into farming without fear as they know that they will reap much. Some of the produce can then be used for domestic consumption while the surplus can be sold to generate income hence improving the living standards of the society.

Degradation of environment

Severe environmental degradation will lead to change in the lifestyle of people around it as it affects them negatively.

Incidences of air pollution, land pollution and water pollution are most often seen to directly affect the health of the people leading to such diseases like breathing complications and water related diseases (Massicotte, 2009). This can at times trigger mass protests of the community members who might decide to demonstrate against such cases of environmental pollution. In conclusion therefore social change is seen to be caused by all of the above listed factors as well as others not discussed in this paper.

References

Charles, V & Steg, L. (2007) Environmental Psychology. Journal of Social Issues, 63 (1): 1-19.

Crompton, T & Kasser, T. (2010). Social Aspects. Journal of Environment, 52 (4): 23- 33.

Massicotte, M. (2009). Activism. Globalizations, 6 (4): 411-431.

Reuveny, R. (2009). Environmental Degradation. Social Science Quarterly, 90 (3): 461-479.

Abstract

The social theory seeks to describe and conceptualize social dynamics. One of the central concepts that explain various sociological, psychological, and economic phenomena is social exchange. Various researchers concur that human relationships are built upon the exchange of goods and favors, which stands true at both micro and macro levels. Attraction toward a person or an object drives a person to prove their own attractiveness, which makes them enter a power dynamic in which they are dependent on the source. Power distribution is skewed toward people or entities whose survival and stability are not contingent on what others have to offer.

When deciding to submit to someone or something in the power position, a person has to conform with the social norms and legal obligations. The relationship proves to be beneficial only if the profit that a person reaps outweighs the cost they have to pay. People and entities are often torn between pursuing individual and collective interests that can be in conflict with each other. Ultimately, everyone seeks to gain a position in which their private interests would coincide with those of a group.

Introduction

Social theories can be defined as analytical frameworks or paradigms that are used to understand and interpret social phenomena. One of the central concepts at the intersection of sociology, psychology, and economics is that of social exchange. The social exchange has been conceptualized and studied by a great number of researchers. Yet, it is possible to provide a working definition, which is the interaction of two parties each of which conducts a cost-benefit analysis before taking action. This essay covers a wide range of concepts related to social exchange and shows how all existing power structures are based on humans exchanging goods and favors.

Social Behavior as Exchange

The exchange paradigm covers a number of theories that seek to explain the influence of social reward or punishment on a persons behavior. Three approaches toward this association have been put forward: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In classical conditioning, a human or animal subject learns to associate two stimuli  one natural and one neutral  with a single response; behavior stays outside the concept. Operant conditioning goes further in explaining what compels people to change their voluntary behaviors (Charles). Lastly, social learning adds the idea that some of the norms are internalized through observation, without direct interaction (Charles). Simply put, a person tries to mimic the behavior of other people to blend in and be accepted by others.

Surely, when it comes to large groups of people, positive and negative reinforcements should be further differentiated to explain the complex nature of interpersonal relationships. A group of people is seen as cohesive when each of them finds being a member of it rewarding in one way or another (Calhoun et al. 101). Interestingly enough, there have been outlined two types of motivation that drive people to join a group  individual and collective. In the first case, a person might want to confirm and prolong their membership due to the pleasure that they derive from social activities. Concerning the latter, though, a person might seek social approval (sentiment).

The notion of social approval is tightly related to that of social norms, and based on the degree of a persons commitment to follow them, researchers talk about conformity and deviation. As one may expect, the influence process treats conformists and deviants differently. The former are given more social options, which can be seen as a reward for their normative behavior. The latter, however, have shrinking options (negative reinforcement), which leaves them with two choices  to leave the group or show compliance.

The decision is made after a cost-benefit analysis, the underlying logic of which is whether the cost of making a particular choice is no greater than the potential profit (Calhoun et al. 102). When joining a group, a person has to contrast the value of social acceptance against their personal integrity that can be compromised if some of a persons individual views are not in line with the group norm. Typically, a group that offers high rewards also requires making some kind of sacrifice.

This part of the concept stood out to me specifically since it described something I experienced myself. As Homans states, a person stabilizes his behavior at the point where he is doing the best he can for himself under certain circumstances (Calhoun et al. 104). This idea explains some decisions that people make that seem irrational in general but understandable given the overall situation.

Ultimately, the influence process seeks to maintain the so-called practical equilibrium of a social group (Calhoun et al. 103). Practical equilibrium is a somewhat fuzzy concept that has been interpreted quite differently depending on the school of thought. To Homans, practical equilibrium comes down to the invariable behavior of each of the elements within a system. This means that even if a system showcases some inequalities and imbalances, as long as they do not undergo any significant changes, one can speak of practical equilibrium. Structural functionalists, on the other hand, see stability as an integral property of a system. For them, the elements of any social group seek to cooperate to promote solidarity.

Exchange and Power in Social Life

Blau offers his own perspective on the social exchange by extending the concept of seeking pleasure and reward in group association. The researcher states that human motivation comes down to quite primitive psychological processes of being attracted to other humans and things (Calhoun et al. 112). Evidently, interacting with or possessing an attractive object makes a person content. However, as a person attempts to reach their goal, they soon come to a realization that it requires entering the social exchange. Simply put, a persons attraction toward an object drives them to prove to be attractive themselves. In other words, one can reap benefits as long as one can offer something valuable in exchange.

Attraction toward a person or an object ultimately means dependency. As Blau puts it, the most independent person (or an entity, for that matter) is the one whose well-being is not contingent on external sources (Calhoun et al. 114). It is readily imaginable how need and attraction may introduce a power dynamic. In a society, power and influence are distributed toward those who are independent of others. One example would be an employer that offers employees compensation (reward) for their contribution to the work process (cost). In this scenario, the employer has more power as he or she provides workers with the means to survive  financial resources.

When entering an exchange relationship, a potential candidate needs to prove their attractiveness to the employer through demonstrating their professional skills and personal qualities. If an employee is happy with the dynamics of the exchange relationship, as in their contribution is fairly rewards, they would not want to break this connection. This again proves that the power is distributed unevenly, benefitting the most independent actor in the process  the employer.

The nature of dependency may be further differentiated by outlining the key factors that shape power dynamics:

1. supply of substitutes. If a person cannot easily switch to an alternative option for the lack of it, it aggravates their dependency on those in the position of power;
2. lack of information about substitutes. Sometimes, organizations keep their internal information security and deny access to outsiders. This fact makes a cost-benefit analysis complicated, in case a person wants to change their situation;
3. costs of moving. When conducting a cost-benefit analysis, a person has to factor in the costs of moving, i.e. choosing another option. For instance, as in the example with seeking employment, a person might need to make sacrifices to land a better option  relocate, spend less time with family, and so on;
4. strength of personal times. The cost-benefit analysis does not rely fully on the economic aspect of a decision, therefore, the human factor cannot be dismissed (Calhoun et al. 134).

What is interesting though is that power structures are not exactly rigid. One cannot say that once a system is set into place, the power distribution will remain constant. Blau points out two opposing tendencies when it comes to system maintenance. Those who are dependent on another person or an entity in one way or another may show collective approval or disapproval of power. According to Blau, this logic works for both micro and macrostructures (Calhoun et al. 113). For instance, power dynamics can be observed at the family level where family members may be in favor or against one persons authority over the household. At the macro level, one may speak of the power dynamics between the national state and its citizens who also explicitly or implicitly have the leverage to influence the standing of the authority figure.

Here, the notion of equilibrium may be reintroduced, but not without a twist. Blau states that ultimately, at any level of existence, equilibrium relies on disequilibrating powers. Collective approval and disapproval clash and create a new balance (Calhoun et al. 116). An excellent example would be a revolution that overthrows the old regime but with time creates its own rigid system of rules and regulations. Therefore, the side that was the opposition against the establishment may become the new establishment.

The Logic of Collective Action

It has already been mentioned that when making a choice, a person or an entity conducts a cost-benefit analysis that often contrasts individual and collective interests. Olson extends this idea further by showing how exactly private and common interests function in the dynamics introduced by a social exchange. The researcher provides an example of a perfectly competitive market where several companies produce similar goods.

Evidently, each company pursues profit for itself and would like to gain a competitive advantage over its contenders, which is by definition, a private interest. At the same time, every reasonable market player understands that the prices for their product largely depend on the overall conjecture of the market. If an industry enjoys higher demand from customers and favorable tariffs from the government, then everyone ends up in a profitable situation. In this case, supporting positive regulations that would advance the entire market would be a good choice (Calhoun et al. 125). Therefore, it makes sense to heed both private and common interests when making decisions.

Yet, in real life, the situation unfolds in a quite compelling way. If, say, the industry is successful at lobbying higher prices backed up by the government, each of the participants gets to make more profit from their business transactions. This creates an incentive to increase the output, i.e. manufacture more products, to maximize the profits. In turn, a larger volume of a certain product does not always meet an increased demand, which moderates the price one more time and makes it more balanced. Again, in this example that concerns more economic than social relationships, one may speak of practical equilibrium that relies on opposing powers  in this case, supply and demand.

Group Solidarity in the Absence of Trust

As with the previous example of a competitive market, the question arises as to how people or companies can settle on a decision that impacts each member. As mentioned above, each company within a particular industry wishes for higher prices for its products. Yet, when confronted with a choice of whether to support a certain regulation, it can be unsure if it would take the right course and gain an advantage in the long run. Higher prices in this example are what Hechter calls a joint good. Hechter explains that a joint good is only attainable if each member lives up to the obligation  for instance, take certain steps to lobby a favorable law.

The researcher states that social theory needs an adequate theory of solidarity that would explain two things:

1. variations in the extensiveness of corporate obligations;
2. the degree to which a group can make its members honor these obligations (Calhoun et al. 130).

Just like other researchers mentioned in this paper, Hechters assumptions about human motivation hinge on the pursuit of ones own interests. The author writes: All actors are considered to be rational egoists (Calhoun et al. 130), an idea that I could back up given my own experiences. Thus, it is imperative that the obligations that people choose to commit to are balanced out with a good compensation (Calhoun et al. 131). Hechter argues that the cost that a person has to pay in one way or another to derive benefits is proportional to the size of a group he or she intends to join. This assumption seems quite logical: for instance, a national state, which is a macrostructure, has plenty of resources due to its size and can offer many benefits.

However, membership, i.e. citizenship, obliges a person to contribute through taxation and comply with the legislation. As one may imagine, some aspects are not exactly measurable in economic terms. This leads Hechter to another logical point: the cost of production is a worse predictor of corporate obligations than the dependence of members (Calhoun et al. 133). Therefore, large structures and organizations do not survive merely of voluntary contributions, and some obligations are imposed.

Yet, there is one more unclear aspect: some actions cannot be turned into legal obligations. For instance, it is nigh on impossible to make people respect each other and improve their cooperation efficiency through mutual respect. Cook, Hardin, and Levi investigate social exchange dynamics under a very common condition  the lack of trust. The researchers introduce the notion of social capital that can be defined as the potential that a group has in reaching its goals (Calhoun et al. 140). Social capital sets the norms of cooperativeness and responsibility, which again, governs social exchange (Calhoun et al. 145). While not trusting each member of the group, in particular, an individual can still rely on its access to social capital and the opportunities that it provides.

Conclusion

Both micro and macro structures rely on the phenomenon of social exchange in which a person or an entity seeks to gain benefits by offering something valuable in exchange. What is socially acceptable in this case is communicated through positive and negative reinforcement. Social approval is determined by a persons commitment to comply with group norms, which may sometimes come with a certain price such as rejecting ones own principles and compromising personal integrity. However, by joining a group, especially the one that a person deems to be attractive, a person gains access to what it has to offer  both material goods and personal bonds. By following this logic, it is easy to conclude that the one who has a lot to offer without being contingent on others has the most power. By submitting to this power, people pursue both personal and collective interests. Making people follow through with their obligations is possible through law and social norms of cooperativeness and responsibility.

Works Cited

Charles, Eric. Explaining Behaviorism: Operant & Classical Conditioning. Psychology Today. 2014. Web.

Calhoun, Craig, et al. (Eds.). Contemporary Sociological Theory. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Introduction: Entering the New Century

Living in a world without any social, political or moral restrictions can hardly seem possible, because the humankind needs certain boundaries which will define the meaning of good and evil, thus, setting certain rules with the help of which the humankind can survive.

However, as time changes, one must expect the change in every single sphere, mainly because the change is an integral element of human evolution and must remain the key principle of the world development. However, the question is whether the process of evolution should concern the sphere of morals and social norms.

The Positive Outcomes: Beyond the Boundaries

On the one hand, the change in the social norms is obviously a positive shift in the world development and an obvious progress to a more intelligent society, and the efforts of those changing the norms are completely justified. Moreover, the process of changing norms is quite natural, according to Sunstein,

Sometimes these efforts are a function of the role [&] Sometimes efforts to change norms and roles reflect an understanding that human beings are selfish or have weakness of will and that measures should be taken to ensure behavior that, on reflection, we would like to follow. (924)

Therefore, the positive outcome of the norm-changing process is obvious. Since evolution presupposes progress, changes are inevitable. However, there are also certain controversies about the issue.

The Negative Outcomes: Forgetting the Basic Principles

However, it is worth mentioning that, according to certain sources, norms are the three pillars of society which are not to be changed under any circumstances. As Young explains, The function of a social norm is to coordinate peoples expectations in interactions that possess multiple equilibria.

Norms govern a wide range of phenomena, including property rights, contracts, bargains, forms of communication, and concepts of justice (1), which means that norms are the fundament of the modern society and are not to be changed, otherwise the whole system collapses.

The Possible Solution: Searching for the Golden Mean

One must give Young certain credit for maintaining social values; however, it is clear that social norms, like any other concept, must evolve from its plainest form into a more complex structure together with the society.

Therefore, it must be admitted that, though certain social norms must remain the same, e.g. the inadmissibility of a murder, the system of social norms must still be more flexible and evolve towards tolerance. Once becoming more humane and understanding towards the people who do not fit into the social morals and norms, the world will be able to pass to another stage of development.

Conclusion: As Far as the Change Goes&

Therefore, it is obvious that the changes in the social norms are completely inescapable and that these changes are predetermined by complex processes that have been taking place in the society for a considerable amount of time.

Even though these changes have seemingly negative effects on the state of the society, they are bound to drive the world to the further stage of progress, which can be considered as a positive element of development. With the tendency to tolerance and the pace of the social changes, there will be hopefully little to no outcasts in the nearest future.

Works Cited

Sunstein, Cass R. Social Norms and Social Roles. Columbia Law Review 96.4 (1996): 924, 929.PDF file.

Young, Peyton. Social Norms. The New Palgrave Dictionary of economics, 2nd ed., Ed. Durlauf, Steven N. and Blume, Lawrence E. London, UK: MacMillan, 2008. PDF file