Category: Snow

Introduction

Is it true that you are wanting to get up tomorrow first thing and run outside to play in the snow as opposed to sitting in a homeroom or office? Winter storms some of the time bring about snow days, where the climate conditions make travel and openness to cold air excessively dangerous for normal everyday exercises. A colder time of year storm is a climate occasion where the precipitation is predominantly snow, slush, or freezing rain. Regularly combined with solid breezes and under frosty temperatures, winter tempests can be risky. However, how does a colder time of year storm structure?

Winter Storm Formation

Winter storms start with soggy air ascending into the air, actually like different kinds of tempests. Rising air is normal at a virus front, where warm air is lifted above cool air and is important for cloud development and precipitation. Rising air can likewise occur as air climbs a huge slope or mountain. A wellspring of dampness, for example, air blowing across a huge lake or sea, is fundamental for mists and precipitation to shape. The last fixing, and the one that makes a colder time of year storm not the same as different tempests, is cold air. Beneath freezing air temperatures close to the ground and up to the mists will make precipitation fall as one or the other snow or ice. In any case, amazingly cool air can’t hold as much dampness and along these lines won’t make a lot of snow. This clarifies why probably the coldest places on Earth, similar to Antarctica, get next to no precipitation consistently.

Types of Winter Storms

Snowstorms are one sort of winter storm. Blizzards are snowstorms with high breezes, and lake impact storms are snowstorms that structure close to the Great Lakes. Ice tempests can bring freezing rain or hail just like snow. Peruse beneath to dive deeper into the various types of winter storms.

Snowstorms

A storm where precipitation falls as snow is known as a snowstorm. In the colder time of year, most precipitation structures as snow inside the mists since temperatures at the highest point of the storm are adequately cold to make snowflakes. Snowflakes are assortments of frozen ice gems that structure as water fume gathers into water beads and freezes. These ice gems stay together as they fall toward the ground, framing snowflakes. Assuming the air temperature stays at or below 0? between the cloud and the ground, the precipitation will fall as snow. Assuming that the air close to the ground is above frigid temperatures, the precipitation will liquefy to shape rain or freezing rain.

A snowstorm where there is no aggregation past a light cleaning of snow is known as a snow whirlwind. A concise snowstorm with snow falling at different power and some amassing is known as a snow shower. Assuming the snow showers are joined by solid whirlwinds and aggregation of heaps of snow, they are called snow gusts. A blizzard is viewed as a serious sort of snowstorm and is depicted in more detail underneath.

Blizzards

A blizzard is a serious snowstorm characterized by the strength of the breezes rather than the measure of snow it brings. With wind speeds at or above 35mph, blizzards make blowing snow conditions, where snow on the ground is gotten by the breeze, causing decreased permeability and the amassing of snowdrifts. A blizzard goes on for at least three hours and regularly prompts the amassing of heaps of snow, either as new snowfall or as reallocation of recently fallen snow as blowing snow.

Lake Effect Storms

Most snowstorms structure because of low-pressure frameworks that lift damp air into the climate, however lake impact storms’ structure because of the bounty of dampness from the Great Lakes. At the point when chilly, dry air from the north ignores the Great Lakes region, it gets a lot of water, which falls back to the ground as substantial snowstorms in the spaces south and east of the lakes.

Ice Storms

An ice storm is a colder time of year storm that has an amassing of at minimum 0.25 inch (6.35mm) of ice on every open-air surface. The ice shapes a smooth layer on the ground that can make driving and strolling conditions hazardous and can cause branches and powerlines to snap because of the heaviness of the ice. There are various sorts of frosty winter climates, which are controlled by the temperature of air masses in the storm. Slush structures when the snowflakes falling towards the surface initially pass through a layer of air that is above frosty temperature, which makes the snowflakes somewhat liquefy, and afterward go through a layer of air that is underneath frigid temperature, which makes the snowflakes re-freeze into pellets of ice. Like hail development, freezing rain structures when precipitation (either rain or snow) goes through a layer of hotter air, permitting it to become rain, and afterward through a layer of a lot colder air. In any case, this time, the rain can’t re-freeze as it falls through the shallow layer of freezing air close to the surface. The rain is supercooled through this interaction and freezes in a split second upon contact with cold surfaces.

Winter Weather Safety

Winter storms frequently make conditions where openness to the outside and travel become risky because of cold temperatures, wind, snow, or ice. Check the gauge for data about winter storms in your space and watch the climate prior to heading outside throughout the cold weather months. The National Weather Service issues climate cautions for regions that ought to get ready for snowstorms, blizzards, wind chill, lake impact storms, and ice storms dependent on three-layered levels:

Winter Weather Warning: take action!

Almost certainly, a colder time of year storm will affect your region. Be ready for substantial snow or ice, solid breezes, and frigid temperatures that will make travel and outside openness hazardous.

Winter Weather Watch: be prepared!

Conditions are good for a colder time of year storm in your space, and there is the potential for a serious winter climate. Assuming a colder time of year storm hits your region, be ready for substantial snow or ice, solid breezes, and frosty temperatures that might make travel and open-air openness perilous.

Winter Weather Advisory: be aware!

Winter climate conditions ought not to be out of the ordinary however won’t be adequately serious to meet notice levels. Practice alert when voyaging and stay away from delayed openness to the outside.

A crazy Wednesday morning in the coldest month of the year, yes you guessed it right January. 8 am class and coming out of bed was the hardest thing to do. Multiple alarms rang trying to help me get to the class but of no use. Multiple thoughts rushed into my mind, totally confused with reality and my dream world. I took some time to get back to my senses and realized that I was late for the class.

On my way to the class which was on the east side of the university campus, I saw snowfall. It was my first winter in Canada and the first snowfall of my life. I was fascinated to see the beauty of snow beds and wondered about the science behind snowfall. That morning snowfall surged my mood, I found it to be fluffy, big in size, and gentle. I got inspired by the idea that they are free to fly anywhere but they decide to stay grounded. The texture was soft just like silk and it vanished as soon as it landed on my palm. the feeling of calmness was so soothing. their individuality and the unique structure depict the importance of individualism and maintaining one’s true identity by not giving up on oneself under the influence of others. the uniqueness of snowflakes is also scientifically proven. According to research, snowflakes have six mother fins and 30 daughter fins. the mother fins have a similar orientation but not in the case of the daughter fins. Scientists have proven that snowflakes’ pathways near the center are thicker. They have linked the shape of the snowflakes to the thermal resistance for a point heat source domain and have provided proof of minimum resistance of heat in the snowflake due to its shape. (Konan and Cetkin, Dec 2018).

I was also in awe to see the snow bed. its evenness and qualities like the reflection of color or sunlight back into the atmosphere add to its beauty. The flat undisturbed sheet of snow shines bright. The depth of the snow bed strictly depends on the type of particles accumulating on the top layer. particles that are dense (column and graupel) form the deep mixed precipitation layer and the other particles form the shallow layer because their melting rate is high (Sankare and Theriault, 2016). I wanted to jump in and make a snow angel and play around and so I did. I did twist in the snow, jumped all over and my feet sank for 20 meters, I was experiencing it was the first time and was full of excitement.

I have observed that the newly made snow bed absorbs most of the sound and when the upper layer of snow melts and the bottom layer is hard it reflects all the sound waves hitting it. with this observation, I thought of researching some relations between snowflakes and sound. During my research, I came across a very interesting scholarly article proving the correlation between sound level and snowfall rate at frequencies above 10kHz. The research design was correlational and the variables were the water tank and snowfall. Equipment named optical Scientific precipitation gauge with a scale of 1kHz to 50 kHz was used to measure the snowfall rate. seven different forms of rain like columns and ice pallets were accounted for with different precipitation rates. The signal of sound was observed in columns, needles, etc and no signal was observed in plates, special dendrites, etc (Alsarayreh and Zede, 2011).

Between all these observations I got late for the lecture and didn’t attend it, missing it was worth giving a try to gain and observe nature. This world is full of awe. There are so many aspects of life we don’t pay attention to in this stressful world. We are capable to learn so much from mother nature

1. CITATIONSankaré, H., & Thériault, J. M. (2016). On the relationship between the snowflake type aloft and the surface precipitation types at temperatures near 0 °C. Atmospheric Research,180, 287-296. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.06.003

Describe the processes of snowmelt and examine their significance for the freshwater environment.

Snow melt is an integral component of the hydrological cycle for many catchments across the Northern hemisphere where snow accumulation is greater and therefore the subsequent melting has a more important role in the hydrological cycle of these areas (Aygun, Kinnard, and Campeau, 2020). Over several months, winter precipitation is gathered into a snowpack which is subsequently melted in a shorter time during the spring snowmelt. This shorter snowmelt period contributes to the catchment`s runoff, with snowpacks creating large amounts of meltwater that is subsequently flowed, by overland or subsurface flow, into lakes or rivers in the catchment (USGS, 2019). This process plays a crucial role in hydrological forecasting, in mid to high-latitude areas of the world, which forecasts the spatial and temporal progress of snowpacks, the melting rate, the melt waters impact, and flood forecasting (Aygun, Kinnard, and Campeau, 2020). Although, in many parts of the world this process is under threat due to rising air temperatures which is decreasing snow accumulation and melt and is resulting in snow melting earlier. These changes have consequences for the hydrological cycle, and the freshwater environment and could also result in increased floods in affected areas (Anderson and Shepard, 2013). This essay will explain the processes of snowmelt through two examples, one in the Cairngorm mountains of Scotland and the other in the mountainous areas of Central Europe, and will also showcase their significance to the freshwater in their catchments. It will also explain the possible consequences of climate change on snowmelt and the effects that it will have on freshwater environments.

Snowmelt is a contributing factor in the runoff of catchment in areas where climate permits high accumulation of snow to create snowpacks. These snowpacks are generated over several months in winter and are usually found in mountainous and mid-to-high latitude areas. The subsequent melting of these snowpacks is experienced in the spring-melting period due to Energy inputs (solar energy). These inputs result in changes to the structure of the snowpack over time and the warming of ice to 0 degrees Celsius (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). Further inputs of solar energy and air temperature result in the melting of snow into meltwater outflow. This meltwater contributes to the basin`s runoff, in which higher levels of runoff can be achieved (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). This process can be observed in both central Europe and the Cairngorm mountains of Scotland. This will be explained in greater depth within this essay.

The case study of the processes of Snowmelt in Central Europe examines the phenomena of snowmelt experienced in the Carpathian Mountains in north Slovakia, which can be categorized into three phases. The first phase in the small runoff event is in relation to the melting of snowpacks in the mountain valleys brought on by precipitation. Although snow from the mountain valleys is subsequently melted the snow on the mountains stays intact (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). This stage is usually initiated at the end of March or the start of April. The second stage results in no change to the snowpack at the start of April as colder air masses from high latitudes prevent the snowpack from melting (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). The third stage initiates the subsequent melting of the snowpacks on the mountains. This stage usually starts in the 3rd week of April, if during this time, rainfall is experienced alongside snowmelt, runoff usually is increased resulting in annual runoff maxima values for the catchment. If rainfall is not occurring and contributing to the process of snowmelt then diurnal runoff oscillations take place with respect to melting snowpacks (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). Variations in air and surface temperatures influenced by solar radiation are shown to be higher in the daytime and lower at night, leaving a delayed response to snow melting. With the Carpathian Mountains show higher runoff values at night and minimum values at midday. This variance in temperatures, therefore, leads to the delayed response of the discharge of snowmelt (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). This means that discharge is variable with time and can be longer or shorter due to characteristics such as catchment size. Figure 1 illustrates the increased runoff experienced in the 3rd week of April with low values of precipitation and high levels of air temperature. The graph illustrates that increased runoff is mainly attributed to the process of snowmelt.

This subsequent increase in runoff at this time of year flows into the Danube basin. Snowmelt has a significant influence on the Danube runoff regime, especially in the areas of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains which give higher levels of runoff in late April due to the snowmelt (Holko, Gorbachova, and Kostka, 2011). In the event of rainfall during the snow melt period floods can be a threat due to the increased runoff values of these areas.

A similar process of snow melting can be seen in the second example of the basin Feshie in the eastern highlands of Scotland, with the British uplands and especially Scottish Highlands experiencing a mass accumulation of snow in winter months which results in snowpacks being present in many mid to high latitude areas within these catchments (Ferguson, 1984). The case study conducted by F.I. Ferguson describes the runoff from the basin in relation to snowmelt from 1979-1980. The Feshie river flows into the larger Spey river that flows off the western edge of the Cairngorm mountains (Ferguson, 1984). Ferguson illustrates the importance of snowmelt in the basin’s hydrological cycle as there is a recurrence of diurnal oscillation in the streamflow, occurring at night. The snowy cold winter from 1978-79 accounted to be the cause of generating the large snow accumulation for the snowpack and diurnal oscillations experienced in the streamflow starting on April 10th, 1979, and lasting up until June (Ferguson, 1984). Ferguson makes a link between diurnal peak discharges and maximum air temperature during the day (Ferguson, 1984). This can be represented in Figure 2, which shows discharge flows peaking on days with higher air temperatures, resulting from the increased melting of snow.

The above studies describe the process of snowmelt and how it affects the hydrological cycle in their respective catchments. The fundamental process is similar, although climate factors such as rainfall and air temperature can contribute to a higher amount of snow melt and subsequent increase in runoff.

A major disturbance to the hydrological cycle is the threat of climate change to the process of snowmelt. Snow accumulation and melt are very sensitive to climate change as the predicted changes in precipitation and air temperature in this medium to high-latitude areas result in a decrease in snow accumulation and seasonal melting, which will affect the increased runoff in the spring melting season for many catchments (Aygun, Kinnard and Campeau, 2020). Projected climate models in the western USA, show that global warming influences can change the timing of snowmelt peak runoff from the warmer months to the cooler months in catchments in the affected areas. This change in climate can affect water resources and the economies of these mid to high-latitude regions (Aygun, Kinnard, and Campeau, 2020). From the climate models, future snow accumulation and snowmelt are predicted to decrease, therefore decreasing winter snowpack and peak runoff flows in the spring. Although in certain areas this model predicts in a minority of continental locations an increase in mid-winter snow accumulation may be experienced. The decrease in snow accumulation in mid to high-latitude areas could give rise to more frequent rainfall events, rather than snow, which could contribute to higher flood potential for certain areas (Anderson and Shepherd, 2013). Spring snowmelt can also provide a positive cooling effect in freshwater rivers. This can be seen in the River Spey, which is the habitat for many species of fish, including salmon. The predicted rising river temperatures due to warming air temperatures are a threat to aquatic livelihood as increased river temperature can affect their reproduction, habitat, and other biological factors (Pohle, Helliwell et.al, 2019). The rising air temperatures also affect the snowpack accumulation, which will decrease the amount of snow accumulated in the pack and the snowmelt that is discharged to the river. The process of snowmelt alongside precipitation and discharge influences the intra-annual variability of this river temperature (Pohle, Helliwell et.al, 2019). The subsequent gradual loss of this factor in the hydrological cycle has consequences for the Spey river and its aquatic species.

The current and projected loss of winter snowpacks and spring snowmelt due to climate change highlights their critical role in the hydrological cycle of these areas and the effect they have on the freshwater environment. In the spring melting season, snowmelt is a crucial component in the runoff of a catchment, as in many cold regions the major contributor to streamflow in a catchments river is meltwater runoff. Therefore, the projected shift of seasonal snowmelt to colder months and the overall predicted future loss of this snowmelt have serious implications on freshwater environments and the contribution they provide to water supplies and water processes in a period of spring snowmelt(Aygun, Kinnard, and Campeau, 2020). This decrease in streamflow will have implications for other tributary rivers and the aquatic species that live in these freshwater environments. The process of snowmelt in these areas serves a significant role in freshwater environments through runoff and discharge contributing to streamflow and the influence of meltwater on river temperatures that help contribute to cooling in the spring season (Pohle, Helliwell et.al, 2019). This can be seen from the two examples where the snowmelt from the Carpathian Mountains contributes to a large discharge of meltwater to the basin of the Danube and the Feshie catchment contributing large runoff of meltwater to the Spey river contributing to its streamflow and river temperatures.

References

1. Andersen, TK and Shepherd, JM (2013) Floods in a changing climate. Geography Compass, 7, 95-115. DOI: https:doi.org10.1111gec3.12025
2. Aygün, O, Kinnard, C, Campeau, S (2020) Impacts of climate change on the hydrology of northern midlatitude cold regions. Progress in Physical Geography, 44, 338-375. DOI: 10.11770309133319878123
3. Ferguson, RI (1984) Magnitude and modeling of snowmelt runoff in the Cairngorm mountains, Scotland. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 29, 49-62. DOI: 10.108002626668409490921
4. Holko, L., Gorbachova, L and Kostka, Z (2011) Snow Hydrology in Central Europe. Geography Compass, 5, 200-218. DOI: 10.1111j.1749-8198.2011.00412.x
5. Pohle, I, Helliwell, R, Aube, C, Gibbs, S, Spencer, M, Spezia, L (2019) Citizen science evidence from the past century shows that Scottish rivers are warming. Science of the Total Environment, 659, 53-65. DOI: 10.1016j.scitotenv.2018.12.325
6. USGS, (2019) ‘Snowmelt Runoff and the Water Cycle’. Available at: https:www.usgs.govspecial-topic water-science-school science snowmelt-runoff-and-water-cycle?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objectsFigure references
7. Ferguson, RI (1984) Magnitude and modeling of snowmelt runoff in the Cairngorm mountains, Scotland. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 29, 49-62. DOI: 10.108002626668409490921
8. Holko, L., Gorbachova, L and Kostka, Z (2011) Snow Hydrology in Central Europe. Geography Compass, 5, 200-218. DOI: 10.1111j.1749-8198.2011.00412.x

If you are a resident of countries with snowfall in winter probably the bone-freezing cold may or may not be your favorite climate, but playing with snow and other entertainments involving snow is sure to be the fun part of it all. Very low temperatures cause snowfall, indicating a freezing cold climate. The layering of clothes to protect oneself from the cold may also be insufficient in these winters. Ignited fireplaces provide sufficient heat and prevent the family members from freezing to death.

Fireplaces, hot chocolate, marshmallows, and spooky stories also kindle warmth in the hearts of people. Many kinds of fun activities and sports also revolve around the snowfall in winter. Winter Olympics, Ice hockey, and skiing all are a part of the experience. Even after very strict parental warnings, the most fun-loving kids leave households on chilling days in search of different games to play in the newly fallen snow. As Christmas and the holiday season also come around in the winter in almost all countries the festive season and mood are ON. Making snow angels on the ground atop newly fallen snow is a very popular and satisfying game to play with your pals. Christmas tree fixing and decorating are also done enthusiastically. But no winters are truly memorable without the iconic and legendary- Snowman.

A snowman is a figurative sculpture of a man made out of snow. Dependent entirely on the maker’s imagination and creativity the snowman can have many variations as possible. The most common snowman is the one made of three snowballs. The snowman has a head, a middle body, and a lower body typically all made of round snowballs. The number of snowballs used to create the body parts can be varied. The expressions of the snowman can also be altered according to the creator’s wishes. The most common expression is a goofy smiley face, a nose made of carrot, any suitable vegetable, eyes out of stones or black cut-outs, arms made of sticks, and so on. Customization and personalization of the snowman are the best part. Giving the snowman the desired tasteful alterations and variations is what makes your snowman unique.

Making a snowman can be a very fun activity. Each home normally has a snowman, either made together by all the family members or by the youngest members of the family, or by the other members of the family as seen fit. Quality time can be spent with the family with the snowman building and a sense of collective belongingness felt. Snowman building can be taken from a simple activity to a very artistic and complex one. The perfect type of snow to build the perfect snowman can sometimes be difficult to get, as crust snow usually does not stick together and for making a snowman we require snow that sticks together. The afternoons after the snowfall can be the perfect time to start making your snowman as by that time the snow would be ready and perfect to sculpt. Headgear, caps, and clothing pieces can also be provided for your personal snowman to make it one of a kind. The snowman template enhances your idea of snowmen and the beauty of creating one. Let your imagination run wild and create a magnificent snowman by referring to the snowman templates.

Snow cover mapping from space: Satellite-based snow cover mapping mostly depends on the spectral reflectance from the reflective spectrum (Dietz et al., 2012). Snow surface has high reflectance in the visible wavelength and very low reflectance at near-infrared wavelength. Reflectances from these two spectrum regions are often combined to detect snow presence, of which the most commonly used is the normalized difference snow index (NDSI). Since its development, NDSI has been widely implemented by a lot of remote sensing systems, such as AVHRR, MODIS, Landsat, and Sentinel-2, for operational snow monitoring. However, one major challenge with optical snow cover mapping is the impacts of clouds due to the reflectance similarity, and the detection of snow cover under clouds remains an issue (Hall et al. 2010; Dietz et al., 2012). To address this, temporal or spatial interpolation algorithms are often used to reduce cloud confusion (Parajka & Blöschl, 2008; Gafurov & Bárdoyy, 2009; Parajka et al., 2010). However, those methods based on optical remote sensing are not suitable when cloud cover lasts for several continuous days or dominates large regions. To complement this, passive microwave (PM) sensors are used to further fill the gap under a cloud (Gao et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2015). Up to now, there is still a lack of high-quality and cloud-free snow-cover products in Sweden. In this project, optical and PM sensors will be integrated to develop an improved and cloud-free snow cover mapping algorithm at high spatial and temporal resolutions, thus generating a long-term and cloud-free snow cover product in Sweden.

SWE estimation from space: Currently, the most commonly used technique to estimate SWE is passive microwave (PM) sensors. The principle is microwave radiation emission from Earth’s surface is changed by the snow presence, e.g., the attenuation at 37 GHz is strongly related to the snow volume (Chang et al. 1987). This relationship between microwave brightness temperature (Tb) and snow mass is the basis for retrieving SWE and has been used by a lot of remote sensing systems for large-scale operational monitoring since the 1970s, including the SMMR, SSM/I, AMSR-E, and AMSR2 (Chang et al., 1987; Foster et al, 2009, Frei et al, 2012; Hancock et al, 2013; Lee et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2019). One challenge with these PM SWE products is the coarse spatial resolution, which significantly limits regional applications, especially in complex terrains with huge spatial heterogeneity. In addition, the SWE retrieval from PM sensors is problematic when snow is deep (Chang et al., 1987; Derksen et al., 2010) due to the saturated Tb vs SWE relationship and when snow is wet due to the absorption of liquid water. Active microwave (AM) sensors have much higher spatial resolutions, however, their usage has been so far mostly limited to wet snow, given that under dry conditions the ground beneath snow cover rather than snow itself dominates the backscatter signals (Dietz et al., 2012). Despite the synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) onboard Sentinel-1 being a very popular AM sensor, most snow studies based on Sentinel-1 have up to now focused on the use of co-polarization instead of cross-polarization signals. The recent discovery of Sentinel-1 SAR cross-polarization backscatter for mapping dry snow SWE in global mountains has attracted wide attention from researchers (Lievens et al., 2019). However, the potential of AM sensors (e.g., Sentinel-1) for mapping the snow volume in Sweden is unclear and remains to be explored. In this project, I aim to integrate passive, active microwave, and optical sensors for developing an improved SWE estimation algorithm at the higher spatial and temporal resolution, and thus provide a more accurate estimation of snow volume at the national scale.

Snow dynamics and impacts on vegetation: The changes in snowpack have important implications for vegetation growth (Buus-Hinkler et al., 2006; Johansson et al., 2013; Zeng & Jia, 2013). In high latitudes, the length of vegetation growth season is largely dominated by the snow cover. Changes in vegetation phenology associated with changing snow dynamics have been found in many regions (Johansson et al., 2013; Zeng & Jia, 2013) Therefore, to better understand climate change, it is key to investigate the response of vegetation to snow dynamics, especially in high latitude. Currently, there is no in-depth study on the relationship between snow and vegetation dynamics across Sweden. In this project, based on the newly developed snow products, both snow dynamics and the impacts of changing snow dynamics on different vegetation types in Sweden will be investigated.