Category: Slaves

Introduction

The system of slavery that developed in North America was based on economic reasons: rice, tobacco, and other plantations needed laborers. As a labor force, they began to use dark-skinned enslaved people, who were forcibly taken out of Africa. Most of them were from the tribes of West Africa. Representatives of Central, North, and South Africa and the island of Madagascar found themselves in the New World relatively infrequently. Their exploitation played an essential role in the development of American capitalism.

The mass importation of slaves to America began in the 17th century. Virginia became the first permanent seat of the colonists. In 1619, the colonists acquired the first batch of slaves of Angolan origin. De jure, Africans were not enslaved but only had long-term contracts without the right to terminate. In addition, it is from these events in historiography that the beginning of slavery in America is counted. However, the contract system did not last long. The colonies began passing laws that reduced blacks to the status of slaves.

Analysis of Legal Acts

January 1639/40-ACT X was one of the main Acts of the Laws of that time. It directly established different legal rights between the black population and the British. At that time, this act was one of the first to oppress the position of the black population. This provision stated that everyone except African Americans should have a weapon and ammunition for it, and a fine was imposed for violation of the act¹. Thus, the act created a legal basis for differences between people while oppressing blacks. Because part of the weapon was needed to maintain order in the colonies and prevent the enslaved people from escaping.

The following legal act that significantly infringed on the rights of the black population was December 1662-ACT XII. This provision provided that the children of African American women were born as slaves, passed on to them from their mothers². Thus, this law toughened the attitude toward the blacks who were forcibly brought to America and toward all of the next generations, which was very convenient for the British. This law differed from the usual English legal acts, which provided for transferring rights to the child from the father. This law was also intended to prevent sexual relations between whites and African Americans through such a change.

Another oppression was introduced by the provisions of October 1669-ACT I, which permitted the killing of slaves. Since, in most cases, corporal punishment was used to restrain and punish slaves, they could accidentally be killed³. This act deprived the black population of protection from such cases since their lives were no longer protected by law. It was believed that by such actions, the British would be able to better control the slaves and prevent their escape.

September 1672-ACT VIII introduced restrictions and increased penalties for African American escape attempts and suppression. By introducing this legal act, the British wanted to achieve the suppression of the rebellious activities of slaves⁴. In addition, the restriction provided for the prevention of whites helping to organize the escape of slaves since punishments were extended to them. The law allowed the killing of a black man while trying to escape. This act was adopted after intensifying the insurgent activity of the slaves.

Conclusion

In addition to the previous act, April 1691-ACT XVI was adopted a few years later. It provided for the suppression and all kinds of obstruction of the activities of escaped slaves. In addition, the act provided for the organization of detachments that were supposed to return the liberated African Americans⁵. The law also provided that formerly enslaved people must be expelled from the colony, extending to interracial couples. Thus, the legislators wanted to make it impossible for the free life of slaves and the birth of mulatto children.

Bibliography

“Laws on Slavery.”Virtual Jamestown.

Footnotes

1. “Laws on Slavery.” Virtual Jamestown. Web.
2. “Laws on Slavery.” Virtual Jamestown. Web.
3. “Laws on Slavery.” Virtual Jamestown. Web.
4. “Laws on Slavery.” Virtual Jamestown. Web.
5. “Laws on Slavery.” Virtual Jamestown. Web.

In the middle of the 19th century, Harriet Beecher Stowe has created a well-known novel about slavery in the United States. The scandalous book was very popular, and its provocative glory is even considered one of the factors that have caused aggravation of the relationship between the northern and the southern states of America, which led to an escalation of the conflict between the two sides and soon resulted as a Civil War.

Analyzing the opinions of representatives of both sides – a slave owner’s point of view, and the stories of poor immigrants struggling to survive – we can notice how different the views were. Looking at the situation from the point of view of a slave, and of an immigrant worker, we can see that neither of them had what we call “freedom”, in a traditional sense.

Talking about the lives of slaves and comparing them to the theoretically free lives of immigrants, we are comparing the inevitable to the unknown: hopeless life of a slave and helpless life of a worker, who had no rights.

Of course, the appearance of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” caused a reaction from the slave owners. A dangerous pattern started to emerge, slaves were about to realize that they have rights, and have power to fight for their rights. Wealthy and satisfied with their lifestyles southerners, living happy full lives were not please to feel the smell of revolution in the air. This is why a completely logical reaction followed – slave owners started to respond to Beecher Stowe’s novel with their own articles designed to show better sides of slavery, justify it, and portray it in a good light, as an act of generosity.

Slave owners saw slavery as a great responsibility they were willing to take, in order to be good Christians and take care of the souls of their slaves, they imagined that they did not only own the bodies and lives of their slaves, but also the souls. Slave owners began to work out a series of arguments to prove that slaves were not used to freedom and that they required constant control, without it slaves would become unhappy lost people with no chances to survive, as they had no education, profession, social skills.

Southern plantation owners were trying hard to create a stereotype of a happy slave, a slave, satisfied with his place in the society, living fulfilled, organized life, grateful to the master for taking good care of him. Slave owners tried to deflect accusations for owning people, redirecting the social attention to the situation in the North of the country, where the labor market was overcrowded with people in need, begging for jobs and having very little chance to find one.

Clearly, slave owners had a point. Hiring was much more convenient for a northern employer than for a southern plantation owner. From the stories of the immigrant workers we understand how poor were the conditions they had to live in and how low their payments were. Those people truly were “wage slaves”. Rich southerners had to provide clothes, food, medical care and a home for their slaves. Capitalists of the North did not have to be bothered by all that. “Free laborers” were supposed to survive on their own. Besides, in case a slave owner loses a slave, a new slave had to be bought.

Only the wealthiest families could afford to buy slaves, the price for a slave was very high, while the lives of “free laborers” did not cost much, if one fails to do the job, falls sick or dies – the next minute crowds of new immigrants will appear to replace the unlucky person.

The deep gap between rich and poor caused the mistreatment of socially weaker people. While slaves were treated, at best, as pets or domesticated animals, immigrant workers were left to die in poverty. Egos of capitalists in the middle of the nineteenth century grew together with their income, and let them think they were the masters of the world and owners of the poor in both northern and southern parts of the United States.

Reference

1. “They Must Work Harder Than Ever”: “A Working Man” Remembers Life in New York City, 1830s. Web.
2. “I Was a Cabinet-maker By Trade”: A Working Man’s Recollections of America, 1825–35. Web.
3. “The Happiest Laboring Class in the World”: Two Virginia Slaveholders Debate Methods of Slave Management, 1837. Web.

A slave ship was commodified by indigenous African people, who were later sold into slavery in different parts of America. The individuals held in slavery endured cruel treatment for many years, including being tortured and discriminated against by the whites. However, post the American Civil war, there was a surge in demands to end to the horrific practice, and to some measure, it was diminished. Therefore, in moments of desperation, it is necessary to take spontaneous acts, which often can lead to the desired outcomes.

The lack of success in the Civil War called pressure on Abraham Lincoln’s regime, prompting him to take action. During the Civil War, much of Sothern America needed reinforcement. Lincoln began to draft African Americans and enslaved people into a military regiment. Given Lincoln’s nature of being lenient and conservative, he began to fulfill enslaved rights. As a result, President Abraham Lincoln announced the Emancipation Declaration on January 1, 1863, which issued all enslaved people not to return to America. Since the nation’s establishment, the period saw the most open and extensive debates about democracy (Locke & Wright, Chapter 15).

The need for Reconstruction called for collective responsibility in refurbishing America. As such, African-Americans and radical Republicans pushed the country to fully fulfill the declaration of Independence’s assertions of Lincoln’s notions that “all men are created equal” and had certain inalienable rights. White Democrats allowed African Americans only legal liberties. When African-Americans and their revolutionary supporters secured citizenship for emancipated people, a new battle began to clarify American citizenship’s constitutional, political, and social ramifications (Locke & Wright, Chapter 15).

Generally, slavery restoration of the Union was the most important objective of Reconstruction in the United States, fulfilling Abraham Lincoln’s fervent wish for slavery abolition. In this sense, his Emancipation was an ideal declaration that played a crucial role in freeing enslaved people. Thus, the war and its aftermath permanently abolished legal slavery in America; however, African Americans were still second-class citizens, and, to date, they still fight for an all-inclusive America.

Reference

Locke J. L. & Wright B. (2019). The American Yawp: A massively collaborative open U.S. history textbook. vol. 2 since 1877. Stanford University Press

Introduction

The history of the United States has both bright and dark sides. One of the latter is the slavery of black people. Today, in an attempt to correct the problems of the past, American society is trying to equalize people’s rights, regardless of their skin color. However, in the context of slavery and worker injustice, it is often forgotten that the white servant also had considerable difficulties and tortures. This paper will argue that despite significant differences in how they were treated in society, there was no difference between white servants and black slaves regarding educational factors and personal qualities. Despite the generally accepted opinion that black slaves were ill-treated and uneducated, white servants were often less educated, and their working conditions were not better.

The Smartness and Education of the Black Slaves

Reading newspaper advertisements regarding the search for escaped black slaves, one can often see their literacy and education. As Lloyd states, “about 30 Years of Age, speaks good English, can read and write, is a very sensible, smart, spry Fellow, has a remarkable bright Eye” (63). In addition, the reader should pay attention to the description of white servants and black slaves in their search. Both categories of people are described as well-dressed, neat workers. When reading these ads, the reader may feel that these are not announcements of the search for escaped slaves and subordinates but reports of the disappearance of ordinary people who, as usually happens, left the house and did not return. One such announcement, a black slave named Quomino, describes a man dressed in an olive-colored cloth coat, a new jacket and breeches, linen shirts, and a pair of trousers (Runaway 62).¹ This description creates the impression of a decent person whose education is at a level no lower than that of the average American. Consequently, such evidence supports the argument that there was no significant difference in human qualities between white servants and black slaves.

The Bad Education of White Servants and Their Labor

While there were many educated people among the black slaves, the white servants could count many illiterate men and women. For example, a 1747 article in the Pennsylvania Gazette describes the escaped servant, Robert Clinton. According to Greenfield, “he was enticed by one Sylvester Eagon, an Irishman, by trade a weaver, and speaks very brogueish, but no servant” (63). In addition, it is important to stress that the working conditions of the white servants and the black slaves were not significantly different. For example, these characteristics of work, such as penalties for failure to comply with work plans or excessive workload, expressed both in labor difficulty and in worktime, were common to both types of subordinates (Fuente and Gross 26). In the case of white servants, it is essential to note that people in this group were also poor, making it difficult for them to buy off or enjoy other privileges.

Similarities between White Servants and Black Slaves

The similarity of the worlds of these two groups of people consists in each desire to be released from their world. Both white servants and black slaves experienced injustices expressed in poor working conditions, excessively harsh punishments for mistakes, malnutrition, and others (Fuente and Gross 30). These factors partially support the argument and thesis of the essay regarding the stereotype in society’s thinking that only black slaves were treated poorly and inappropriately. The similarity between them was that both categories were held hostage by their situations. People were forced to obey the rules that their masters made for them. Any disobedience or deviation from the rules was severely punished regardless of whether the man was a white servant or a black slave.

Significant Difference between White Servants and Black Slaves

Despite the abovementioned similarities in working conditions and relation to white servants and black slaves, one significant difference distinguishes these people from each other. It is important to emphasize that slavery implies a life-long status of this type. In other words, if a person is born in slavery, he is destined to spend his entire life in it (Fuente and Gross 28). They have no choice and must devote their life to serving their master. This hopelessness of the situation is the primary and most critical characteristic of the fate of the black slaves. On the other hand, although white servants also have poor working conditions listed earlier in the essay, they have certain rights (Fuente and Gross 28). For example, white servants can free themselves from their masters and become free people to do their business (Fuente and Gross 32). In this context, the worlds of these two groups are distinguished by the fact that white servants can get rid of their world through work and merit before their masters. In contrast, black slaves are forever confined in their world, regardless of how much they want to escape it.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is essential to emphasize that the historical stereotype of injustice only against black slaves is unfounded. Using various resources, such as advertisements from newspapers of the period, it was possible to identify the characteristics of both black slaves and white servants. As a result, it is important to emphasize that both categories of people experienced significant injustices regarding harassment by their owners, including using such runaway advertisements. This information should form a solid basis for studying the period of slavery in the US and for drawing important historical conclusions.

Works Cited

Fuente, Alejandro, and Gross, Ariela. Becoming Free, Becoming Black: Race, Freedom, and Law in Cuba, Virginia, and Louisiana. Cambridge University Press, 2020.

Greenfield, James. Runaway Advertisements in Colonial Newspapers, 1747-1770. Pennsylvania Gazette, 1747.

Lloyd, Henry. Runaway Advertisements in Colonial Newspapers, 1747-1770. Boston Evening-Post, March 29, 1762.

Runaway Advertisements in Colonial Newspapers, 1747-1770. Boston Evening-Post, July 26, 1748.

Footnotes

1. Boston Evening-Post, July 26, 1748.

“Slavery is a mode of compulsion that has often prevailed where land is abundant” (Morgan, S. Edmund, 1975, p.296). The slave trade flourished for over a century before the first boatload of twenty Negroes was brought to Jamestown, Virginia, through a Dutch slave trader in 1619 and property in men and women were legal as early as 1640’s. Large-scale agricultural operations, which created labour problem, were solved by enslaving American Indians, maintaining bonded labours, servants recruited through import, and slave trade. As slavery offered incomparable advantages in “keeping labour docile,” the land barons carefully transformed the “free rogues” from England to slaves.Physical endurance and high life expectancy of African slaves prompted Dutch slave traders in 1660’s, and later in 1672 by Royal African Company, to import more African Blacks to Virginia. Morgan states “Virginia imported roughly 45,000 slaves between 1700 and 1750, and the black population grew over 100,000 by this time.”.

The Virginian’s invested earnings from tobacco in cattle, hogs, and servants and exchanged cattle for slaves. The black slaves were not rebellious and return on investment was more than expected than employing servants. The population concept of race-based slave system developed in 1690’s with “headrights” . Between 1708 and 1750 about 38,418 slaves entered Virginia. The servants were employed in plantation, generally ‘white’ with fixed contractual terms. The slaves included both white and black, and were traded. The enslaved black helped to build colonial America along with free whites through construction, agriculture, mining, shipping, and housekeeping activities. “With slavery Virginians could exceed all their previous efforts to maximize productivity”.

Works cited

Morgan, S. Edmund. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia. Book IV: Chapter 15: Towards Slavery. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 1975.

The notion of indentured servants derived from the need for cheap labor. The American settlers discovered plenty of land that required to be taken care of, but there was not enough manpower to carry out this work. Since getting into the colony was expensive and hard for everyone except the wealthy, the Virginia company created contract slavery to attract new workers. Consequently, indentured servants became an essential part of the colonial economy.

The Thirty Years’ War led to economic stagnation, leaving many skilled and inexperienced workers unemployed. This explains the number of immigrants who have arrived in the American colonies as servants under contract. They worked from 4 to 7 years for travel, room, food, and freedom dues. The life of the servant who signed the contract was limited but had its advantages. Their warranty included at least 25 acres of land, an annual crop of corn, weapons, cows, and new clothing. Some indentured servants even became part of the colonial elite. Still, for the vast majority of servants who survived the harsh conditions of life in the New World, the main goal was a humble and independent life.

The first Africans came to Virginia in 1619, and because there were no laws regarding slavery, they were initially treated as paid servants. Moreover, they were given the opportunity to receive free contributions on a par with white Americans. However, a slave law was soon passed in Massachusetts in 1641 and Virginia in 1661, and the freedom for African slaves disappeared. The demand for labor increased, as well as the cost of contracted servants. Many landowners felt threatened by the land claims of the newly liberated servants. The colonial elites became aware of the problem of contract slavery. Thus, landowners started to perceive African slaves as a more lucrative and renewable source of labor, and the shift from wage servants to racial slaves began.

Out of the various forms of resistance used by slaves, the one which exacted the best revenge is armed and organized rebellion. The main reason is the fact that despite their failures in colonial America, the Haitian Revolution was a signal about slavery always being challenged. One of the most common forms of resistance was sabotage of production by breaking tools, feigning illnesses, and slowing the work process. However, these were mostly ineffective measures because they led to negotiations where masters benefited the highest. In addition to sabotage, theft was also a form of resistance, where slaves stole certain goods for their own personal use. It was done mainly due to poor living conditions, such as nutrition, among slaves, which is why food was the main target of theft. It should also be noted that theft was justified from the slaves’ perspective since they are their masters’ property, and thus, how can a property steal the same owner’s property?

Unlike the previously daily forms of resistance, the flight was an overt resistance. However, it was not effective because it led to harsher oversight and severe punishments. Escaping was a risky endeavor with rather low chances of success with no widespread impact. In addition, it was mostly men who had acceptable chances of successful flight. Therefore, the most effective form of resistance with the best revenge was armed rebellion, such as the Haitian Revolution. Although it was the only successful rebellion among many suppressed ones, the victory was not the main point. The key message was the fact that slavery will never be tolerated and it always is challenged by slaves, and the Haitian Revolution’s success was a reminder to masters that they will not be able to own slaves forever.

The United States’ early years are characterized as a period of active territorial expansion, economic development, and the growth of internal contradictions. At this time, the formation of the American state was completed, the country reached its modern continental borders (through treaties, purchases, and wars), domestic communications (first canals, then railroads) were rapidly developing. Politically, the U.S. balanced the free North and the slave-holding South, which competed for the fast-growing West. The South developed a plantation system based on the slavery of African Americans, which led to the emergence of the anti-slavery movement (abolitionism). The rapid growth of the territory exacerbated the dispute over the fate of the new states – whether they were to be free or slave states. This was a crucial precondition for the Civil War that broke out in the country.

During the first years of the country formation, three aspects of U.S. external politics were acquiring lands, national defense, and maintaining foreign commerce. Under Thomas Jefferson’s administration, the U.S. first expanded by purchasing territories (Spear, 2018). For example, the acquisition of Louisiana from France is considered a significant event in the country’s early history. It was roughly the same size as the territory that the States had previously possessed. The outbreak of war with Great Britain was unavoidable for many reasons. Great Britain sought to undermine U.S. maritime trade, violated the rights of neutral navigation, seized American ships and their crews under the pretext of looking for English deserted sailors. Canada, however, remained British, and in August 1814, the English corps entered Washington.

The early 1800s is characterized as a time when the foreign policy foundations of the young nation. Every party that came to power in the country sought to secure its borders and push back European rivals. In this connection, the Pacific basin and East Asia became one of the areas of U.S. expansion. Hence, the purposeful struggle to possess naval bases in the Pacific Ocean on the approaches to the Asian mainland. The United States saw its mission in strengthening its presence in Latin America, establishing a bridgehead on the Caribbean Sea islands.

Alexander Hamilton, a prominent politician during the War of Independence and the U.S. founding, called for creating a comprehensive American system beyond the control and influence of European countries. It should have been capable of dictating the terms of relations between the Old and the New World. In 1820, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Clay formulated the position that predetermined the commonality of economic interests of the North, Central, and South America under the U.S. hegemony (Ostdiek and Witt, 2021). As new territories were developed and expanded, new states were created.

Once again, the U.S. used the “big stick” policy – armed interference in the affairs of Latin American countries, in its relations with Colombia, with the issue of the interoceanic canal as an excuse. This strategy was combined with “dollar diplomacy”: the Dominican Republic, Honduras, and Nicaragua became economically dependent on the United States (Hollenbeck, 2020). American companies monopolized the lucrative fruit trade in Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Argentina. In Mexico, U.S. investment was over a billion dollars or a quarter of U.S. investment abroad. Given its relative military weakness in the Far East, the U.S. focused on supporting Japanese aggression against China and Korea to exploit Japan’s successes to its advantage. Thus, ensuring stable and profitable trade and protecting external borders were achieved through the intensive occupation of territories or financial control over them.

U.S. foreign policy was weakened to some extent by the debilitating war with Great Britain, which was fought with mixed success. Britain was not very agreeable to its former colonies seceding and forming an independent state, so every excuse was used to force America back into the fold of the British Empire. In 1814 British troops even captured Washington and destroyed virtually all of its public buildings in two days (Achenbach, 2021). But the extraordinary heroism shown by American soldiers forced the British to retreat. After the war was over, Great Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States of America and no longer attempted to infringe on its sovereignty.

Despite the end of the war, there were still many disputes between the U.S. and Great Britain. These were primarily resolved in the postwar negotiations that led to the Anglo-American Convention of 1818 (Ostdiek and Witt, 2019). The remaining unresolved issues, such as the status of the present-day Northwest United States, were settled in the 1842 Webster-Ashburton Treaty (Longley, 2019) and the 1846 Oregon Treaty (Noakes, 2021). The conclusion of these treaties helped to strengthen the U.S. position at that time.

Thus, the nature of U.S. foreign politics since the establishment of the country has been purely practical. By the end of the XIX century, the products of American manufacturers in many respects became superior to their European counterparts, and the domestic market was packed. Therefore, the state-directed its forces on the intensive displacement of European competitors and the conquest of foreign markets of the Western hemisphere and the Pacific region. In addition, the promotion of American products in the Old World was of no small importance.

References

Achenbach, Joel, “In 1814, British forces burned the U.S. Capitol,” The Washington Post.

Hollenbeck, Rachel, “Lending a Helping Hand: Dollar Diplomacy in Latin America,” Undergraduate Research Journal 24, no. 3 (2020): 25-40. Web.

Longley, Robert, “The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842: How the Treaty Smoothed US-Canadian Relations,” ThoughtCo.

Noakes, Taylor C, “Oregon Treaty,” The Canadian Encyclopedia.

Ostdiek, Bennett, and John Fabian Witt, “The Czar and the Slaves: Two Puzzles in the History of International Arbitration,”American Journal of International Law 113, no. 3 (2019): 535–67.

Spear, Jennifer M, “The Louisiana Purchase: Liberty, Slavery, and the Incorporation of the Territory of Orleans,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History.

In the book under analysis, the author, Timothy Silver, presents his chief aim and the attempts to achieve it: to show the interrelation of three different cultures, Native American, Anglo-American, and Afro-American with the environment, the north-eastern forests, in particular. The main purpose of the present paper is to prove if the author meets the purpose he advances in the book or fails to do this. This report covers the main advantages of Silver’s approach to the relationship of human beings belonging to different cultures, and their mutually active interrelation with nature. However, the paper throws light on numerous limitations of the book that are, to a certain extent, disastrous for the overall realization of its purpose. Thus, this report will show that the task set by the author has been fulfilled but needs further study.

For the successful analysis of the book, it is necessary to provide main background information on the author. Timothy Silver works as a professor of history at Appalachian State University in Boone, North Carolina. His other well-known publication is Mount Mitchell and the Black Mountains. An Environmental History of the Highest Peaks in Eastern America.

First, it is necessary to mention an earlier written source that has influenced Silver’s intentions and his creation of the book under consideration. It was William Cronon and his book Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England that provided a model that Silver chose to follow. Thus, the first thing that should be mentioned is that the argument Sliver states in his book are not entirely new in itself, it has been introduced by the Cronon already. However, the author admits this, saying that he takes “Cronon’s work as [his] structural and methodological model” (ix) intentionally.

On the one hand, one of the merits of the book is the choice of the territory the author analyzes from a historical perspective. The decision to limit the area of analysis to “the principal area of English settlement” (x) is a good one as, in case, if he had chosen the whole territory of colonial South, he would have faced many difficulties. As the sphere of primary importance for his investigation was the environmental change of the region under study, he had to take into account the details relating to the spheres of topography, climatic changes, and settlement patterns that were of great importance. Thus, the choice of the area is good to prove the argument the historian advances. However, it is a deplorable fact that the author ignores Florida which used to be among British colonies and attracted numerous settlers as well. It could have been a fruitful ground for investigation.

An overall manner of presentation of the material should also be mentioned. Silver states in the preface to the book that as soon as he has started his work on it, he has realized that “one cannot become an instant expert in disciplines as diverse as medicine, plant and animal ecology, geography, geology, and anthropology” (x). His attempt to simplify specialized material he makes use of is evident and a reader should give him credit for it. Still, there are numerous abstracts in the book that are difficult to interpret; they even need rereading to get at the idea. Thus, on the whole, the manner of presentation of the material is rather difficult for a non-specialist. Besides, it is evident that the book lacks maps; the illustrations presented in it are mostly drawings of plants and animals, such as the picture of Sassafras (20).

As for the structure of A New Face on the Countryside, the book is proportionally divided and the structure makes its contribution to the general understanding of the author’s argument. In the prologue, he gives an account of the limits of his investigation. In the subsequent chapters, Silver analyzes ecological changes in the region in historical order, the influence of the indigenous people, the Europeans, and the impact of slaves as well. On the whole, the overview of the historical events presented creates a sufficient understanding of the situation and the main idea implied by Silver. Still, the material he presents often lacks depth. It may well be that in his attempt to simplify the information he failed to present important information. This accounts for the book’s being scrappy and it is evident that the historian is treating the groups (the Indians, the Europeans, the African slaves) unevenly. The interrelation of the Europeans and the north-eastern forests are described in much detail. At the same time, the impact of African slaves is depicted as a merely passive one. He tackles their importance in such matters as diseases’ penetration. Still, the amount of material is insufficient.

The method used in the book should be commented on. The author himself calls this method “an imaginary ‘walking tour’ of the region” (14). On the one hand, this method is interesting and useful due to its realistic nature. The aim of this method is to cover the greater part of the territory and to produce an impression of real presence. Still, the use of this method throughout the book seems to be unjustified and even imposed intentionally. This “walking tour” sometimes seems to be disadvantageous in comparison with a simple account of the known facts that could have added clarity that the narration often lacks. The author seems to have forgotten that the book does not belong to imaginative literature; spacious unnecessary abstracts present its main disadvantage. Such is, for instance, the account of geologic history that can be found in the second chapter. Its relevance can be questioned.

The merit of this book is that Silver presents human agents at the center of his study. He links environmental changes to cultural changes. This point of view is authentic and it is the zest of the book. In comparison with some known information that the historian may be abusing, the cultural and ecological ties of the region are really captivating.

The best part of Silver’s study informs the audience about the deforestation of the land that was exercised but the indigenous people but continued and intensified by European invaders. The author gives an account of different changes that occurred due to human invasion, such as the appearance of new plants, alteration of wildlife, the change of weather, and aggravation of such geographical problems as erosion (134). This part of the study is multidimensional and persuasive.

Drawing a conclusion, it is possible to state that numerous limitations and sometimes shallow presentation of the material in the book cannot be left unnoticed. Organizational drawbacks violate the natural flow of the study and sophisticated language creates additional problems for understanding. Still, in general, the author has managed to fulfill the task he had accepted. He shows that the interaction between nature and culture is a promising ground for investigation. Environmental past is extremely important for the present.

References

Official website of the University of North Carolina. 2010. Web.

For those who were branded as Negro Slaves, there was no real freedom during the period before the Civil War. There was no freedom for Negro Slaves in the southern states because a system was in place to force them into a life of servitude. The life of Solomon Northup exemplifies this truth. He was a free man living in New York when he was kidnapped and sold as a slave. However, when he was kidnapped and brought to the South, his former status as a freeman was never considered by his new slave master. The system in place was perpetuated by laws applicable to the southern states, and a philosophy that was exemplified in a speech delivered by James Henry Hammond.

There was no real freedom for the Negro slaves living in the South in the three decades before the Civil War. A system was in a place that smothered any idea or suggestion that human beings were created equal in the sight of God. If there was an argument to the contrary, this was brought to a decisive end when Solomon Northup was kidnapped from his home in one of the northern states, and dragged into a life of slavery into one of the plantations in the south. Northup’s kidnapping demonstrated the belief system that dictated the values of the people in the southern states. Northup’s abduction proved beyond a reasonable doubt that slavery was based on race.

There were two primary reasons why Negro slaves in the southern states were never able to taste true freedom before the onset of the Civil War. First, the law of the land made it possible for slave owners to own Negro slaves and treat them as beasts of burden. Second, the whole region in the south was governed by a philosophy that persuaded them to believe that men and women of African descent were destined to serve white masters.

An overview of the Virginia Slave Code of 1705 provided an idea of how the law of the land stifled any hope of freedom. The law described the power of the slave owner over a Negro slave. The law described the severe limitations of Negro slaves, especially when it came to their mobility—the slave owners of Virginia where authorized by law to destroy or kill runaway slaves. The code specifically stated that those who chose to punish runaway slaves in a violent manner were not guilty of any crime (Virginia Slave Code of 1705 1).

The law also stated that Negro slaves were not allowed to wander off into nearby plantations, and they were forbidden to stay there for more than four hours without securing the permission of their master. If the slave owner did not give prior permission for the slave to visit other plantations or to interact socially with other slaves, then, the erring party was expected to suffer from the hands of an angry slave owner.

Negro slaves in southern states did not experience real freedom in the decades before the Civil War, because of a belief system that men and women of African descent were created to serve white masters. This belief system was dignified using “The Mudsill Theory” (Hammond 1). In the said theory, there was a race of men that were created to perform menial tasks. This theory stated that it is necessary to subjugate Negro slaves for the purpose of civilization and progress. The proponents of this theory asserted that it was impossible to accomplish great things without the assistance of slaves.

It is important to point out that Hammond’s speech on “The Mudsill Theory” was made in the year 1858 when northern states already made the slave trade illegal. In fact, Hammond mentioned this historical development in his speech. Nevertheless, Hammond ridiculed his audience, especially those who believed that Negro slaves must be set free. The law instructed people on how to deal with Negro slaves. However, the philosophy espoused by Hammond explained why Negro slaves in the southern states never had the chance to experience real freedom, even as America was moving towards a modern era.

Conclusion

The story of Solomon Northup’s abduction and return to a life of slavery was the undeniable evidence that Negro slaves in southern states were never able to experience real freedom a few decades before the Civil War. The United States was gearing towards modernity. However, the slave owners and white residents of the southern states were adamant as to the natural role and status of Negro slaves. They believed that men and women of African descent were deemed inferior to their slave owners. This idea was perpetuated by law and a philosophy that cannot see the value of Negro slaves outside the plantations because they were destined to perform menial tasks and back-breaking labor for their slave owners. The law of the land empowered them to treat Negro slaves as beasts of burden. Nevertheless, the philosophy that Hammond espoused made it clear that Negro slaves must suffer under perpetual bondage.

Works Cited

Hammond, James. Speech to the U.S. Senate. 1858. Virginia Slave Code of 1705. Web.