Category: Slavery

Introduction

The view of American slavery and discrimination against black people has been widely discussed in various works of literature. In literature, the plight of American slaves is described through analysis and portrayal of their miserable life, disruption of family and brutality (Gates 153).

Also, most literary works attempt to describe the existence of a strong desire for freedom among almost all black slaves and their fate as they struggle to escape from slavery.

Secondly, some literary works have attempted to describe slavery from the point of slave hunting in Africa.

Most authors blame African kings and chieftains for capturing and selling their fellow African tribes to slavery, the whites who deal with slaves and the white settlers who purchase slaves in America and West Indies (Gates 153).

Perhaps, one of the best narratives describing the plight of the captured African people and their journey through slavery is Equianos The interesting narrative of Olaudah Equiano.

Olaudah Equiano provides an in-depth analysis of his real journey from Africa through slavery and his work after acquiring freedom. The role played by various slave dealers and owners is brought into the limelight in this narrative.

An analysis of the narrative builds a negative perception of slavery in the United States because slavery is displayed as a true violation of human rights through disruption of family life and human relations, kidnappings and a wide range of inhuman actions against the black people.

The impact of Olaudah Equianos narrative on the perception of American slavery

Written as his autobiography, Equianos narrative describes his journey from a humble and normal life in West Africa to slavery in America and finally a free life in London.

The narrative, written by Olaudah Equiano in 1789, provides an analysis of the fate of Africans who are kidnapped from their homes in Africa to slavery in America and Europe.

The story begins with a description of early Igbo country, where Equiano was born. Being an Igbo, Equiano begins the story by describing the Ibo culture, customs associated with food, religion, and clothing.

He also describes the beautiful and productive nature of Igbo land, where he likens the Igbo people of West Africa with Jews (Shields 1).

From this introduction, a new perception of slavery is developed; the author attempts to describe how Africans were targeted in slavery simply because Europeans considered them as being inferior, less civilized and barbaric.

This notion may explain why Africans were treated like animals rather than humans (Bugg 572). Europeans thought that they had the right to force Africans out of their homes into slavery.

From this narrative, it is clear that Europeans are not the only group of people that perpetrated atrocities in Africa, but rather African leaders, out of their greed for wealth and power, were involved in capturing and selling their fellow Africans into slavery (Shields 1).

The new perception of slavery is that it was an evil act deeply rooted in Africa and perpetrated by European traders in collaboration with African merchants and chieftains.

For example, village traders, in the story, village traders are busy kidnapping children for sale. In chapter two, African slave dealers kidnap small children from their homes to sell them to African slave dealers, kings, and wealthy Africans.

Here, the reader is introduced to Equianos capture, alongside his younger sister, from their home in Eboe (Bugg 572). After their capture, the author and his sister are made for walking for a long distance before they are separated and sold to different traders (Equiano 61).

Also, the narrative creates a new perception of slavery, where it shows how slavery in America has instilled the spirit of kidnapping children for resale in West African traders. For instance, once he is kidnapped, the author is exchanged as a trade item from one trader to another.

He also has a brief tenure as a slave to a certain chieftain in a beautiful African country. Also, a rich widow in Timnah briefly enslaves him (Equiano 51). Finally, the author is sold to traders who bring him through different African regions to the West African Coast (Equiano 69).

Here, he is sold to a certain owner of a large slave ship headed for West Indies across the Atlantic. The desperations and difficulties faced by the author and his fellow slaves across the ocean are documented in the story.

On arrival to West Indies, the author witnesses the brutality at the slave market, but he is lucky to be taken aboard a Dutch ship heading to North America (Costanzo 64).

Here, a new perception of slavery is developed. The author attempts to show how African slaves had to be lined up in the slave market for the highest bidder.

Being muscular, young and energetic was an important feature that each buyer was looking for (Costanzo 128). It is clear that to the white buyers, African slaves were mere animals.

However, it is clear that some salves were being sold to Europe, though in few numbers. For instance, some European traders bought slaves for their friends and relatives back in Europe as a present or as domestic workers.

The perception created by the author is that slavery in America was meant to increase production in farms, while in Europe, it was taken as a small form of normal exchange of gifts (Bugg 574).

Moreover, the narrative by Equiano tends to create a perception that American slavery was deeply rooted in the beliefs held by Europeans that they had the right to purchase or sell a black slave at will.

This perception may have led to the belief in later years that the whites had the right to own black people as their slaves and determine how and where they live and what they do (Gates 159). For instance, they had the right to sell and buy slaves like animals.

Slaves were being sold for commercial purpose or as pets. For example, on arrival in the American Coast, the author is sold to a plantation owner in Virginia, where his tenure involves light field jobs and household chores.

After some few months, Equiano is again sold to Michael Henry Pascal, a member of the British royal navy and captain of a trade ship. He is bought as a present to the captains friends in England (Equiano 94).

At the time of the journey from Virginia to England, the author was around 11 years old. That was in 1757. The captain renames him Equiano Gustavus Vassa. A white American boy named Robert Baker is present in the ship, and the two boys become friends (Shields 1).

On arrival in England, the author is introduced to Christianity. He attends church services and receives some bible lessons from Robert Baker (Equiano 105).

However, he has to return to the sea with Pascal. In the seas, he experiences successive sea battles between Pascals Ship and pirates as well as other merchants. By now, the author has become acquainted with the Europeans and their culture (Equiano 111).

Each time he accompanies Pascal to England, he has to visit schools in London, where he finally develops an urge to read and write. Again, he is sold to Doran, another ship owner, who takes him to West Indies and sells him to Robert King, a Quaker in Philadelphia (Shields 1).

Here, he works in various positions such as loading and offloading boats, clerk and personal secretary. Also, the author renders his services to various captains in the sea, who find him a knowledgeable navigator (Equiano 231).

During these voyages, the author decides to do a side business- he starts buying items in each voyage and sells them in America and Europe (Gates 156). However, it is difficult to sell his items to the whites because they abuse and discriminate him.

Others even failed to pay him, while some even assaulted him. This section of the story creates an additional perception of slavery in the USA by describing the problems facing Africans, even those who had bought their freedom (Shields 1).

It is clear that a free black person has to endure more problems than those in slavery because every white person in the street has the right to mistreat and discriminate an African (Shields 1).

By failing to pay for the items taken from such a small boy, the whites indicate that slavery was not just meant to improve economical gains, but also because the whites perpetrated it as they did not consider Africans as equal beings.

This perception indicates that the white people were not willing to give any form of freedom to the African slaves. Even if some Africans bought their freedom, they were supposed to remain inferior to the whites (Shields 1).

Despite this, he can accumulate enough money to buy his freedom before moving to London for education. As a free person, several captains hire him as a navigator or steward. In this position, the author visits several nations in the world. Also, he commits his life to Christianity.

After several voyages, he accepts an offer to work as a church leader in a Jamaican plantation, but tires off and returns to England.

Here, he works for Governor McNamara and is involved in a plan to relocate freed slaves to Sierra Leone. In 1791, he married Susanna Cullen in Wales. In the final chapter, the author appeals to the reader to contribute to the abolition of the slave trade and slavery.

From this analysis, it is clear that the author has made several impacts on the American view of slavery.

For instance, slavery cannot be fully considered as an atrocity created and perpetrated by the Europeans alone; rather it was a form of collaboration between African leaders and white traders. Both groups were driven by greed for wealth and power.

While Europeans were driven by the greed to gain money from agricultural production in the West Indies, African chieftains and kings were driven by the greed to sell their fellow Africans to gain wealth and political power.

Secondly, it is clear that slaves had a dire need for freedom and would do anything to buy their freedom. As portrayed by the author, he had to tolerate discrimination and abuse when selling fruits and other items in Virginia and Philadelphia.

His aim was just to obtain enough money to buy his freedom. Also, he was ready to convert into a new religion to give him hope for the best in his future.

This narrative builds a negative perception of slavery in the United States because it is slavery portrayed as a true violation of human rights by disrupting families, relationships, kidnapping children and carrying out atrocities against the Africans.

Works Cited

Bugg, J. Deciphering the Equiano Archives. Modern Language Association of America 122.2 (2007): 572-573. Print.

Costanzo, A. Equiano, Olaudah. The Oxford Companion to African American Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.

Equiano, O. The interesting narrative of Olaudah Equiano. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1789. Print.

Gates, Henery L. The Signifying Monkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.

Shields, E. Thomson, Equiano, Olaudah, American National Biography Online, 2008. Web.

In the 18^th century, the development of Britains mainland colonies depended on the effective usage of forced labor necessary for the progress of plantations in the southern colonies and non-plantation territories of New England. Different types of the forced labor were the characteristic features of the societies in colonies.

Thus, Europeans were traditionally used as indentured servants, Indians were rarely used in any forced labor, and Africans became slaves. The differences in colonists using people in various kinds of labor were predominately based on the factor of race and on the economic systems of the definite region.

Planters were inclined to find the ways to gain more benefits and develop their plantations with the help of using cheap labor. From this point, the shift from using indentured servants to using African-American slaves in different colonies was reasonable because of providing a lot of advantages for planters, and the shift also depended on the aspects of the economic progress in colonies.

It is possible to determine several slave systems which were used in colonies. Thus, colonies of Chesapeake and New England developed according to different approaches to using indentured servants and slavery. The economy of Chesapeake depended on growing tobacco at large plantations and farms where the labor of slaves used actively. The development of slavery at the territory changed the social hierarchy and replaced the category of indentured servants.

Slaves in Chesapeake also influenced the progress of the Great Awakening, and they were successfully exposed to white culture. Farms in New England were smaller than in Chesapeake, and it was unnecessary to use the labor of a number of slaves (Foner). That is why the difference between the white and black population of these territories was significant. However, northern and southern slave owners worked out the developed laws in relation to their slaves.

Paying attention to the slow development of plantations and farms in definite colonies, it is possible to state that the usage of indentured servants was rather advantageous at the first stages of the colonies economic progress. The labor of indentured servants was rather cheap, and they could serve for a long periods of time. These factors satisfied planters, but the necessity to freed servants one day and provide the opportunities for their life created the threat for the systems further development.

The fact that indentured servants were free in their attempts to organize rebellions and oppositions made planters and farmers begin to use chattel slavery as the effective way to control laborers and gain more advantages from their work. Now, planters could not pay for slaves labor, enlarging their properties. Moreover, the first Africans in the colonies were indentured servants, and this status could make them be equal to white indentured servants.

Thus, the reasons for the shift were the economic advantages of using the constant labor of Africans without providing them the status equal to white servants and with accentuating the race differences. In this case, the use of African slaves was more advantageous than the use of Indians who provoked a lot of conflicts at the base of territory and freedom questions.

If the use of indentured servants made masters pay for the work and focus on the servants needs with references to the definite laws, the progress of chattel slavery depended only on the laws which were advantageous for planters. All the laws were worked out to restrict African slaves and increase the authority of white masters.

Providing these laws, masters tried to deprive slaves of any rights and prevent rebellions. Thus, in South Carolina slaves were forced according to the laws fixed in special masters books and the free-black population suffered from the racial discrimination and a lot of social and economic restrictions, including the higher taxes.

Slavery was the developed business where the interests of American planters and African traders met. Western Africa participated in slave trade actively because of the opportunity to receive the access to such goods as guns and textiles which influenced the process significantly, creating more conditions for economies decline and forcing slavery. Moreover, African rulers had the opportunity to set taxes to gain more benefits from foreign merchants and traders.

However, such an African territory as Benin did not participate in slave trade, preventing such negative effects of slave trade as the impact on the social progress and on the economies (Foner). In spite of the fact Africans could not realize all the aspects of slavery development in the Western Hemisphere, they could see all the negative effects of slave trade for their own societies many of which were destroyed by slave traders.

It is important to determine several stages in the progress of slavery in Britains colonies where the period of indentured servitude and the shift to chattel slavery are the most significant ones. Moreover, the elements of slavery were various in different colonies, for instance in Chesapeake and New England. Slavery influenced not only the economies and social structures of colonies but also the African societies which developed with references to slave trade.

Works Cited

Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty!: An American History. USA: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. Print.

The American Revolution of 1765-1783 was developed as the demonstration of the Americans desire to become free from the British Empires influence and free to choose the path of the countrys democratic development. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 became the proclamation of the Americans rights to become independent regarding every aspect of their life.

However, the problem is in the point that in spite of the fact that during the American Revolution the idea of freedom was declared widely, the concept of freedom developed side by side with the principles of slavery. Thus, it is essential to answer the question about the possibilities of developing these concepts during the American Revolution.

Although many Founders discussed the phenomenon of slavery as violating the appeals for freedom and liberty for the Americans, the concepts of slavery and freedom could develop side by side because the Founders did not discuss slaves as equal to whites, the ideas of freedom and equality stated in the Declaration were interpreted only with the focus on white people, and slavery played an essential role in the states economic progress.

The idea of freedom or liberty stated in the Declaration of Independence can be considered as the founding principle to build the American society as it was proclaimed by the Founders. From this point, the American Revolution was the organized struggle for the freedom and liberty which were achieved as a result of many losses.

Although freedom was the desired condition, to achieve freedom and liberty did not mean to provide that freedom for black slaves. Focusing on pursuing freedom, the Founders hoped to win the liberty only for white people, without concentrating on the needs of blacks.

Thus, black slaves could not be discussed as equal to white people to become free after the end of the American Revolution because they were not even discussed as humans. From this perspective, the white Americans focused on fighting for freedom from the British rule, and their efforts were not associated with providing any freedom for black slaves. The achievement of the political freedom and social stability was not associated with the achievement of freedom for lowest social categories.

The Declaration of Independence is the main result of the American Revolution, but this document cannot be discussed as granting the equality and liberty for blacks along with the white population of the United States. The Founders vision of equality and its relation to slavery as the social phenomenon was far from modern opinions on these concepts because black people were not discussed as humans to have the rights equal with the white peoples rights, but slaves were described only as creatures to rely on Gods will.

Developing the revolution, the Founders focused only on the equality of white people in the American society and on their freedom. In spite of the fact that the Founders criticized the fact of the obvious color dominion in the American society, they do not combine the ideas of equality and freedom for whites and blacks.

However, there were many Founders and activists who discussed the idea of slavery as violating the norms of free American society. In spite of the fact that they were persistent to promote the ideas on slavery abolition, the representatives of the upper classes from the Southern states focused much on the necessities to develop the institution of slavery because of its economic advantages for the South.

Although the American Revolution did not bring freedom for slaves, it is essential to focus on the role of blacks in the war for independence. Thus, slaves contributed significantly to achieving the desired liberty and to developing the ideals of the democratic society for whites. Slaves were actively used in military activities to attack the enemy and to protect the lands. Many blacks served in the Continental army to contribute to the further victory of the Americans.

The participation in the military activities guaranteed the desired freedom for many slaves because of their contribution to the progress of the American Revolution. However, the process had the negative consequences. The example of those slaves who were manumitted because of participating in the revolutionary activities inspired thousands of the other blacks who used the opportunity to escape from plantations. Nevertheless, in many cases, the revolution did not bring any sign of freedom for the majority of slaves.

The ideas of freedom and slavery were developed side by side because slavery was the important condition to contribute to the economic progress of the Southern states. Plantation owners used the work of slaves widely, and it was almost impossible for them to refuse using the free work of blacks.

In spite of the fact that slavery was discussed as the unhealthy element observed in the American society, few reforms and changes were proposed to change the situation because the economic advantages were obvious, and the Southern plantation owners did not want to risk under the impact of the problematic situation within the society.

On the one hand, slavery was considered as the necessary condition to improve the American economy and to influence the development of the Southern states politics and society. Many economists agreed that the abolition of slavery could lead to irreversible consequences for the economic development of the South because of its weak economic structure based mainly on the work of slaves.

On the other hand, the institution of slavery was discussed as the controversial phenomenon which can become threatening to the white people because of many difficulties associated with controlling the constantly increasing number of blacks in the Southern states.

Those black persons who received freedom after participating in the war and those who tried to run away from their plantation owners were discussed as the significant force which was ready to oppose the whites authority. However, these problems were not discussed by the Founders in their connection with the necessity to abolish slavery because the concept of freedom was interpreted only in the context of the white peoples rights.

The ideals of freedom and slavery were developed during the American Revolution without affecting each other because the Founders refused accepting the idea of the necessary slavery abolition. The institution of slavery was the fundament for the economic development of the Southern states.

Moreover, the Founders were not ready to accept the idea of the blacks equality to whites. All the statements associated with the equality and freedom found in the Declaration of Independence discussed Americans as Gods creatures, but not as equal white and black persons. That is why the idea of freedom proclaimed by the Founders did not contradict with the institution of slavery supported in the American society.

The arrival of explorers and traders from Portugal on the coast of Sub-Saharan Africa in the early 15^th century was the turning point of African slavery. It marked a significant new development in the history of the African slave trade in terms of its intensive development, its slave sources, and the intended uses of the captured slaves. When the Europeans began shipping African slaves to Europe in mid 15^th Century, they were mainly meant to serve as domestic servants (Eltis 43). Moreover, the Portuguese engaged in the slave trade on the African coast on a mass scale. They traded African slaves in exchange for gold which was then exported to Europe. During this period, Europe was experiencing a shortage of precious metals such as gold and diamonds, thus the Portuguese found it ideal to export gold to Europe as opposed to the slave trade (Klein 42). The expansion of Europe led to an increased imbalance of trade with Asia and therefore, gold from Sub-Saharan Africa helped Europe sustain that trade. However, with the discovery of sugar production at the end of the 15^th Century to the Atlantic Islands and the opening up of the New World (Americas) in the European conquests, the Portuguese discovered new ways of utilizing slave labor in these sugar plantations (Klein 42). This paper discusses how African slaves were introduced into the European plantation systems as farm laborers around the period 1525 and 1700.

The Spread of European Slave Plantation Systems

In the 16^th Century, wealthy European masters owned only a few slaves. Most African slaves were owned by aristocrats and institutions which were wealthy (Klein 43). Many of these people were also major landowners. However, they infrequently engaged their slaves in agriculture. However, the introduction of African slaves to the unpopulated Atlantic Islands defined the European plantations systems that spread to the New World conquered by the Europeans. The Atlantic Islands proved to be more ideal for sugar cane plantations which required intensive labor. Islands such as Madeira, Sao Tome, and the Canaries became the most important sugar-producing islands. By the end of the 15^th Century, Madeira had become Europes largest sugar producer. By the 1530s, Madeiras dominance in terms of leading sugar producers had been outpaced by competition from other islands. The Canary Islands had also become a major sugar production Island during this period. Both Madeira and Canary Islands first used Guanche natives as slaves along with moors imported from Spain. These slaves were quickly replaced by African slaves who became the dominant labor force on the sugar estates. Sao Tome was the final Atlantic Island to develop a major sugar plantation slave system. Before European penetration, this island like other Atlantic Islands had been inhabited. The Europeans had established some 60 mills on the island and some 2000 plantation slaves of African descent. This Island also had slave pens for African slaves in transit to Europe and the Americas. Eventually, the islands important role as a transfer and American competition led to the decline of the Islands sugar industry. In essence, the sugar-producing islands had formed sugar plantation regimes that were functional which turned out to be models of such institutions which were transported to the New World. African slaves imported directly from the African coast were deployed to work in the rural estates on these Islands. By the European slave holdings in the period then, slaves were held in extremely large lots, and urban and domestic slavery was held as minor occupations. The New World plantation systems were well-formed, with a smaller population of rich mill owners at the top of the echelon possessing most lands and slaves. They were followed by the intermediate category of European planters who possessed slaves and sugar fields but could not afford to own mills. Peasant European population that was poor hardly existed. Skilled administrative and mill operations were positions offered to whites only who were not in a position to own slaves. The lowest category was made up of the mass of black slaves who comprised up a majority of the labor force as well as the population in general (Klein 42).

In sum, the Portuguese had extensive experience with African slaves in their Atlantic Islands and had direct access to African labor markets. Once it decided to fully exploit its American colony, the attention towards the African labor force was occasioned by the availability of capital for importations. The experiences of the Europeans with American Indian workers were less successful. The American Indian workers were less adaptable to systemic agricultural labor and highly vulnerable to European diseases compared to Africans. As the American economy continued to expand, the American Indian population declined. Thus accessibility to African labor markets enabled the Europeans to introduce African slave plantation systems to fully exploit their American colony. Europeans from northern Europe who later followed Portugal and Spain (Iberians) to America had cheaper and more willing European laborers to exploit, especially in the crisis period of the 17^th Century. Despite the availability of this labor, peasants and the urban poor could not afford to migrate to America. Their migration was subsidized through the selling of ones labor to American employers in indentured contracts. This turned out to be the major form of colonization in the first half-century of northern European settlement in America. Indentured labor was primarily used by the English and French who were assisted by the pool of workers faced by low wages within the European economy. However, the end of the 17^th Century European crisis, and in particular the rapid growth of the English economy in the last quarter of the century, resulted in a thriving labor market in Europe and an increase in indentured laborers. The high cost of indentured European laborers and inaccessibility to American Indian workers made it inevitable for the English and the French to turn to African slaves. This was especially after the two European nations had discovered that sugar was the best crop that could be profitably exported to the European market on a mass scale (Eltis 43). The growth and development of the English plantation system focused on African labor at the end of the transition. At around 1675, sugar exports from English Caribbean overtook the volume of the Brazilian sugar exports. By 1700 the English sugar plantations had absorbed over 177,000 slaves of African origin. Therefore, we can attribute the industrial development of Europe and the Americas (New World) more to the adoption of slave plantation systems by European conquering nations (Klein 43).

Works cited

Eltis, D. The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Klein, H. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. Oxford University Press, 1988.

The origins of slavery in the American territories and why it came to be

From 1526 until 1776, complex pressures shaped the structure of slavery in the United States, and historians have proposed multiple ideas to explain how slave trade evolved. Slavery was strongly related to labor demand in European colonies, particularly in the Caribbean and South Americas labor-intensive sugar plantation industries of Great Britain, Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. Slave ships transported captives from Africa to the West and indigenous peoples were enslaved in North American colonies on a smaller scale (OpenStax, 2019). However, Indian slavery effectively stopped in the late eighteenth century.

How slavery was handled differently in each colonial territory of British North America

Enslaved people worked in various sectors, including breweries, shipyards, plantations, and timber yards. In the regions north of Maryland, slavery would gradually give way to free labor. The slave population in the North progressively fell throughout the 1760s and 1770s with slaves in Philadelphia reducing to approximately 700 in 1775 (OpenStax, 2019). Antislavery activism was rife in the city, with nationalist pamphleteers handing out antislavery booklets to blacks and whites. The presence of antislavery groups facilitated the spread of manumissions thus slavery became less viable in the North. New York had a high percentage of slaves who acquired valuable trades such as masonry and goldsmithing working alongside artisan masters. All slaves in New York were freed in 1827 (OpenStax, 2019) despite the liberation sentiment in the North during the Revolutionary battle.

The contrasts between indentured servants and slaves

Indentured service varied from enslavement in that it was a type of debt servitude where an agreed-upon period of unpaid service that often covered the servants costs of immigration to America. Indentured workers were not awarded incomes, although they were housed, clothed, and nourished in most cases. Slaves were deemed property and were only awarded freedom on rare occasions despite several years of strenuous labor (Gabor, 2021). Slaves were sold, exchanged, negotiated for, and even utilized as property in a will.

References

Gabor, G. (2021). Slavery, servitude and forced labor in international law: should the difference still matter?Kings Law Journal, 32(2), 228-259. Web.

OpenStax. (2019). U.S. History. OpenStax CNX. Web.

Slavery has been one of the most problematic aspects of the history of humankind. Slavery developed as European trading and marine settlements which required additional labor in the American colonies (Harris, 2018). Settlers comprised enslaved people from Native Americans and forcibly brought Africans, using slave labor in every part of the economy, from sugar production to harvesting and exploration of raw materials (Harris, 2018). The practice of slavery in British North America can be characterized by how colonists regarded enslaved people.

As slavery gradually spread across America, each area had distinctions. For instance, Jamestown in Virginia became the first permanent British settlement through which enslaved Africans were brought to North America (Harris, 2018). Similar to Jamestown, other port cities practiced slavery primarily by connecting the international slave trade with rural and urban slave markets (Harris, 2018). Slavery practices were perceived to extend in Boston, which is believed to be the first place where someone tried to force enslaved people to have children to earn money (Harris, 2018). Later, Massachusetts enacted the first law of slavery in British North America (Harris, 2018). While the practice of slavery was developing throughout America, the labor roles did not vary much (Harris, 2018). Colonists used enslaved people as domestic labor or to farm and produce trade goods (Harris, 2018). Colonial regions captured people to force them to work, but slavery practices seem to differ depending on how settlers viewed enslaved people, whether for trade, profit, or as legitimized property.

Although slavery used to be a significant source of labor in colonial America, indentured servants were also prevalent. Enslaved people consisted of Native Americans or Africans, with the latter brought to America against their will (Harris, 2018). However, indentured servants made individual choices to migrate, looking for economic opportunities and hoping to live better overseas (Delao, 2021). The servants often worked cultivating tobacco and building the economy, with indentured servitude influencing culture and society in North America (Delao, 2021). Colonial regions had varying labor, but some were forced to work while others did so voluntarily.

To summarize, the practice of slavery was characterized by capturing people and considering them as a workforce. Regions often viewed enslaved people as goods for trading or means to make money but failed to regard them as human beings. However, labor was represented not solely by enslaved people but also by indentured servants who willingly arrived in colonial America seeking jobs to improve their lives.

References

Delao, J. (2021). A prosperous life and the assurance of a happy departure. Indentured servitude in colonial Chesapeake and Pennsylvania.The Toro Historical Review, 10(1), 98-133. Web.

Harris, L. (2018). Slavery in North American cities.Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, 1-22. Web.

This paper aims to discuss the evolution of such social phenomenon as slavery in the United States. In particular, it is necessary to explain why it became associated primarily with black people. Secondly, we need to show how it changed with time passing and how slaves tried to cope with this experience.

Overall, it is possible for us to advance a thesis that the origins of black slavery should be sought in the economic development of American colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and especially the fact that it was based on agriculture.

First, we need to need say that the first colonizers, who settled in North America, were most engaged in the production and export of coffee, sugar, cotton, and tobacco as the climate and soil of those lands was perfectly suitable for these crops (Foner, 22). These activities required cheap labor force, and the easiest way to procure these workers was to bring slaves from Africa. One should bear in mind that slavery existed in Africa long before the arrival of Europeans.

More importantly, human trafficking was a common source of income for many people (Foner, 22). This is the key reason why slavery is now associated mostly with black people. It has to be admitted that there were also the so-called white slaves: they were mostly British or German people, who were forced to work for a planter, but they had a right to ransom themselves out slavery, whereas African people were not allowed to do that.

Some Indian Americans were also enslaved but such cases were not very widespread especially in comparison with the number of black slaves. The key reason is that Indians were perceived as a different race, but not an inferior one. Apart from that, European colonizers were reluctant to come into conflict with them as they could put up a violent resistance, whereas Black people did not have such an opportunity.

Secondly, one should not overlook racial and religious prejudices against African slaves, especially in the seventeenth century. They were regarded as subhuman individuals or at least someone, who was inferior to Europeans (Foner, 132). The very ideology of slavery was based on the premise that Africans were created to serve superior races, i.e. Europeans. Certainly, there were intellectuals, who objected to this standpoint, but they were not numerous at least at that time.

The abolitionist movement intensifies only in the early years of the nineteenth century when industrial revolution was already under way and there was no need so slave labor. Thus, political and social views of that period linked slavery with a particular race.

Having no civil rights, black slaves could not protect themselves from the cruelty of their owners. Therefore, they tried to work ways of shielding themselves against this injustice. There were two forms of such resistance: passive and active ones. As far as passive resistance was concerned, we need to say that African slaves found consolation in their language and culture (Foner, 143). For example, they spoke Gullah^[1], and built houses that resembled their own homes in Africa.

However, the key issue is that they began to live in very small and secluded communities, to which slave-owners did not have access. Religion and especially Christianity also helped them to guard themselves against their oppressors. To a large extent, it gave them a spiritual comfort or the belief that in the afterlife there will be no suffering. Apart from that, it gave them hope that sometime they would manage to break free (Foner, 417).

It should be mentioned that life of urban and rural slaves was different. Those slaves, who lived in villages, were forced to work in very harsh working conditions; their work was based mostly on backbreaking physical labor. In contrast, urban slaves often worked as craftsmen who had to possess well-developed technical skills (Foner, 412). Again, we need to stress an idea that that industrial revolution made the slave labor less necessary.

For example, such inventions as spinning wheel or steam engine helped to reduce the number of workforce, needed for the same task. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the US cities became more industrialized and as a result, the living conditions of many slaves improved. Certainly, they had to give their wages to their holders but they acquired a higher degree of independence (Foner, 412). Overall, one can argue that the industrial revolution undermined the very institution of slavery.

When discussing passive resistance of African slaves, one should not overlook the works of such intellectuals as Olaudah Equiano, Ignatious Sancho or Frederick Douglass, all of whom we once slaves but managed to regain their freedom. The books and articles, written by these people emphasized the cruelty of slavery and its brutal nature (Foner, 428). They showed that African people have the same feelings, emotions and needs as Europeans do.

One should not assume that culture, language, and family were the only means of resistance to slavery; as in many cases it took more active forms. We can mention Turners rebellion that broke out in Virginia. In 1831, Nat Turner^[2] and his followers revolted against their owners and killed more than sixty white people (Foner, 421). One can as well remember German Coast uprising that took place in 1811 and left two slave-owners dead.

Naturally, each of these insurgencies was suppressed and those, who had been responsible for them, were executed. Nonetheless, they clearly illustrated an idea that slavery ownership could not remain unpunished and that a constantly suppressed person was rather likely to strike back. These revolts contributed to a shift in the public opinion: American society understood that slavery had to be abolished; otherwise it would lead to relentless feud between black and white people.

Attempts to escape from slavery were another form of active resistance. According to the rough estimations, at least one thousand people managed to reach the Northern states or even Canada (Foner, 419). This also greatly intensified the movement of abolitionism. On the whole, this active and passive resistance of African slaves culminated into the American Civil War which completely uprooted the institution of slavery.

As we can see, such phenomenon as black slavery came into existence due to several economic, political, religious and philosophical factors. Despite the fact that it was full abolished in 1865, it left an indelible trace in the memory of American people and the process of American Reconstruction that began after the Civil War, still goes on.

Works Cited

Foner Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American History. NY W.W. Norton & Company, 2008.

Footnotes

1. The language that combined dialects of several African languages along with English. The majority of white people could not understand it
2. A slave, who despite his social status, received good education

Introduction

The American Revolution had a remarkable impact on slavery and women in the United States. Although slave trade and its associated activities continued to flourish in the south, continued protests by northern abolitionists instigated a campaign against detainment and oppression of captives.

This situation led to liberation of more slaves from the constraints of slave masters in the south. The American Revolution ushered a new phase of feminist reformists who advocated for womens rights. After independence, many slavery abolitionists and women rights activists brought about a transformed society. This research paper analyses the impact of the American Revolution on slavery and women.

Impact of Revolution on Slavery

The American Revolution remarkably brought about significant changes to the institution of slavery. Firstly, it played a great role in ending captivity in North America. According to Marsh (2004), slave owners in Northern America were willing to free their slaves after the revolution.

In addition, they agitated for the abolishment of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. They considered slaves as beings who deserved dignified treatment as humans. However, the freeing of slaves in the north did not guarantee them freedom from slavery (Marsh, 2004).

The southern economy was rapidly flourishing due to large cash crop plantations that demanded more laborers. Therefore, freed slaves from the north were sold to the southerners to work in the plantations. However, anti-slavery activists from the north together with some of the unrestrained detainees initiated an underground railroad revolution that freed captives who were working in the southern plantations (Marsh, 2004).

The idea of ending servitude was first initiated in Britain before it spread to other parts of the world such as Northern America. Many activists and feminists supported its abolishment. In his speech No Compromise with the Evil of Slavery in 1854, William Garrison regarded slavery as an insensitive treatment of fellow humans and was against the Law of God. He sharply condemned slavery and advocated for its immediate abolishment (Marsh, 2004).

After his speech, many other activists and abolitionists ascended to fight for the rights of blacks and women. Freed slaves and other opponents of the slave trade in the north agitated for release and freedom of slaves in the south. This situation led to freeing of between 40,000 to 100,000 slaves in the 1830s (Marsh, 2004).

Furthermore, the American Revolution led relocation of slaves to new lands. During the upheaval, slaves were engaged in real fighting (Schweninger, 2014). Both slaves and blacks sided with the British and continentals. The British promised them liberty and land.

As a result, some freed slaves were relocated to new lands in Sierra Leone, Canada, England, and Australia. About one-eighth of those who fled their masters were women. Most women together with their children, were forced to leave their husbands (who were in were fighting the colonies) behind as they sought liberation. However, relocation of the slaves did not guarantee them better lives.

The American Revolution was not an easy time for the slave. According to Schweninger (2014), many slaves died during the revolutionary war. Indentured servants and slaves were promised freedom. Slaves who were owned by rebels sided with the British and opposed their masters. However, those who were owned by the loyalists supported their masters (Schweninger, 2014). Rebelling slaves underwent untold suffering. They lacked food and were highly vulnerable to diseases owing to meagre healthiness.

As a result, many of them succumbed to death because they contracted diseases that had limited prevention and treatment at the time. Indeed, diseases caused more deaths than warfront wounds. Moreover, the revolution caused an influx of criminals in prisons.

Earlier, criminals were transported to colonies where they worked as servants. However, this privilege ended when the British lost control of its colonies to the Americans. Therefore, all criminals were sentenced to prisons. This turn of events led to massive congestion in the American prisons (Schweninger, 2014).

Impact of Revolution on Women

According to Lewis and Lewis (2011), the American Revolution had remarkable effects on women. During the revolution, women played a range of roles that were mostly domestic chores. The Homespun movement that engaged women in weaving to supply their families with clothes and blankets evidenced this situation.

In addition, they kept their homes safe for public services such as provision of housing to American soldiers during the revolution war. Furthermore, the situation forced some women to participate as soldiers to reinforce the warfare (Lewis & Lewis, 2011).

Moreover, other women participated in politics and activist activities. Earlier, Women were not allowed to take part in politics and other economic matters. However, the American Revolution ushered new rules that permitted women to participate in public matters. Although most women were adamant to join public institutions, a few of them chose to become political figures (Grasso, 2008).

However, after the revolution, more women gradually featured in the public domain either as activists or as politicians. In a bid to reform the society, these women formed organizations that advocated for transformation of the American society. These organizations instilled good morals, values, and virtuous ideas in children.

Political changes that took place after the revolution triggered various feminist reform agendas and social movements. Inequality and gender discrimination forced women to demand participation in public affairs such as voting and involvement in state decisions. However, they faced many challenges. Many were unemployed and were not able to undertake public responsibilities (Grasso, 2008).

Many feminists and abolitionists propagated activism in an attempt to defend women rights after the revolutionary war. After independence, they further fought for abolishment of slavery and establishment of gender, social, and racial equality amongst the blacks and whites.

In 1848, Fredric Douglass (a prominent opponent of slave trade and bondage activities) led a group of feminists and abolitionists during the Seneca Falls convention to address the rights of women to vote and participate in government affairs. Together with other activists, he supported the idea of allowing blacks to vote (Greene & Pole, 2003).

Feminist agendas and social movements that took place after the revolution promoted the status of women rights in America. This state of affairs was triggered by political, cultural, social, economic, and intellectual changes that were dramatically changing the American community. As a result, the womenfolk demanded voting rights and participation in public goings-on, a situation that led to endorsement of women rights in 1837.

In addition, the launch of the American Female Moral Association (AFMA) in the 1830s led to enactment of womens rights regulation over the control of their bodies. It opposed sexual double standards that were prevalent during the slavery period. Other transformations that took place included campaigns for womens right to access higher education. Fuelled by abolitionists and feminists, they stepped forward to defend their rights to learn in both private and public schools (Sklar, 2002).

According to Sklar (2002), the revolution overthrew the ruling monarchs. This situation raised the middle class to power. However, the blacks were not allowed to vote or take part in government affairs. Furthermore, black women underwent dreadful experiences such as poor health, pain, and unsolved deaths during prenatal periods.

Infant mortality was high because of meagre fitness. Although, women slaves who gave births were allowed to take care of their children up to weaning, their plight was overriding during this period. Nonetheless, the rise of abolitionists and feminists (after independence) significantly improved the statuses of women (Greene & Pole, 2003).

Conclusion

The American Revolution significantly led to the rise of abolitionists and activists who fought against slave trade and suffrage of women. However, the revolutionary war had dreadful effects on slaves. Enslaved women underwent suffering and dreadful experiences. Although the rebellion movements led to freeing to slaves, the phenomenon did not better the situation of women. Due to poor health, many women perished during prenatal periods while infants succumbed to diseases that were incurable at the time.

Nonetheless, continued fight for the rights bore fruits at the end, as many slaves in the Americas were liberated from the constraints of the ruthless masters. This situation led to the rise of revolutionists who fought for the representation of blacks and rights of women. Constitutional amendments that were endorsed later guaranteed liberty and equality amongst women. Therefore, the American Revolution was the advent of successive benefits that were enjoyed by the freed slaves, especially women.

Reference List

Grasso, C. (2008). Deist Monster on Religious Common Sense in the Wake of the American Revolution. The Journal of American History, 95(1), 17-42.

Greene, J., & Pole, J. (2003). The Impact of the Revolution on the Role, Status, and Experience of Women. Web.

Lewis, J., & Lewis, C. (2011). Women and Slavery in America: A Documentary History. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press.

Marsh, B. (2004). Women and the American Revolution in Georgia. Georgia Historical Quarterly, 88(2), 157-78.

Schweninger, L. (2014). Freedom Suits, African American Women, and the Genealogy of Slavery. William & Mary Quarterly, 71(1), 35-62.

Sklar, K. (2002). From Wollstonecraft to Mill: What British and European Ideas and Social Movements Influenced the Emergence of Feminism in the Atlantic World, 1792-1869? Journal Universal, 4(8), 276.

Slavery and Freedom: What, according to Morgan, is the central paradox of American history?

A paradox is a declaration that seems as if it disagrees with itself and yet it might be factual.

In the article, Edmund S. Morgan argues that from the 17^th to 19^th century America witnessed the rise of liberty and equality as slavery increased. The fact that the above conflicting developments occurred simultaneously for such a period is what Morgan refers to as the central paradox of American history (Morgan 6).

A hypocrite is an individual who behaves in disagreement with his or her affirmed ideas or feelings.

Morgan argues that the American founding fathers such as Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and George Washington were hypocrites (Morgan 6). He argues that these founders were the champions of freedom and liberty in America. According to Morgan, these leaders are hypocrites because despite their fight for justice and equality they were all slaveholders.

The article asserts that throughout his entire adulthood Thomas Jefferson hated debt. These feelings made him have a passionate aversion to debt. He felt so because he believed that debt limited individuals freedom of action. Similarly, he believed that debt undermined the capacity of a nation to exist as a republic.

Jefferson believed that the landless laborers posed a threat to the nation because they were not independent. Jefferson believed that a citizen could only be independent if he or she owned land. According to him, landless laborers were subject to changes in the market prices, and if their work was at risk they had no land to turn to for income. Because landless laborers were not independent, Jefferson believed that landless laborers could be easily be used as tools to overturn the liberties of a nation.

Jefferson believed that the landless laborers posed a risk to the republic influenced his concerns about emancipation. Jefferson contemplated emancipating his slaves because he believed that free men with no land were going to be a threat to national security. He postulated that free, idle, and hungry individuals were going to steal from the rich.

Hakluyt believed that the world was supposed to be ruled by the Englishmen. He believed that if Englishmen ruled over the world, they would be able to extend the effects of free governance to the less fortunate individuals in the new world. His visions were not only limited to improving the living conditions of the English poor but also aimed at improving the living conditions of the natives of the lands the Englishmen would settle.

Hakluyts vision enabled the Englishmen to go and settle in the new world. Before the Englishmen settled in the new world, England was faced with enormous social problems. As such, the population had increased significantly has the resources to support them reduced. Because of this, the English poor used to wander aimlessly searching for jobs. During the 16^th century, these individuals were sent to the new world to work as laborers. Given the fact that Englands job opportunities could not satisfy the increase in population and labor force, Hakluyts vision addressed the problem of the idle poor in England.

In the 1670s, social problems increased in Virginia. Legal and economic pressures were tightened to keep more men in service. Despite these, the population of freemen rose. As their number increased, the government of the time felt threatened. The government was so determined to reduce the civil influence of freemen that they limited voting to landholders and householders. Virginia was an unstable place because almost all the freemen and without land were harmed. Since they were harmed, they could gang up against the landholders leading to a civil war.

Freemen revolted against the landed elite during Bacons Rebellion because Governor William Berkeley imposed undeserved duty, failed to improve their economic conditions, and failed to protect them from being attacked by the natives. Freemen rebelled against the landed elite because they were connected and were involved in the running of the government blamed for the unjust mistreatment of the freemen.

After Bacons Rebellion, the colonial authorities acknowledged that the increasing number of white freemen was a threat to the landed elite (Morgan 22). To reduce the risk caused by the number of increased freemen, slavery replaced servitude. Coordination of slave labor created order in Virginia. African born slaves would cause less trouble compared to white freemen. As such, Africans could not claim equal rights compared to the white freemen and provided a cheap source of labor (Tindall & David 78).

In the article, Professor Morgan asserts that for a very long time the landowners tried in vain to deny equal rights and civil liberties to the white freemen. With the increased number of black slaves, freemen became less intimidating. In the subsequent years, colonial authorities came up with a strict slave code and that limited slaves from exercising their civil liberties as the whites (Gates 67). As times passed, white freemen were able to vote and become slaveholders.

Works Cited

Gates, Henry Louis. Life upon these shores: looking at African American history, 1513 2008. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. Print.

Morgan, Edmund. Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox, The Journal of The American Paradox, The Journal of American History 1.59 (1972): 5-29. Print.

Tindall, George Brown, and David E. Shi. America: a narrative history. 9th ed. New York: Norton, 2012. Print.

The historical issues often are rather controversial. Any historical fact can give rise to doubts of the historians and become a subject for scientific debates. An autobiographical work Up from Slavery by Washington Booker describes the relationships between the black and white people in the United States before the Civil War from a new unexpected perspective of the actual participant of the events.

Bookers memoirs do not contradict the descriptions of 1890s in The Awakening by Kate Chopin or The Strenuous Life by Theodore Roosevelt but add new significant information to them.

Instead of criticizing the opposition between the black and the white, Booker emphasizes the interpersonal relationships between the masters and their slaves, emphasizing the devotion of the latter to the white population.

Anyone attempting to harm young Mistress or old Mistress during the night would have to cross the dead body of the slave to do so& there are few instances, either in slavery or freedom, in which a member of my race has been known to betray a specific trust (Washington 28).

In this point Bookers perspective is opposed to the widely spread bias concerning the hatred of Afro-Americans towards their odious masters. In a number of situations the relations were rather warm and some of the slaves got accustomed to their position and did not want to change their life style.

Giving rise to readers doubts concerning the generally accepted view on the confrontation between Afro-Americans and white population, Booker motivates them to get rid of their stereotypes. Pointing at another shift in public consciousness of Americans in 1890s, Kate Chopin sheds light upon the first signs of feminism in the society, choosing a woman struggling for her rights as the main protagonist of her book The Awakening.

The years that are gone seem like dreams& Perhaps it is better to wake up after all, even to suffer, rather than to remain a dupe to illusions all ones life. (Chopin 292). The idea of awakening is rather broad and can be used to define various changes in the country of the period under analysis.

Up from Slavery by Washington Booker can be regarded as a part of the 1890s America explored by Roosevelt emphasizing the same ideas of universal values which preceded the decline of slavery.

The outside world does not know the struggle that is constantly going on in the hearts of both the Southern white people and their former slaves to free themselves from racial prejudice; and while both races are thus struggling they should have the sympathy, the support, and the forbearance of the rest of the world (Washington 220).

A similar idea is proclaimed by Roosevelt who points at the significance of ensuring equal rights for all the citizens for demonstrating the level of development of the state and entering the world community as a civilized country. In the end the slave was freed, the Union restored, and the mighty American republic placed one more as a helmeted queen among nations (Roosevelt 5).

Thus, describing the phenomenon, both authors point at its devastating effects for further progress of the United States, while the decision to get rid of it was similar to getting rid of a burden that prevented the development.

Up from Slavery by Washington Booker views the situation in America of 1890s through the eyes of an Afro-American, adding a new perspective to the descriptions of the situation in the country in The Awakening by Kate Chopin or The Strenuous Life by Theodore Roosevelt, without contradicting or opposing to them.

Works Cited

Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. New York: Bibliobazaar, 2008. Print.

Roosevelt, Theodore. The Strenuous Life: Essays and Addresses. New York: Cosimo Classics, 2006. Print.

Washington, Booker. Up from Slavery: An Autobiography. New York: Bibliobazaar, 2008. Print.