Category: Slavery

The discipline of social sciences is widely used to denote the way individuals behave within a society, differentiating the morally accepted behaviors that are mostly referred to as immoral. Those individuals occupying certain leadership positions are prone to being dictators and thus many of them would be vulnerable to leading in a corrupt way. Machiavellianism theory expounds on the use of unscrupulous ways to lead other people and thus they would later be involved in using adverse acts such as punishing the subjects and also being dishonest to the people they lead. Machiavellianism theory was developed by an Italian politician, Niccolò Machiavelli, who advocated for a leadership style that would be characterized by acts of deception, unscrupulous acts, dishonesty, and being in the state of expediency. Frederick Douglass encountered leaders who were not in the effort of gaining a good reputation, but they were always willing to act in unscrupulous ways. He feared his master more than he respected and loved him. The political arena has been characterized by behaviors that later oppress society, leading to several societal sectors stunted growth. Machiavellian leadership ideas were greatly utilized by slavery masters as described by Frederic Douglass, who was able to escape slavery in America. Therefore, this paper examines the how the Machiavellianism theory of leadership were applied to slavery and also in the story of Jhon Singleton in his The Peach Tree poem.

The slave masters would not allow people like Frederick to have a chance to read some written texts even during free time, thus being cruel as advocated by Machiavelli. However, Frederick would later utilize any of his free time to read some texts which empowered him to escape from the hands of slavery. And having taken this for his opportunity, he had him placed in the square in Cesena, one morning, in two pieces with a piece of wood and bloody knife beside him. The ferocity of which spectacle left those peoples at once satisfied and stupefied (Douglass, 348). As stated by the Prince in his theory, the colonial masters would be fierce, and they would not wish to let the slaves have even a chance to read and gain knowledge about slavery. On the other hand, Jhon Singleton, in his work of The Peach Tree, unveils racial matters as he discusses Chastity, a girl who is originally from the black community. Therefore, in the societies depicted by Frederick Douglas, Jhon Singleton and Prince Machiavelli of France discuss the morality that rulers should possess to rule. A ruler should thus be widely feared than being loved to lead society towards the right path some of the times through acts such as punishment.

Frederick Douglass and his Master Hughs family related to each other as slaves and a master for seven years. The most important episode that Frederick experienced in his Masters house was to read and write. As a young boy, Frederick loved reading texts about slavery and how the masters treated their subjects. During the time when slavery was widespread in American, blacks and other immigrant groups were more held as slaves and they would be induced in harsh treatment, who would advance several types of punishments. Being encouraged by a Columbian Orator, Frederick later ran away from his slave master and he escaped to New York form Baltimore. He became one of the most influential public speakers who would talk more about slavery, hence condemning his previous colonial masters. He worked under poor conditions as a slave, and he would also receive gross mistreatments as they were too harsh on slaves. As Machiavellianism states, men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, for everyone can see and few can feel. Everyone sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are, (Douglass, 348). The colonial masters would not think of Frederick becoming a free man, who later would condemn them, as they judged him as a slave.

On the other hand, The Peach Tree by Jhon Singleton discloses Robin and his life encounters with his wife Florence and his beautiful daughter, Chastity. Robins love for Chastity was great, and she also loved him because he was a caring and loving father. Chastity is described as being loved by many people, and they all wish to adopt her for she looks pretty good and lovely. Robin relates with her daughter, so many people are astonished by their relationship, and Chastity longs to receive an expensive and good gift from her dad. Robin is assured of his wife, Florence, in taking care of her daughter, and he undertakes several journey trips with her. His relation with his family can be described as a good example to be emulated in society (Singleton, 43). The relationship between Florence and Chastity is assured as Florence, before getting married to Robin, spent her time with kids. Therefore, Robin trusted his wife in taking care for Chastity. He proposed to her, not only because she was pretty looking but because she looked hopeless, in her age, considering that she was not married.

The relation between Robin and his wife can be emulated by the other couples in society they lived. As Prince describes, a man ought to make a sacrifice for all that he wants to live in, although it might later lead to the destruction of other individuals, because how one ought to live is so far removed from how one lives that he who lets go of what is done for that which one ought to do sooner learns ruin than his own preservation. A man who might want to make a show of goodness in all things necessarily comes to ruin among so many who are not good. Because of this, it is necessary for a prince, wanting to maintain himself, to learn how to be able to be not good and to use this and not use it according to necessity, (Douglass, 349). This goes further the demonstrate the Machiavellian principle of dark triad that success often comes to people who focus more on their own interests to manipulate, deceive and exploit others.

On the other hand, the story of Frederick Douglass and his Master would only be described by the leadership styles described by Machiavelli. The masters were administering punishment, and, thus their reputation was bad. They could administer punishment as the only way to make their subjects fear them, and they would act in evil ways many times, thus making their subjects loyal. Since then, slave masters have been condemned many times by social reformers such as Frederick Douglass. They were not good at all, and they would lead many immoral behaviors, such as being dishonest and being authoritarian all their days. Therefore, people like Frederick Douglass would not spare their evil acts, as he was once a prisoner, and thus he kept revealing the evils acts done by the slave masters to their subjects.

Machiavellianism expounds on the leadership styles being adopted by the authoritarian leaders. Leaders would induce punishments, and in most cases, they would torture their slaves. They were not concerned with a good reputation, but only gain profits form exploiting slaves under poor working conditions. Frederick was once a slave but later became a free man after fleeing from his slave master, due to the inspiration he gained by reading a Columbian book that talked more about the evils of slavery. He later condemned their evils acts, as he later became a famous public speaker on social issues such as slavery and its adverse effects. The acts of the white masters can greatly compare to the leadership ideas being advocated by Machiavelli.

Works Cited

Abrams, Mike. Machiavellis The Prince: A Summary with Quotations. EMachiavelli, 2014, Web.

Douglass, Frederick. Learning to read and write. 50 Essays, A Portable Anthology (1994): 2004-100.

Singleton, Jhon. The Peach Tree. 41- 56. An Ars Poetica: Finding Substance in the Narrative After? 1st ed., , S.C.: CreateSpace, a DBA of On-Demand Publishing, LLC.201 8: S.C.: Create Space, a DBA of On-Demand.

Historical Background of the Issue

The toponym Mauritania dates back to the 3rd millennium BC, when the Phoenician seafarers gave the name Mauharim  Western Territory to the territory lying in the extreme West of Africa. During the colonial period, the name Mauritania was applied for one of the territories of French West Africa, which in 1960 declared independence under the same name (Pazzanita 8). Arabization and Islamization of the population began in the 11th century; the Arabs assumed a dominant position in the country, establishing power over the Berbers and black Africans, who adopted the language and family structure from the Arabs. In the 14th century, the Arab tribe Bani Hassan took the dominant position among the Berber tribes (Blauer and Laure 42-43). Those tribes who helped the Bani Hasan in their wars took a position equal to that of the Arab military clans; those who did not resist became Marabout tribes (that is, peaceful tribes that did not have the right to carry weapons); those who resisted received the status of tributaries  zenaga (Blauer and Laure 46). As a result, a complex hierarchy of clans developed in Mauritania, where the Arabs Hassans were at the very top, followed by the Berbers-warriors, then the peaceful Berbers-Marabouts, then the Berbers-tributaries and, finally, the black Africans conquered by the Berbers (slaves and Haratins-freedmen).

From the middle of the 19th century, the French began to develop the valley of the Senegal River (the southern border of modern Mauritania). In 1904, the area north of the Senegal River was declared a French possession  the civilian territory of Mauritania. The conquest of Mauritania was a long and difficult process for the colonialists (Pazzanita 29). Only in 1920 did France officially declare Mauritania as its colony within French West Africa. In 1946, Mauritania received the status of an overseas territory of France, and in 1958  the status of an autonomous republic of the French Community. On November 28, 1960, the country gained independence from France, and the Islamic Republic of Mauritania was proclaimed (CIA 7). The state and government were headed by a president, a unicameral National Assembly was created and a constitution was adopted. However, despite the status of a European colony in the 20th century, and its current independent status, the country continues to maintain the shameful phenomenon of discrimination and slavery. Also known as the Black Moors, the Haratins are people of African descent, but their culture is Arab. Traditionally, the Haratins were slaves, and although the government outlawed slavery in 1981 and criminalized it in 2007, the practice has still not been eradicated.

State of the Art

In 1981, Mauritania became the last country in the world to officially abolish slavery. However, today about 20% of the countrys population are slaves (Rutti 50). In 2007, the Mauritanian authorities made a second attempt to prohibit slavery and have since denied its existence in the country; however, realities say the opposite. Slavery in Mauritania is the result of historical events: over the centuries, Arabic-speaking Moors have raided African villages, resulting in a rigid caste system that still exists today, and dark-skinned slaves (Haratins) still serve Arabs (McDougall 961-962). The Haratins do jobs that the Arabs find dirty or degrading, such as tending livestock, farming, and trading in markets. Children of slaves automatically become the property of their parents masters.

Meanwhile, the owners of the enslaved Mauritanians treat them as property: they do not pay them for labor, often beat them, can give or lease them. At birth, the descendants of slaves to this day often do not receive a civil passport, do not go to school, and do not enjoy access to health care (Stille). The exception is residents of the capital and the surrounding area: many receive documents and primary education. However, the changes do not reach the inhabitants of remote provinces, that is, half of the countrys population.

There is no reliable statistical data on how many people are enslaved in Mauritania because the government does not take them into account during the census and denies the very fact of their existence. However, according to the Global Slavery Index, as of 2016, 45.8 million people were in some form of slavery in 167 countries around the world and Mauritania has one of the highest rates (United States Congress 3). Although slavery is officially prohibited, having a slave is the norm in the country; the same applies to forced labor.

The police are receiving reports of complicity in slavery, and the authorities have prohibited the use of the word slave in the media, but nothing has changed. Recently, only a few slaveowners had criminal responsibility for their actions. It cannot be said that over the past decades, any practical steps have been taken to end the existence of such a shameful practice in a country that calls itself an Islamic republic, standing in the way of democracy and change (Bullard 754). According to numerous reports of organizations directly involved in the investigation and suppression of human rights violations in the modern world, slavery in Mauritania not only persists but, moreover, is encouraged to some extent by both the overwhelming majority of the countrys population and its government (Rutti 54). Such a point of view invariably causes irritation and outright anger among the representatives of the Mauritanian authorities, because, if to rely on their statements, then this problem as such does not exist at all. Slavery was abolished over twenty years ago  they emphasize. But, unfortunately, and we cannot help but admit it, it could not but leave its mark both in the economic and in the social and cultural spheres of our society (Abeid). The countrys authorities prefer to speak openly about the blatant poverty of the population, the lack of sufficient housing, lack of medical supplies, unsanitary conditions, insufficient number of primary and secondary educational institutions, and so on, but slavery is not mentioned anywhere and by anyone.

The problem of slavery latency in Mauritania is aggravated by the fact that it has many faces. There are three main forms of slavery in Mauritania, and they are called differently: home, administrative, and modern. The first is mainly in rural areas, this is the so-called traditional form. A domestic slave is obliged to do all the laborious work for his/her master to earn money for decent housing and food, as the similarity of a barn and a bowl of soup is usually called here. Most domestic slaves are illiterate and have no documents or property (Wiley 39). The second form of slavery flourishes among the Muslim elite in the cities, the largest of which are the capital Nouakchott and the port Nouadhibou. This means that the master arranges the workplace for the slave on a simple, unskilled job in a government agency, but transfers most of the wages to his account (Wiley 41). The third form of slavery  modern  is also difficult to recognize immediately. This is an ordinary-looking chauffeur, mechanic, or factory worker who is de facto dependent on his master (Wiley 43). These slaves have their documents, some education, but financially they are as powerless as their fellow home slaves.

Indeed, as in the United States of the era of the Jim Crow laws, which deprived formally liberated African Americans of full civil rights for a century, legal slavery left a deep imprint on the economic, social, and cultural spheres of the life of Mauritanian society. Most of the Haratins after liberation, and then their children and grandchildren, remain economically dependent on the family of their old masters. Some slaves would like to find freedom, however, knowing that in Mauritania they will be deprived of economic freedom, they prefer slavery. Others are forced into this life through threats and violence.

The most remarkable thing is that slaves do not fight for their freedom, because for whole generations slaves worked for the same family. Slaves firmly believe that if they are obedient to their masters, then after death their souls will go to heaven (McDougall 975). However, they are stopped from craving for freedom also for purely economic reasons  there is no work, and another unlikely will hire them, as he has enough of his slaves; the countrys unemployment rate is 30% and poverty is 40% (Garcia and MacBeth 9). Thus, freedom can be set equal to death from hunger. Thus, in Mauritania, which abolished slavery de jure, every fifth inhabitant remains a slave, a person without a passport and education, working for shelter and food for the owner and not ready to comprehend the psychology of a free person.

Slavery is deeply rooted in the culture and economy of Mauritania, so legislative prohibitions and repressive measures alone are not enough, they will not work to the fullest. Systematic work is needed to change social attitudes, which in turn requires measures of social protection of freed slaves, their adaptation in society, professional and personal self-realization, raising the level of education, and promoting the assimilation of the life-long learning paradigm. The best mechanism for this seems to be a public-private partnership.

Social and Cultural Environment and Potential for Democratic Development

In general, social life in Mauritania is arranged in such a way that it does not occur to the philistine to condemn slavery. The police and courts in some cases even support the slave owners. According to the Sharia, slavery is permissible even if Muslims have co-religionists as slaves. Some slave owners, wishing to be recognized as adherents of modern mores, at the same time do not forget about old commercial habits: they expect to receive compensation before they release their slaves. Slavery in Mauritania has been legalized in the minds of many generations: it is, according to researchers, at least eight centuries (Bales 20-22). Therefore, despite multiple legislative prohibitions on slavery, the legal procedure has invariably proved helpless in the face of social tradition. Moreover, in the Arab-Berber clans of the country, almost half of the population lives in conditions similar to slavery (Cheikhou 8). Since these clans control the entire political situation in the country, they have not the slightest interest in making such facts public, and all the more so making attempts of fighting a phenomenon that the inhabitants of the modern world qualify as shameful.

Too big interests are involved in Mauritanian politics to practically eliminate slavery once and for all. Slavery here is not a term, but a phenomenon; it is associated with the tribal structure, and this is a special mentality that may take more than one decade to change. President Moktar Ould Daddah in 1978, three months before his overthrow in a military coup, said that the problem of slavery in Mauritania could be solved in two ways: either through a bloody revolution that the country cannot afford or through the slow evolution of society through economic development (Wiley 59). It is difficult to disagree with this opinion  the evolution of society is urgently needed.

Everywhere pervasive slavery also means that the slave has no choice. A slave who leaves his master is unlikely to find another job, as was mentioned above. White Moorish families do not feel the need for hired labor, as they have their slaves. The poorer white Moors, shepherds, and farmers from the Zenaga caste, related with families from the Hasan caste by vassal obligations, also will not (and cannot because of their poverty) hire an escaped slave. Free non-Moors in Mauritania do not have slaves, but they usually have a large number of members of their own family whom they would rather hire before turning to a stranger. When slaves leave the master, they leave with nothing; with no place to live, with no guarantees of food or clothing, they quickly fall into complete poverty. Some freed female slaves become prostitutes, while men eke out a miserable existence in cities, but for most liberation means hunger (ASI, IRA, MRG, SOS-Esclaves, STP, and UNPO). In a society organized into huge multigenerational families, the emancipated slave is a pariah.

In such a situation, the masters do not need to keep the slaves by force. It is very easy for them to say, Leave if you want, because they know that slaves have nowhere to go and have nothing to make a living. Violence is rarely required to obtain obedience from a slave, as the entire social system maintains a culture of order and obedience.

Mauritania is a land of paradoxes, contradictions, antilogisms, and unrealized opportunities. The Mauritanian controversies are difficult to comprehend; to understand this slavery, one needs to remember the cultural context of this country. Mauritania is not part of the modern world  its culture exists in isolation: sources of information are few, most of them controlled by the government. International news on television and in the press is about the Arab world, focuses on the international struggle for the purity of Islam, and never touches on human rights. The times of the Cold War practically did not affect Mauritania, since the countrys authorities could not decide which camp to join, although the Soviet leader Khrushchev actively sought to extend Soviet influence to the countries of Asia and Africa, which in those years were liberated from colonial dependence. Mauritania ruling circles were equally afraid of both the atheistic foundations of communism and the market practices of capitalism and especially the American post-war state-monopoly capitalism and capitalism with a human face.

It is important to note, however, that in the situation with Mauritania, it is necessary to treat in great detail the very essence of the institution of slavery in this country, considering the problem from different angles. For such an analysis, it is necessary to identify the ethnic and religious composition of the population of Mauritania, and, without a doubt, it is necessary to have a fairly accurate idea of the social structure that has been formed over the centuries. The social structure of Mauritania can be characterized as tribal; however, it equally combines elements of racial and caste systems, due in part to the fact that this country is located at the junction of Arab-Berber North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa.

Several international organizations, whose goals are to protect human rights, try to actively fight against the institution of slavery deeply rooted in Mauritania. Such well-known groups and organizations as SOS Esclaves, SOS Slaves, Unauthorized Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), and even its Mauritanian human rights organization, Association Mauritanienne des Droits de lHomme (AMDH), conduct almost illegal activity on the territory of this country, since the government completely suppresses any attempts not only to combat slavery in Mauritania. Slavery in Mauritania today is primarily a self-regulating system of relationships that have been formed over more than eight centuries, a kind of way of thinking of the people inhabiting this country. The Mauritanian authorities are unlikely to be able to change the mentality of their population, even with the greatest desire. Organizations whose activities are directed against slavery underestimate the specificity of the traditions and customs of Moorish society. One of the possible ways to gradually improve the current situation is the adoption of the concept and program of the Mauritanian Vision for the countrys socio-economic development, which also implies the development of human capital  for example, like the document adopted in Saudi Arabia Saudi Vision-2030. Experience shows that Saudi Arabia has already achieved significant success following the path outlined in this document. Given that Saudi Arabia is also a stronghold of Islam, like Mauritania, the countrys experience in formulating a national vision could be very useful for Mauritania.

Works Cited

Abeid, Biram Dah. Moving Beyond Traditional Practices in Mauritania: Prospects for the Eradication of Slavery. Chatham House, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2016. Web.

ASI, IRA, MRG, SOS-Esclaves, STP and UNPO. Enforcing Mauritanias Anti-Slavery Legislation: The Continued Failure of the Justice System to Prevent, Protect and Punish, 2015. Web.

Bales, Kevin. Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, Updated with a New Preface. University of California Press, 2012.

Blauer, Ettagale and Jason Laure. Mauritania. Benchmark Books, 2010.

Bullard, Alice. From Colonization to Globalization: The Vicissitudes of Slavery in Mauritania. Cahiers dÉtudes Africaines, vol. 45, no. 179/180, 2005, pp. 751-769.

Cheikhou, Salamata Ouédrago. Lessons Learned from Socio-economic Interventions in Mauritania. Anti-Slavery International, 2019.

CIA. Country Studies: A brief, comprehensive study of Mauritania. Zays Place, 2012.

Garcia, Shannon and Samantha MacBeth (eds.). A Roadmap to Where: The Haratin and the Mauritanian Roadmap to Combat the Aftermath of Slavery. Lewis & Clark Law School, 2014.

McDougall, Ann. Living the Legacy of Slavery: Between Discourse and Reality. Cahiers D Études Africaines, vol. 45, no. 3, 2005, pp. 957-986.

Pazzanita, Anthony G. Historical Dictionary of Mauritania. Scarecrow Press, 2008.

Rütti, André. Constructing a Human Rights Campaign: Contemporary Slavery in Mauritania. Global Societies Journal, no. 5, 2017, pp. 49-58.

Stille, Alexander. The Last Slaves in Mauritania. The New York Review, 2017. Web.

United States Congress. Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan, Vol. 1. Forgotten Books, 2012.

United States Congress. Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan: Joint Hearing Before the Subcommitteess on International Operations and Human Rights and Africa. Palala Press, 2018.

Wiley, Katherine A. Work, Social Status, and Gender in Post-Slavery Mauritania. Indiana University Press, 2018.

Introduction

English colonies sprang up along the east coast for a variety of reasons. The original reason for migrating to Virginia was the desire to get rich because, in addition to the conditions created by the king to motivate people to settle in the New World, these regions were attracted by the search for gold and silver. Mostly men migrated first, looking for quick money, but there were no precious metals in Virginia, so agriculture became another reason for the move. People began to grow various cash crops, such as tobacco, and to establish the economy of the region. Another situation developed in Maryland, from a haven of Catholics soon became a refuge for all Christians. As a result of different motivations for resettlement in the New World, various aspects of regions development were formed. Over time, the territories expanded, thanks to which the features of the colonies spread and consolidated. In the English colonies, the English, especially from wealthy families, did not want to work, so slavery began to flourish in the New World.

Population of the Colonies and the Need for Labor

The king wanted more English colonies worldwide, so he supported migration to the New World. Many British people were rich so they could afford hired labor. The rest lived below the poverty line, so they were willing to work to leave England, which led to indentured slavery. However, they were not accustomed to hard work, which contributed to developing new ways to obtain labor. One way the work was done was to try to enslave the Native Americans. However, they were independent and difficult to enslave for forced cultivation, and my servants were temporary. As a result, farmers turned to importing enslaved Africans to meet their demand for labor. These enslaved people had a strong influence on southern farming practices, as well as on the social aspects of all of American society.

Formation of Slavery

Legal features varied by colony; to simulate migration, in Virginia, for example, anyone who brought in a new immigrant was entitled to the property. In this regard, since most wealthy Englishmen could afford both the move and the servants, over time, the leading power in Virginia was with those who, along with the slaves, accumulated land. The Chesapeake region offered few economic opportunities for indentured servants who had completed their working hours. However, few people could afford their own land, so they were forced to rent it and re-subscribe to contract slavery in order to be able to pay for it or generally live; however, it was not impossible.

Anthony Johnson was the first known black landowner in the English colonies. Former black slave Johnson was allowed to testify in court because he belonged to the Protestant church, indicating his societal position. On the other hand, John Casor, Anthony Johnsons slave who caused the lawsuit against Johnson, was one of the first black Africans to receive a life contract due to the courts decision. Thus, government processes and civil rights were only at the beginning of their development.

At first, whites, Indians, and black natives of Africa could fall into a slave state. However, the first two categories were very restless. The situation was different with the blacks: no one could stand up for them, and in the event of an escape, they could easily be seen in the crowd, distinguished by enviable health and endurance, and finally, they were quite cheap. After the economic unsuitability of white colonists and Indians for hard physical labor was revealed, Africans became the main commodity, which became the consolidation of the famous American slavery. Over time, especially in the middle of the 19th century, people understood how slavery worked, and the phenomenon became much more abusive.

Differences Between Colonies

New Englanders left Europe hoping for economic prosperity and a better chance at life. The settlers, who frequently moved to the regions of the New World, came with different motives, settled in different regions with different geography, and faced different circumstances. Over time, these striking differences contributed to the transformation of the two regions into two different societies. One of the first colonies where, among other things, slavery began to flourish was the Chesapeake Colony, specifically Virginia and Maryland.

In political and religious matters, Virginia differed significantly from other colonies. By all appearances, the colonial structure of the government of Virginia resembled that of the district courts of England and contrasted with the theocratic government of Massachusetts Bay. Religion was of secondary importance in the colony of Virginia, unlike, for example, in New England, where religious affiliation was more important than race.

The New England economy first specialized in marine or boat equipment. The middle colonies had rich agricultural land and a temperate climate, which made them a more suitable place for raising grain and livestock. Wealthy farmers grew cash crops and raised livestock. Mining and trade were also important aspects of their economy. City merchants sold their goods to other colonies. The inhabitants of the middle colonies maintained religious freedom and tolerance, in contrast to the same New England, and had a diverse population of different nationalities. However, this did not rule out the spread of slavery in the region. Although geographically, there was no particular need for the spread of slavery, it was also unprofitable economically (Kennedy and Cohe 353). In addition, slaves here had more chances for freedom and further normal life, so resistance sentiments began to spread (Kennedy and Cohe 370). In this regard, many regions were not so firmly attached to it compared to the slave-owning southern colonies.

Another situation developed in the Southern colonies, which had all the resources for slavery and the slave trade. Most of the labor force on these lands was made up of enslaved men and women of African descent. Those who were held as slaves had few if any, rights, and their families were often torn apart. Like the Middle Colonies, there was more religious freedom in the Southern Colonies than in New England, but the Church of England was in the majority.

The slave trade between the regions of North and South America was different in that the slaves in the states of South America were treated inhumanely. In addition, the South believed that the new states should have the right to allow slavery if they wanted to (Kennedy and Cohe 347). Although there was also a practice of self-liberation from slavery in the southern colonies, Blacks freed in the South were not as free as those freed in the North of America.

Revolution and Constitution

The Civil Wars between 1862 and 1865 led to a revolution in the slavery world. The decline of slavery during this period was most marked in the states to the north, where laws abolishing slavery were passed shortly after the end of the war (Kennedy and Cohe 299). Due to the fact that society was divided in its opinion regarding slavery, the changes brought about by the revolution were very slow. Nevertheless, even in the radicalized South, there were small but significant changes in the peoples minds; some slaves got their freedom.

Conclusion

In New England, cases of freeing black Africans from slavery also became known. Moreover, since the region was strongly religious from the beginning, the liberated could receive support from the church (Gross 95). Since that time, the word slave does not appear in the Constitution; Many of the creators of slavery harbored moral doubts about slavery. Some, including Benjamin Franklin (a former enslaver), became members of anti-slavery societies. Most of the amendments were based on the eradication of slave trades. The revolutions and amendments ensured that the abolition of slavery was actualized. Most of the amendments made were based on eradicating the slave trade. Repeal is believed to have ended around 1870 with the passage of the Twelfth Amendment when the right to vote was extended to blacks (Kennedy and Cohe 330). Revolutions and amendments ensured the actualization of the abolition of slavery and created equality between the various races.

Works Cited

Gross, Robert A. The Minutemen and Their World. Hill and Wang, 1976.

Kennedy, David M., and Lizabeth Cohen. The American Pageant. Cengage Learning, 2018.

Introduction

The Slave trade was associated with acts that infringed upon natural human rights. The enslaved were subjected to poor working conditions, including low wages, harsh treatment, and a lack of basic needs such as food and shelter. Consequently, the majority of the enslaved people died while others suffered from diseases. Women were among the most vulnerable slaves who suffered from psychological and physical torture during slavery.

Slavery Experiences

Slavery encumbered the social interactions and economic growth of the victims who were overpowered by their masters. According to Lewis Clarke (1977), the slaves were denied the right to express their feelings like others. For instance, he narrates a story of women slaves who were tortured just for laughing at a house (Clarke, 1977). The women slaves were subjected to hard labor that left some of them dead and others in physical pain (Norton & Alexander, 2007). Meanwhile, some slaves were denied the right to associate with their family members. Consequently, many slaves suffered from psychological disorders, including anxiety and depression. The tough working conditions for the slaves motivated the start of the abolitionist movement.

Slavery Agency

Human dignity involves respecting nature and allowing them to make personal decisions. However, during slavery, the enslaved were denied their dignity and were considered the property of their masters. The masters made decisions concerning the working conditions, livelihoods, and transfers, among others, on behalf of their slaves (Norton & Alexander, 2007). For instance, the master would negotiate the price of their slaves. Moreover, the working duration and social interactions were determined by the masters (Clarke, 1977). The slaves had no control over their lives and would depend on decisions made by their masters.

Conclusion

Slavery had a long-lasting impact on the lives and livelihoods of the slaves. During slavery, individuals were given hard tasks regardless of their gender. Additionally, the enslaved were denied fundamental human rights, including freedom of expression and the right to life. The tough working conditions contributed to the death and psychological suffering of the slaves. The slave masters had full control over the lives of their slaves. Therefore, slavery was detrimental to social development and economic growth among the enslaved.

References

Clarke, L. (1977). Leaves from a slaves journal of life. In Slave testimony: Two centuries of letters, speeches, interviews, and autobiographies. LSU Press.

Norton, M. B., & Alexander, R. M. (2007). The lives of enslaved women. In Major Problems in American Womens History: Documents and Essays (4^th e.d.).

The pressing issue of enslavement of African-American individuals had been apparent in the United States for a long time. In fact, black people were forced to do different types of work for miserable payments, which did not allow them to buy their freedom eventually. Overall, in the pre-Civil War period in the U.S., African Americans were treated inhumanely, along with it being assumed that women had suffered more so compared to men.

To begin with, the experience of slavery was devastating to both women and men of African-American background because they suffered for a long time, no matter of their sex. The slaves gender did not particularly decide whether they would be torn from their family or homeland, nor did it define the type of labor they would be forced to do (Berry and Gross). Unfortunately, African Americans suffered from being separated from families and loved ones, which was likely to lead to mental disorders as a result of their enslavement. In addition, they endured not only mental challenges but physical violations that were so often performed on their bodies (Berry and Gross). Most slaves were beaten without mercy, and women often suffered from sexual assaults from the men who treated them as their property (Berry and Gross). Yet African-American males did not escape this issue even though it was not that common, with some sexual intercourse being forced on them from time to time by their masters.

However, with the foundation of enslavement in the land of the United States, men were primarily valued more than women, which resulted in them being treated not as maliciously as females. Furthermore, it led to drastic differences in the prices of female and male slaves, making African-American women readily available to be purchased by anyone who had the means to do so. Unfortunately, women were not pitied as to the amount of labor they were forced to do (Berry and Gross). On the contrary, the masters chose them for unmanly work and expected the completion of enormous workloads in short periods of time (Berry and Gross). In some territories, however, the low numbers of slaves did not allow for this option, with women being forced to do the same work as the men.

Furthermore, the foundation of enslavement had adverse effects on the womanhood of African women. In Africa, a black females primary socially accepted role was to be a mother and devote time to raising ones children (Berry and Gross). Yet this concept was entirely debased in slavery, with motherhood losing its meaning whatsoever (Berry and Gross; Prather et al.). To elaborate, females were not viewed as people but simply as the means to do unmanly work and bear children every two years (Berry and Gross; Prather et al.). Obviously, the psychological impact on the women because of the childbearing was adverse, considering that they left their children to be raised by others and, soon after the birth, were expected to go back to work (Prather et al.). As a result, it made women with proven fertility more valuable and more likely to be enslaved and taken from their families. In other words, black females were recognized as bodies that could birth children and not real people who had feelings (Berry and Gross; Prather et al.). Not to mention that the notion of femininity became inexistent (apart from childbearing), considering that women were pressured into doing the same work as black men.

That is why the weak position of black women not only in the slavery market but in general resulted in them being in increased danger on a daily basis. As already stated, black men were primarily more valued for their abilities and capacities, already making women more worthless as a result. Furthermore, easy accessibility to purchasing black female slaves made the issue even more pressing due to the growing numbers of females being torn from their families (Berry and Gross). To be more exact, slave masters could purchase other black female slaves in case they needed to (Prather et al.). For instance, if enslaved African-American women died because of exhaustion and other health issues or were no more capable of doing the work, they could be easily replaced (Berry and Gross; Prather et al.). It is fair to assume that womens physical and mental limits were tested during their enslavement by seeing how far they would go and how much violence towards them they could endure.

What is more, the harsh expectations concerning their womanhood put women in even greater danger, considering that females were forced to birth multiple children in short periods of time. It is impossible to estimate whether their responsibilities were minimized when they were pregnant or whether they were treated better to ensure that the health of the children in their wombs would not be impacted. Nonetheless, the exhaustion of female bodies as a result of hard labor and childbearing not only put their health in danger but their lives as well.

Works Cited

Berry, Daina Ramey, and Kali Nicole Gross. A Black Womens History of the United States. Illustrated, Beacon Press, 2020.

Prather, Cynthia, et al. Racism, African American Women, and Their Sexual and Reproductive Health: A Review of Historical and Contemporary Evidence and Implications for Health Equity. Health Equity, vol. 2, no. 1, Mary Ann Liebert Inc, Sept. 2018, pp. 24959.

Frederick Douglas was a slave in America, but at the same time, he became a figure who made a significant impact on the disappearance of slavery. In his book, based on his memoirs, the author described the horrors of slavery and the role of Christianity. The author vividly described the bad attitude towards slaves and the use of faith by the slave owners for their own profitable purposes. Even though slave owners significantly distorted the true principles of Christianity, in order to justify slavery, it influenced the disappearance of the slave-and-business system.

During the time of slavery, both slave owners and slaves professed the same faith: Christianity. However, it was different for both sides; for the slave owners, it was an excuse for slavery. Whites cited as an example a case described in the Bible when the Lord cursed Hem and imprisoned him. So, they believed that they also had the right to have slaves, as it was described in the scriptures. Although, this had a completely different context because Christianity, professed by slaves, had nothing to do with slavery. This religion, based on philanthropy and virtue, not only supported slaves in difficult times but also influenced the disappearance of slavery.

This substitution of slave-owners for concepts was more and more noticeable and discussed. Christian principles such as virtue, philanthropy, and respect were increasingly gaining ground. Eventually, along with other reasons, humanity concluded that slavery is contrary not only to Christianity but also to the general moral laws of life. So, the horrors of the slave system became so clearly perceived by the Christian commune and humanity as a whole that it became unacceptable and was soon eradicated. Thereby, Christianity and its principles contributed to the propping up of the slavery system.

Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral is the first published volume of poetry written by an African-American author Phillis Wheatley (Mulder et al.). Published in 1773, Wheatley had an opportunity to speak out on the tyranny she and her race faced from day to day. Without any fear, she criticized white slave owners for the cruel treatment of black people, and that is why her poetry is crucial for the countrys cultural heritage.

It is essential to comment on Wheatleys life journey, as her poems are based on her experience of being a slave. However, she was lucky enough to have kind slave owners who allowed her to learn and write. Wheatleys book was her way of demonstrating that people of color have talent too. It was a loud statement that black people were not spiritually dependent on their slave owners but were equal to whites. The young poet proved that an African American could be graced with the same artistic talent as a white writer.

Even though in most of her poems, Wheatley avoided writing about slavery, she could not entirely omit it. Her famous poem On Being Brought from Africa to America (1768), represents an open critique of slave owners: Remember, Christians, Negroes, black as Cain / May be refined, and join th angelic train (Wheatley 15). The poetess speaks her mind about injustice her people face, like hatred, physical, and psychological abuse based only on their skin color. Wheatley wants to bring attention to the detrimental effect of racism. In the poem To the Right Honourable William, Earl of Dartmouth, Wheatley projects her hopes for Dartmouth to not be as cruel and despotic towards the slaves as his predecessor:

Steeld was that soul and by no misery movd
That from a father seizd his babe belovd:
Such, such my case. And can I then but pray
Others may never feel tyrannic sway? (Wheatley 53).

Poems of Phillis Wheatley often go along the line of comparing freedom and oppression of African Americans. One should never forget that she was the first African American to write about the tyranny of slavery and, subsequently, made history as the first published black writer in her country. She spoke out on the unjust relationship between white slave owners and her race. Wheatley had an opportunity to make herself heard before any other African American.

Works Cited

Mulder, Megan, et al. Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, by Phillis Wheatley (1773). ZSR Library. Web.

Wheatley, Phillis. Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. Books on Demand, 2003.

Introduction

Anti-slavery is one of the central aspects of Mark Twains iconic novel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Given the years when the novel was written, Twains thoughts and beliefs regarding slavery channeled through the books main characters were quite revolutionary and ahead of their time. First things first, the writer introduced Jims character, a slave and Huck Finns close friend. By refusing to make him one-dimensional and reduce his personality to his status, Mark Twain humanized him and made him a real person.

Another telltale sign that Mark Twain was anti-slavery is the plot arc with Jims liberation. The latter also serves as a test of Huck Finns character who is forced to choose between civilization that allows making his friend Jim a chattel property and nature that created him a free being. This paper proves that Mark Twain is strongly anti-slavery by discussing each of the aforementioned points.

Jim: More than a Slave

Jim is one of the most interesting and controversial figures in American literature. Different sources hint at the possibility of Twains taking inspiration in his uncles slave, Uncle Daniel, who impressed him with his kindness and openness. Another possible occurrence that compelled Twain to create Jims character is a memorable event in the writers life when a friendly farmer saved his and his familys lives. Right from the beginning of the novel, Jim strikes the reader as a naive and gullible person. He believes in superstitions and is easy to talk into basically anything. At first, this character design may come off as stereotypical for the era when Twain was creating his masterpieces. Jim is obviously uneducated and conditioned by society into believing everything he is told.

However, as the narration progresses, the reader gets a chance to become familiar with the other sides of Jims character and see his humanity. The man may be naive to a fault, but this personality trait also makes him fiercely loyal to Huck Finn. In a way, Jim becomes a father figure for the boy who has never been surrounded by love and acceptance. In fact, Jim is so protective of Huck that he is ready to sacrifice his own freedom.

For example, this is how Jim reacts when he thinks that Huck got lost: My heart wuz mos broke bekase you wuz los, en I didnt kyer no mo what become er me en de raf (Twain 348). Jim is clearly stating that the pain of losing a friend would be greater than losing an opportunity to become a free man.

Further, Jim is street smart: despite the lack of education, he can come to the right conclusions and help other people. One example is him guessing that it is going to rain by observing birds behavior. Lastly, another admirable trait that Jim possesses is his faith in the equality of all people. This is how he reacts to the news that people speak different languages around the world: Well, its a blame ridiculous way, en I dont want to hear no mo bout it. Dey aint no sense in it.; Looky here, Jim; does a cat talk like we do? (Twain 105) Jim believes that people are made equal, which makes him reject slavery even more.

The issue of dehumanization of people because of their race is still relevant nowadays. Many people navigate the world using stereotypes that are often offensive and far from the truth. Even though in the United States, slavery has been long abolished, Black people have yet to cease facing its long-term effects. One of them is the poor societal opinion of them that reduces them to their race. Novels like Adventures of Huckleberry Finn show that it is possible to realize the humanity of another human being by seeing them in other capacities, for instance, in a friendly role.

Jims Liberation and Hucks Moral Dilemma

Jims route to escape is one of the major plot arcs developed by Mark Twain in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Despite being a young boy, Huck has the capacity of devising a plan on how to make Jim a free man. One of the reasons why the boy decides to go against society in this instance is because he has never considered a societal opinion as something to be taken seriously, to begin with.

Uparented and almost feral, Huck is not aware of the existing stereotypes about Black people. Ironically, the fact that he is uncivilized is what ultimately helps him to see Jim as more than a slave. Twains decision to build the novel around Jims escape was not in line with what American society would expect of him. Just like his character Huck, Twain rejected the notions of what is accepted and showed the reader what is right: the freedom and equality of all people.

Some subtopics that Twain develops in relation to anti-slavery are religion and pretense. At some point, Huck realizes that the religious sentiment is against him freeing Jim, to which he responds with All right, then, Ill go to hell (Twain 508). This proves the superficial nature of religion over real peoples life struggles. Furthermore, the reader learns that Huck is as loyal to Jim as the man is to him. The boy learned a lot about hell at his foster home to know that this is a place to avoid going to, and yet, he is ready if it means saving his friends life.

Hucks genuine efforts to free Jim are contrasted with Tom Sawyers playfulness. To Tom, Jims route to escape is nothing more than a fun adventure. Moreover, at times, Sawyer makes the venture even harder than it was supposed to be by letting his imagination and creativity interfere. This exposition of two types of responses to the issue of slavery can be inferred to todays world as well. Some people are like Huck Finn: they are truly compassionate with the struggles of underprivileged communities. They could use the following quote by him as their motto: I do not wish any reward but to know I have done the right thing (Twain 600). Others, however, feign interest in humanitarian problems and take action more for the thrill of it.

Conclusion

Mark Twain was a true trailblazer of his era by writing a bold and courageous novel about the problems of slavery. Through a single character, the writer managed to show how destructive slavery maybe for the human character. Twain demonstrated his compassion for the human condition by making Jims character multifaceted: he is uneducated but street-smart, and he is naive but fiercely loyal and caring.

By doing this, Twain expanded Jims personality beyond his identity as a friend and made him a real human being. Through Huck Finn, the writer demonstrated the schism between societal norms and humans natural rights. The boy was not civilized from birth, which made him able to connect with Jim despite the status of the latter. Jims liberation crowns the novel and shows what Twain deemed as the ideal outcome. The theme of anti-slavery is an important one because it teaches the reader self-reflection and critical thinking.

Work Cited

Twain, Mark. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. ABDO, 2010.

Mr. ToshiYuki Tanaka is a professor, currently attached to the Hiroshima Peace Institute. He is the sole author of five titles, all of which are related to wars of the past and crimes against persons committed during the time. He has made editorial contributions to three books, performing translations for two others.

It is noteworthy that all these titles are focused on combats and crimes perpetrated in that duration. It should not be forgotten that he has authored electronic publications, book reviews, article critiques and articles in books, all these in addition to giving lectures, in Chicago and Australian universities.

This wealth of experience bestows the right credentials on him to handle the subject objectively. He interrogates the genesis of a disjuncture involving moral identity and human response, by arguing that none of the servicemen, both Japanese and foreign received instructions to avail themselves at these bureaus (Tanaka 4).

He begins this explanation with the story of a woman who was gang raped by members of the force. She took twelve men in an instant, before a thirty minute break was quickly succeeded by another twelve. She further informs that this was the inclination for her and six other ladies in adjacent rooms (Tanaka 1).

During the discourse, personal hygiene was not prioritized, since the unbearable pain could not allow most of the ladies to move their bodies. They also had painstaking schedules, which ensured they were occupied throughout the day up to tardy hours in the late afternoon.

He vividly reports of the horrors abused women had to contend with, including abortions, venereal diseases and stigma. He also contends clear of all uncertainty that instances of abuse to civilians prevailed in spite of the availability of these comfort houses (ianjo), whose existence was sanctioned by senior officials (Tanaka 24).

Questionable methods were employed during the recruitment of ladies to serve in the facilities. Although they were examined on regular occasions for venereal infections, it was challenging to reign in on servicemen and influence them to make use of protective gear during such encounters.

A different aspect of the discourse saw successive Japanese regimes try their best to suppress information on this episode of their history. Cites his frustration by the volumes of classified documents he encountered in the course of his research.

Tanaka attempts to distance himself from the school of thought denying the existence of institutions perpetrating the advancement of comfort women. He also abstains from tasking the existent regime with culpability for the same, although, it should be noted that he does not explicitly state his chosen viewpoint on the said matter (Tanaka, 120).

His attempts to explain the stillness of the global community against these atrocities are evident in the latter sections of the volume. He accurately notes that oversees nations and humanitarian organizations have been conspicuously silent, a factor he interprets as their approval of the happenings.

He rightfully points to the lack of edicts against similar happenings, but informs of a decree against forced labor which is what those in positions of power propagated (Tanaka 30). The paucity of legal aspects into the same qualifies this work to be an interrogation into the factors that made the allied nations abandons the war crimes committed.

He supports this argument by citing evidence of school going children recruited as volunteers who later ended up as console women after they were orphaned or disillusioned in life (Tanaka 129). Tanaka cites credible evidence by word of mouth from multitudes of ladies who were raped by the forces, but admits to the lack of documented versions of the same (Tanaka 110).

He further cites county records, which revealed, daily instances of rape by allied officers (Tanaka 117). In other instances, the management of the associated forces proved they expected similar handling for their troops, although, they did not ask for the favors explicitly. He cites this as the main reason why the global society failed to kick off prosecution.

It should be noted that these revelations prove his work is not an attempted act of contrition to the victims and their families, neither is it an attempt to rationalize the irresponsible actions of the servicemen (Tanaka, 6).

Summarily, he holds Japanese servicemen and all other allied forces during the confrontation, in addition to health officers and the armed forces hierarchy liable for these occurrences (Tanaka 165).

The main strength of the book is Mr. Tanaka’s neutrality. It is a milestone worth mentioning, considering he is Japanese, and the story highlights crimes committed by his nation’s army. He takes a swipe at the international community for their role in the saga, albeit within acceptable bounds.

He also avoids trivializing the issues in the course of the narrative. All in all, the fact that he approaches and dissects such a difficult and sensitive topic without fear or bias is another outstanding strength of the publication.

The lack of material concerning the milestones achieved by human rights advocates after the Second World War disqualifies the term crimes against humanities as used in this story. He also ignores overlooks literature with options that could be pursued, especially by the international community with regards to this matter.

Work Cited

Tanaka, Toshiyuki. Japan’s comfort women: sexual slavery and prostitution during World War II and the US occupation. New York: Rutledge Publishers, 2002, 1-165

Globalization is equated to making the world a single community. It is done through integration of the world economies, industries, markets, and cultures using a global network of trade, immigration, and transportation. Globalization is an exciting concept and maybe one of the greatest achievements of the modern world. However, it also comes with tough repercussions that almost revoke its benefits. Such disadvantages include modern slavery, prostitution, uncontrolled arms trade, human trafficking, as well as toxic waste dumping.

Slavery, for example, is a concept that is extremely familiar among historians, but unique among other people. Surprisingly, it is common in developed countries and glamorous cities such as Paris, New York, Zurich, among many others (Bales, 2004). Slavery is not only restricted to child slavery, as it also includes adult slaves. This menace is intertwined in an intricate web of disciplines and touches on almost all aspects of globalization. Consequently, slavery is a product of the slave’s financial status, their cultural context, their education level, political environment, and their social status. Slavery involves more than just illegal ownership of another person (Bales, 2004; Majewski, 2009). It comes in many forms, often sugarcoated with fancy terms. People refuse to accept the facts as they are and engage in various legal battles in an attempt to conceal the truth. Modern perpetrators of slavery camouflage their activities, which in reality match the slavery criteria in decent business strategies of cutting costs and maximizing profits.

Poor people, for instance, in Pakistan, are sought after for cheap labor. They grow affordable rice that people in other countries buy to save on costs. By being poor, the workers are exploited with minimum wage rates. The same scenario is replicated in Africa. Most multinational corporations are closing up their factories in the first world and reopening them in the third world. This is a classic blend of economic status, cultural and political disciplines. The governments in the third world would not object to foreign investments that, in turn, create employment for its citizens culminating in improved living standards (Benatar, 2005). The citizens of the third world countries are ignorant of world wage rates and come from cultures that emphasize working for survival. Therefore, they have no choice but to work for meager wages. On the contrary, it is a blessing in disguise them. However, in the real sense, it is exploitation at its highest level.

A case of the multidisciplinary nature of slavery is also evident in Pakistan, where slavery thrives on religious grounds. Enslaved brick makers are Christians, while slave owners are Muslims. This marks religion as part of the segregation criteria (Lowe, 2005). Since they do not share belief systems, enslaving Christians bears less guilt than it would do with their fellow Muslims. This is part of modern slavery reality. In India, those of a different caste, especially the less fortunate caste, are enslaved. There are exceptions in India and Pakistan where some Christians are free. This is an indication that religious differences increase the vulnerability and gullibility of some people to slavery.

Racial segregation as criteria for slavery exists in Mauritania. Africans are more likely to be enslaved than the Arab citizens of the same country are. The Japanese culture discriminates against non-Japanese individuals. Statistics indicate that prostitutes in Japan are often non-Japanese. The usual goal is not only the difference of origin but also the economic conditions of the victim’s country. For instance, Thai people sell their women as prostitutes in other countries for financial gain.

With the view that slavery is a multidisciplinary practice; it follows that to understand its root causes and possible solutions, a unique approach is necessary (Minha, 2010). Such an approach should cut across almost all the disciplines involved. Geography politics and trade govern many slavery relationships between the sellers and buyers (Lowe, 2005).

Understanding the attitudes involved in the slave trade is also important. Some workers from certain regions are considered trustworthy and hardworking; for example, slaves from the Gold Coast are preferred by most slave owners (Lowe, 2005). Such stereotypes can be critically evaluated, and the slavery situation controlled. Therefore, it is possible to eradicate modern-day slavery before it gets out of hand. Slavery is a vice aided and abated by individuals from different places. Government officials largely play a crucial role in the furtherance of this illegal trade. Most of them are bribed, and the perpetrators of the crime go unpunished. Creating strict moral guidelines as a result of multidisciplinary research can help deal with this aspect of the problem (Addison, 2009). A cultural approach to slavery can eliminate the vice. In cultures such as Ghana, Togo, and Benin, girls are given to fetish priests as a form of appeasing gods. Such an occurrence is common if the girls are a product of rape or incest. Enlightening people can eliminate such practices.

A multidisciplinary approach to dealing with slavery will certainly solve the problem. It will not only consider political or economic aspects but also help deal with all possible outcomes or sources of slavery. Such an approach will trigger the formulation of strict policies and harsh penalties for the perpetrators of modern-day slavery.

References

Addison, N. K. (2009). We hold these truths to be self-evident: An interdisciplinary analysis of the roots of slavery and racism in America. USA: University Press of America.

Bales, K. (2004). Disposable people: New slavery in the global economy. USA: University of California Press.

Benatar R.S. (2005). The HIV/AIDS pandemic: A sign of instability in a complex global system. In Van Niekerk, A., Kopelman, L. M. (Eds.). Ethics and AIDS in Africa: The challenge to our thinking (pp. 71-83). South Africa: David Philip Publishers.

Lowe, J. (2005). Bridging southern cultures: An interdisciplinary approach. USA: Louisiana State University Press.

Majewski, J. (2009). Modernizing a slave economy: The economic vision of the confederate nation. USA: University of North Carolina Press.

Sinha, M. (2010). Modernizing a slave economy: The economic vision of the confederate nation. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 41(2), 310-311.