Though people want to believe that they know a lot about slavery, its threats, and peculiarities, it is hard for them to understand that what people survived during the slavery period had nothing in common with what is now written in the books. The letters analyzed in this paper give a piece of the picture that was observed during the 1600s and the 1700s when slaves from different parts of the world had to serve their masters under harsh conditions and decide to rebel to prove their rights.
In one of the letters written in 1623, the conditions under which people had to live and work are described. Slaves were not satisfied; still, they did not have a chance to change something or find something more convenient. Richard Frethorne wrote to his parents about the slaves, how they got sick, died, stole, and starved because their owners did not care for their physical conditions (“Richard Frethorne on Indentured Servitude” 64). What they wanted was a piece of understanding and health to continue living and waiting for their dreams about a better life come true.
The next three letters were the outcomes of the situation described by Frethorne. Slaves were ready to rebel and fight for their freedoms. The anonymous letter was written to Mr. Boone and informed about the slaves’ rising against the white people in Charles Town. The author of the letter wanted all slaves to be sold, sent away, or executed and could not accept the idea that some people like Mr. Percivall still have slaves at their homes (“Anonymous Letter to Mr. Boone in London” 52). The white people had to decide how to treat and control Negroes with their constant intentions to be free from what they were signed to.
The “Letter from Petersburg, Virginia” introduced a new case of the slaves’ rebellion in the Eastern Shore of Virginia (52). The author gives a detailed description of the events that happened when slaves began a very dangerous Insurrection and rose against their own masters, who truly believed their favorite servants stand their side. About 900 Negroes armed with muskets and spears rose against the white people at once.
The masters, who were closed to them at that moment, like Colonel Savage or Mr. Simkins, were treated in an insolent manner and robbed. The white people found all those actions unexpected, severe, and “unfair” in regards to everything they did to the slaves.
Still, the final secret letter written by one of the slaves helped to understand why the Negroes were ready to put everything on the map and rise against their masters even if they knew that their powers and arms were not enough to win. The slaves got a chance and found some support from one person, who supplied them with the required portion of powder (“Secret Keeper Richmond” 53). The slaves tried to plan each move and cooperate not to make a mistake or take some actions in vain. They had one chance to demand their freedom, and they had to act all together at once. This letter helped to understand how and under which conditions the slaves were going to change history.
All these letters are united by one thing, slavery, that bothered so many people during a long period of time. From these sources, it becomes clear that the white people themselves created the conditions under which they lost control over their own people.
Works Cited
“Anonymous Letter to Mr. Boone in London (1720).” Voices of a People’s History of the United States. Ed. Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009. 52. Print.
“Letter from Petersburg, Virginia (1720).” Voices of a People’s History of the United States. Ed. Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009. 52. Print.
“Richard Frethorne on Indentured Servitude (1623).” Voices of a People’s History of the United States. Ed. Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009. 64-65. Print.
“Secret Keeper Richmond (Unknown) to Secret Keeper Norfolk (Unknown) (1793).” Voices of a People’s History of the United States. Ed. Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove. New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009. 53. Print.
The Irish migration to North America had convoluted causes. The times described in the paper were times of uneasiness in Ireland with the religious persecution and active British conquest, which sometimes led even to crop failures. Those issues forced many Irish to seek a better life elsewhere. Like their English and Scottish neighbours, they participated in the “race for the American colonies” in the early seventeenth century. Political and other prisoners were sent to America without their consent and transported to New England, Virginia, Barbados, and different places. The circumstances forced some ordinary Irish who chose to change their lives to volunteer to become indentured servants for long periods as payment for conveyance, food, and shelter.
Irish people, though not as deprived of rights as the enslaved Africans, also endured much suffering and fought slavery to the best of their ability. The famous Irish abolitionist Daniel O’Connell came to America much later: “and here I find slavery, which they not only tolerate but extend, justified and defended as a legacy left them by us” (1860). His rejection of slavery is evident in his every statement. His public activity, speeches, and contributions to the abolition are quite remarkable.
Both the times of slavery and its abolition had lasting consequences for American society. It is one of the most severe blows to the ideology of freedom, which was proclaimed primarily as independence from Europe, yet somehow allowed one person to be the property of another. O’Connell wrote: “dare not to stand up boasting of your freedom or your privileges, while you continue to treat men, redeemed by the same blood, as the mere creatures of your will” (1860). African Americans still sometimes face echoes of times that were very hard for their ancestors in the form of contemporary racism. The abolition of slavery was the most crucial step toward a truly free society.
In modern times there is ample evidence of the negative impact of slavery on young American society at the time. It is one of the most influential problems in American and world history. Among many others, Daniel O’Connell spoke out against subservience in all its manifestations in many countries. He collected and recorded the testimonies of the Irish aimed at the same goal (1860). After all, slavery was banned in the United States in 1865, but this social activist never knew it – what he fought for happened almost twenty years after his demise.
Reference
O’Connell, D. (1860). Daniel O’Connell upon American slavery: With other Irish testimonies. American Anti-Slavery Society.
Why is the slave trade, according to Wilberforce, bad for Africa? How does Wilberforce depict Africa and African kings?
The following article is devoted to the description of the problem of slavery and the slave trade in Africa. The author underlines its pernicious effect on Africa, and he outlines a great number of different problems connected with this phenomenon. The author states the fact that the slave trade brings only desolation and destruction to this land. He calls this country not barbaric but uncivilized, and moreover, slavery does not promote its development. Moreover, the author blames the kings of this land, accusing them of promoting slavery and the slave trade in their country. He says that it just for a king to decide whether to send his troops to the neighbor village or not. The reason very often is just a desire of a king to drink brandy. People became good in this country, and very often, they are exchanged in the process of barter. With this in mind, the author underlines that slavery gradually destroys Africa, bringing it to the barbaric stage of development where people can be taken only as a good.
What does Wilberforce mean by “the delegates from Liverpool”? Why does he hold them to be “totally incompetent” in assessing the character of the slave trade?
The author also underlines the incompetency of the committee, which is in charge of the question of slavery in Africa. He calls them delegates from Liverpool. The author underlines the fact that they have not found evidence of the pernicious influence of slavery in Africa. Moreover, having no facts, this committee supposed that slavery was a traditional state of affairs in Africa. Being deeply consumed that slavery is the main reason for wars on this land, the author emphasizes the incompetence of this committee. He points out the incorrectness of their conclusions. They judged by the fact that there were no complaints from the population of this land that is why it is impossible to fix cases of cruel attitude or other discrimination. The author states the fact that the majority of the population of Africa does not have such an opportunity; that is why it is possible to state the absence of any signs of discontent. Moreover, the author suggests that it is profitable for members of this committee to ignore the current state of affairs in Africa.
What evidence does Wilberforce emphasize to demonstrate the inhuman nature of the middle passage?
The author also points out the inhumane character of the Middle passage. He criticizes members of the Liverpool committee, which say that salves are transported under good conditions, and they are supplied with everything they need. The committee describes the transportation of slaves as a joyful voyage during which they eat, drink, dance, and are happy. However, the author underlines the horrible conditions under which slaves are transported. First of all, he says about the terrifying congestion in which these slaves are usually placed. It is made in an attempt to take as many slaves as it is possible. It is ridiculous to state the fact that someone cares about the conditions under which these people are transported. There is no food and space for them. They could hardly move. Moreover, they do not want to live in their homes, and that is why very often ships have to sail away at night for slaves do not notice departure. Describing the terrible conditions of the Middle Passage, the author gives the best evidence to prove his words. He shows a high rate of mortality, which composes about 50 percent. It is the best evidence for the authors words.
How would you characterize Wilberforce’s argument against the slave trade?
The author tries to find good arguments against slavery and the slave trade. First of all, it can be seen in the first lines of the article. He underlines the aftermath of this trade for Africa, trying to make people think about all difficulties which people who inhabit this land should overcome. He also tries to show the derogatory character of this trade. The article underlines that human beings are unequal, and some of them have the right to turn another into a commodity. Moreover, he is trying to appeal to some humanistic forces, underlining horrible conditions in which slaves are usually transported. However, it should be said that these arguments do not seem to be very convincing as they do not touch on some concrete issues. The author cogitates about the moral aspects of slavery and the necessity of its abolition; however, he does not suggest any real reason for people to think about it and be interested in the question of finding a solution to the problem of slavery.
What is the broader significance of Wilberforce’s speech?
Being not very convincing, this article, though, has a great significance. Taking into account the period of history in which it was made, it is possible to call it even revolutionary. Slavery was a common thing at that time, and it was impossible to imagine that it could be abolished. Moreover, slaves often were not considered to be the same human beings as the other people were; that is why the authors words about inequality and sympathy can be taken as the first signs of approaching a new era. His attempt to draw peoples attention to the question of slavery should be taken as an innovative thought which was way ahead of its time. That is why it is possible to speak about the great significance of this speech for the development of the humanistic movement.
The selected historical events are Irish immigration to the United States in the 1840s and 1850s and the movement for slavery abolition, which existed in the country at the same time. People were leaving Ireland during this period due to the Great Famine, which left many households without jobs, income, and food (Murphy, 2006). As a result, immigration to the US became a last resort for getting money and establishing a new life on a different continent (Kinealy, 2011). The new immigrants had restricted autonomy in their own country but were hesitant to support abolition.
The first secondary source for review is the book Abolition, Irish Freedom, and Immigrant Citizenship: American Slavery and the Rise and Fall of the American Associations for Irish Repeal by Murphy. Murphy (2006) reviews the reasons behind the Irish hesitance regarding slavery abolition in this publication. This source is directly related to the investigated topic and presents an in-depth look into the issue. The next secondary source is an article by Kinealy, “The Irish Abolitionist: Daniel O’Connell.” In this article, the author talks about a famous Irish abolitionist and his connection to the history of Irish immigration and slavery in America.
The primary sources include books written after the peak of immigration and during the fight against slavery. The first book was written by O’Connell (1860) – it contains his opinion on slavery and its connection to Irish freedom. The second book is by Maguire (1867), where the author talks about the issues surrounding Irish immigrants in the US. These two sources present Irish people’s contemporary opinions, making them essential primary sources.
Based on the sources, the research question concerns the Irish immigrants’ input into slavery abolition in America and why immigrants often did not support abolition. The audience interested in this topic includes young Americans learning about immigration and slavery, as this discussion often touches upon many people’s ancestral history. For the audience to understand this research question better, one has to explain the history of Ireland, the factors that affected people’s decision to emigrate, and their complex history of independence. No specific terminology is related to this topic, and the audience should be acquainted with many events described in the research.
Maguire, J. F. (1867). The Irish in America (4th ed.). D. & J. Sadlier & Company.
Murphy, A. (2006). Abolition, Irish freedom, and immigrant citizenship: American slavery and the rise and fall of the American associations for Irish repeal. University of Houston.
O’Connell, D. (1860). Daniel O’Connell upon American slavery: With other Irish testimonies. American Anti-Slavery Society.
The objective of this essay is to evaluate and analyze the work of Litwack Leon, titled “Back to Work. Been in the Storm for so long”. In this book, Leon broadly discusses the aftermath of slavery in America. This paper seeks to delve into a technical theme addressed by Leon on what kind of freedom was adopted by the ex-slaves prior to the passage of the 13th U.S. constitutional amendment of 1865 that saw America getting rid of indentured servitude, forced labor, and consequently freedom.
Passage of the 13th U.S. Constitutional Amendment in 1865
After the long period of forced labor, meager wages, prolonged human tortures and maltreatment, landlessness, abject poverties, hunger, and diseases, there emerged civil strives that paved way for the amendment of the Constitution. As Litwack discusses, the vastly molested by the servitude indenture system were the African-Americans, mostly from the Southern frontiers. It was a society divided into two unique demographies, a society of masters and slaves (Litwack, 396-407).
Under the presidency of Abraham Lincoln, U.S. 16th President, there was a looming concern for freedom and awareness about democracy. In his quest for democracy, Lincoln enforced the amendment of the constitutional laws that granted slavery. A landmark ruling was then made in1865 with the successful passage of the Anti-slave decree, commonly referred to as the 13th amendment. The blacks and minority whites that were for long tied under the bolts and bondages of slavery finally had a reason to smile (Litwack, 389-407).
In the 13th U.S Constitutional amendment, was the Freedman’s Bureau, set up by Congress to ensure that ex-slaves were provided with the basics of life like food, shelter, clothing, healthcare services, and at least some source of income (Litwack, 389). The bureau was also to build schools for the predominantly illiterate freedmen and women. Part two of the decree stated that ex-slaves were free to farm the landowners land and be paid from the harvest shares which they could use to pay rents. This was termed sharecropping (Litwack, 393-405).
Litwacks preview of the Aftermath of Slavery in America
The aftermath of slavery was the resultant effects of freedom found in 1865 through the passage of the 13th constitutional amendment. Litwick is so composed in describing the lifetime experiences of freedmen and women in a rather narrative and dramatic note. As chapter eight of his book commences, we realize that there are a number of direct quotations Litwack uses to describe the testaments, resentments, and general views of the ex-slaves about their new ways of living.
“The excitements with the congregation was immense…groups were formed talking over what they heard, and ever and again other cheers were given to some sentences of the speech” (Litwack, 388). This was part of the speech that was delivered by Delaney, a government official whose report speech Litwick used to express and explain the state of excitement that came with the implementation of the Freedman’s Bureau decree. The Bureau’s objectives were to put some food on the tables of freedmen and women, provide them with shelter and clothing, education and take care of their health. It was indeed a new dawn for the ex-slave men and women, most of who remained hesitant to believe, not until very late (Litwack, 388-389).
Livelihoods of the freedmen took a different swift, as they practiced to cope up with the new rulings, no longer under the ruthlessness of their masters, but under the care of new laws. Things that none of them hardly talked about before started happening. Slaves began to negotiate their labor force charges with the masters. ”For If I leave them, they will never pay me what they owe me…” (Litwack, 391). This was a quote from an ex-slave. It clearly reveals how much resentments they had from their past experiences with the former masters, to the extent of seeking for slightest revenge strategies. One of such strategies unanimously used by ex-slaves was to make their labor services to the masters very costly, as the masters were not known to possess most of the skills they had after all. So they had no otherwise but to pay for the negotiated charges.
Discussion and Conclusion
Using many typical scenarios in form of non-platonic and dyadic discourses between masters and ex-slaves, Leon posits that emancipation of the ex-slaves did not lead to such drastic changes in how they chose to live their new lives. In this freed state, the ex-slaves still yearned for more. They generally felt that freedom from slavery alone was not a complete package of the kind of liberation they anticipated. Such notions of discontent and dissatisfactions led them to what Litwick must have termed as “the new dependency” (Litwack, 389).
References
Litwack, Leon. Back to work. Been in the Storm so long. The aftermath of slavery. The New Dependency. New York. Vintage Books. 1980. Chap VIII: 386-449.
Racism is one of the ugliest forms of relations between individuals as it presupposes the biased and unfair attitude to representatives of a particular race because of its so-called inferiority. Unfortunately, In the USA, the given pattern had been part of the legal environment for centuries. After the War of Independence and the Civil War, the first signs of abolishment movements emerged. Citizens of the Northern states acquired the new vision of interracial relations characterized by a more tolerant attitude to individuals and equality.
It promoted the slight improvement of minorities’ states. To depress these trends, various regulations throughout the South of the country were created. The Black Codes became one of them. They encompassed all laws needed to save the racialized society and prevent black people from becoming independent. It was performed via numerous regulations limiting all the most critical aspects of an individual’s life. For this reason, evaluating the Mississippi Black Code as an example of a document introducing the legal regulations to infringe people’s rights is critical to understand how limits on marriage, work, and arms helped to enslave people and postpone the rise of abolishment.
Background
The discussed set of rules emerged after the Civil War under the impact of the reconsideration of attitude to African-Americans living in the state. Slavery had the nationwide breadth in the USA at that period of time, but the South was more conservative in its views on this phenomenon. The Mississippi Black Code encompassed the majority of laws regulating all spheres of relations between the African-American population and other people, agencies, employees, and local authorities (“Black Codes”). The Code was created to replace the previous slave regulations existing in Southern states (“Black Codes”).
However, the main goal of the given document was not to improve the state of this population group; on the contrary, this law prevented black people from becoming members of the society of that period of time by introducing multiple limits and discriminative laws. In other words, it was the officially accepted doctrine aimed at the elimination of grounds for the generation of economic wealth and acquiring independence by black people who were considered as a cheap labor force and source of income (Van Daniel 54).
Along with numerous elements of slavery present in this document, there are three that should be analyzed in detail. These are the limitation of the freedom of marriage, the limitation of the freedom of work, and the limitation of the freedom of weapon. All these aspects evidence the biased character of the code and its unfair character.
Limitation of the Freedom of Marriage
The freedom to choose a partner is one of the basic rights of any human being. Every person should be able to select an individual whom he/she loves and create a family that will be able to generate wealth and contribute to the development of the community. However, the Mississippi Black Code presupposed a rude interference in this aspect of people’s lives as it stated that “it shall not be lawful for any freedman, free negro, or mulatto to intermarry with any white person; nor for any white person to intermarry with any freedman, free negro, or mulatto” (“(1866) Mississippi Black Codes”).
The given extract proves the discriminative character of the Code and reveals the elements of slavery hidden in it. Slaves were considered inferior to their owners, and it was impossible to imagine a marriage between them. As it becomes clear from the code, the given pattern was preserved. Black people were still taken as not equal, and they were limited in their opportunities to engage in interracial relations as it would be considered a serious crime that should be punished. The given limitation had been topical up to the middle of the 20the century and interracial marriages were not appreciated by society.
The possible reason for the strict control of sexual life and intimate relations was the unwillingness to allow the blending of races. First, it would result in the emergence of a new culture that would include all the unique peculiarities of these nationalities. Second, it would destroy barriers between races and make preservation of segregation and discrimination more complex because of the appearance of people with undetermined status. For this reason, the regulation introduced by the Black Code had remained topical for generations.
Limitation of the Freedom of Work
Another element of slavery presented in the discussed code is the introduction of strict limits to work, to select an employer, and to quit looking for better wages. For instance, the Code stated:
Every civil officer shall, and every person may arrest and carry back to his or her legal employer any freedman, free negro, or mulatto who shall have quit the service of his or her employer before the expiration of his or her term of service without good cause (“(1866) Mississippi Black Codes”)
It means that all minorities mentioned by the document did not have the right to leave because of poor working conditions, inappropriate payment, or biased attitudes. These laws provided multiple opportunities for white employers to use the depressed population as a cheap working force without any guarantees of sufficient treatment or salary. This approach can be compared to the methods used by slave-owners who were sure that their workers would not find another master.
Apprentices were also prohibited from leaving their masters without their consent (“(1866) Mississippi Black Codes”). Moreover, the Black Code presupposed that any black person who was not employed by a particular date could be considered a vagrant and treated appropriately (“(1866) Mississippi Black Codes”). These restrictions were also critical in preserving racialized and strict hierarchical relations between black and white people.
Having no opportunity to change masters, discriminated minorities were not able to struggle for the increase in wages or better working conditions. The given regulation was critical at the rise of abolition. It significantly reduced the black people’s opportunity to meet and discuss some issues topical for them. In such a way, this restriction became a critical element that postponed the emergence of civil rights movements in the state. These facts also prove the discriminative character of the document and its aim at the elimination of opportunities to generate a stable income.
Limitation of the Freedom of Weapon
Finally, the Code introduced the strict prohibition to wearing any arms by depressing categories. It stated that “no freedman, free negro or mulatto … shall keep or carry fire-arms of any kind, or any ammunition, dirk or bowie knife” (“(1866) Mississippi Black Codes”). A person was obliged to pay a significant fine if this law was violated. It is another element of slavery included in the discussed set of regulations. The central motif for the introduction of this law was the attempt to deprive black people of the opportunity to struggle for their rights by confiscating any weapons that could be used against them and guaranteeing the observation of other rules.
Otherwise, having no arms, these people did not have an opportunity to resist. The grounds for the emergence of this pattern can be traced back to the period characterized by the rise of slavery. Being afraid of rebellions and any forms of resistance, planters prohibited their black slaves from using arms and introduced severe punishment for it. It was one of the main forms of control guaranteeing the ability to suppress or eliminate people who tried to fight for their rights. In such a way, the Black Code became a veil used to hide the same patterns and cease the development of abolition movements.
Impact of the Black Code
The Black code promoted a significant impact on the state of depressed minorities in areas where it was accepted. Having a discriminative nature, it created the legal basis for the cultivation of biased patterns among the white population of the USA as they acquired an opportunity to impact the most important spheres of black people’s lives and prevent them from integrating with society and generating wealth (White et al. 89). In other words, this group was still considered a cheap working force that could be used for various tasks.
Conclusion
Altogether, Mississippi Black Code is a document that emerged after the Civil War with the primary aim to replace previous slave laws. However, it became a set of rules that tried to suppress the further development of African-American slaves, so-called freedmen. Counter to the abolishment movements that appeared in the North of the country, the Southern states tried to suppress the growing consciousness of black people because of the historical peculiarities of the area. It can be proven by numerous discriminative aspects found in-laws introduced by the Black Code. For instance, it presupposed significant limits on marriage, work, and weapons.
Regulating these three critical elements of people’s lives, the majority was able to preserve old patterns and exploit them in the ways needed for their enrichment. At the same time, minorities mentioned in the Code had no rights to struggle for their freedom as these regulations strongly prohibited their meetings without a significant legal cause. That is why the Mississippi Black Code contributed to the further depression of the black population, racialization of communities, and created the legal basis for their discrimination regarding the new approach to slavery in the USA.
Passed by Congress in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution banned slavery and servitude and became a much-needed impetus to rapid changes in Black people’s societal status. Even though there is still an ongoing debate on whether African Americans indeed acquired freedom, or the new legislation was rather a formality, it is difficult to argue that their lives were altered. This essay will discuss what changes abolition brought about.
Not Being Enslaved
The most common definition of freedom is not being held against one’s will or imprisoned. For Black people, abolition meant emancipation and independence. No longer were they chattel property that could be sold and purchased, subjected to beatings and sexual assault. Even though life after slavery was still challenging, as many former slaves were pushed into poverty, the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment was a major milestone.
The Right to Take Action
A free person has the right to govern the course of their actions as they deem necessary. One of the biggest achievements of Reconstruction was the acquisition of the right to vote by Black People. Thus, after the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, African Americans could make decisions about their lives and also about the political development of the country.
Not Being Controlled or Limited
Emancipation means the lack of control and limits within law and reason. After the abolition of slavery, Black people found an outlet for self-expression and self-identity in building the independent Black church (Woodson 52). Previously controlled by Whites, those churches have grown to be centerpieces of African American culture and served both as a place of spiritual worship and socialization.
Conclusion
The abolition of slavery in the United States ushered the country into the new era of human rights progress. Indisputably, the slavery ban did not solve all the problems associated with racial injustice and did not relieve racial tension. Still, Black Americans were no longer forced to tolerate inhumane living conditions, the lack of self-autonomy, and the ability to express themselves.
Work Cited
Woodson, Carter G. The History of the Negro Church. Historic Publishing, 2015.
Slavery is one of the ugliest stigmas of human society. Ruthless exploitation of other people regardless of their needs, cultural peculiarities, and the desire to be free contradict the nature of humanistic relations between individuals and humiliates peoples dignity. Unfortunately, for a long period of time, slavery had been considered the only way to find a cheap workforce and use it not thinking about the creation of the appropriate conditions.
Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of states, black people from Africa became a good used by planters and other slave owners to generate profit and preserve their specific social position1. However, captives did not want to give up and tried to eliminate the bonds of slavery. The lack of rights and power to struggle resulted in the emergence of particular forms of resistance that preconditioned the radical shifts in peoples mentalities and the creation of the tolerant society we can observe today.
Background
Speaking about the problem of slavery and resistance to this issue, the historical background should be mentioned. Starting with the massive colonization of new territories and especially the Caribbean Basin, Africa had turned into the main source of new captives that were enslaved and transported to various regions2. This intensive process gave rise to the term the Middle Passage. It can be described as a sort of triangular trade created to ship millions of slaves to the New World3.
Special ships with goods for African markets departed from Europe (England, Portugal, Spain) and traded these things for Africans who were sold by local rulers. Later, they were transported across the Atlantic as slaves to colonies. In these regions, they were exchanged for raw materials and ships went back to Europe. These voyages became significant financial projects that guaranteed high revenues for organizers and an unsavory reputation to the Middle Passage.
Forms of Resistance
Numerous descriptions of the given path show that it was extremely dangerous for slaves. In accordance with the historical documents, about 15% of all captives died during the journey because of horrible conditions, lack of food, and congestion4. Ships were overcrowded as crews comprised the insignificant part of all people on board. For this reason, the first manifestations of resistance can be found during this route. One of ten ships at the Middle passage had rebellions on their boards5.
Slaves tried to avoid their future undesired destiny and to control their lives. In many cases, it was a hopeless task because of the lack of weapons and fetters that were used by the crew. However, sometimes Africans managed to take captive over cargo ships6. This event proves the idea of the existence of the extreme desire to be free among individuals who were doomed to be sold. These manifestations of resistance significantly impacted society and the whole history as they demonstrated to the world that Africans would struggle for their rights and gave hope to other slaves.
Another form of resistance can be determined as the cultural one. The fact is that in the majority of cases captives were delivered to countries with culture and traditions different from their native ones7. Under these conditions, living in these areas up to their death, slaves were supposed to forget the peculiarities of their native mentality and culture. Moreover, owners often gave other names, different from original ones (for instance Equiano was called Jacob) to make Africans assimilate8.
However, these attempts were useless. In his notes, Equiano emphasizes the desire of slaves to preserving their mentality and culture9. For this reason, millions of people from Africa continued to adhere to their customs and use their native names while speaking to each other. The author is sure that this fact is critical as along with the desire to learn new things from white people, captives also did not forget all they had got while being children10. As a result, this form of resistance promoted the further desire to continue the struggle for freedom and protected the unique African culture that also turned into a powerful weapon against slavery.
Finally, Africans who lived in areas known as sources of captives also resisted enslavement using all the ways they had. For instance, Equiano is his work mentions that his own settlement was aware of kidnappers who could use the opportunity when grownups were away11. He offered an example of him seeing suspicious men and giving the alarm to prevent them from doing harm to people. They were surrounded and stopped; however, soon Equiano and his sister were kidnapped12.
Nevertheless, this example perfectly proves the idea that local people had their own system to protect themselves from slave-owners and other individuals who wanted to find a cheap workforce13. Correctly realizing the danger that came from these people, Africans living in areas belonging to the sphere of interest of European states tried to resist and not become slaves become of the hardships associated with this status. Unfortunately, incidents such as Equianos one show that these measures had limited efficiency because of their inability to protect all people. However, their importance cannot be overestimated as they created the basis for further struggle and desire to become free.
Discussion
In such a way, there are three distinct manifestations of resistance among slaves taken from Africa. First of all, in their native land, they tried to struggle against kidnappers to protect their way of living. Second, they also engaged in riots in cargo ships transporting captives at the Middle Passage. Finally, the cultural form of resistance was also observed. The combination of these three forms created the basis for the growing wave of dissatisfaction among all slaves who were taken from Africa and preconditioned the emergence of radical shits in their and other peoples mentalities. In the course of time, these alterations gave rise to multiple abolishment movements that tried to eliminate slavery and provide equal conditions for people of all races. For this reason, the importance of these manifestations of resistance remains significant and should be considered the origins of the long struggle for freedom.
Conclusion
Altogether, slavery was a dramatic event in the life of millions of people who were forced to leave their native land and work in other countries without any chance to come back or become free. However, slaves did not want to accept this destiny and resisted oppression and enslavement. They tried to take captive over cargo boats at the Middle Passage, fought at their native lands against kidnappers, and cultivated their unique culture even in other states. It all helped them to survive and achieve the main goal. They became free and contributed to the development of the worlds culture by increasing its diversity.
Bibliography
Donnan, Elizabeth. Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I: 1441-1700. New York: William S Hein, 2002. Web.
Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano: Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, Written By Himself. London: Printed for, and Sold by the Author, 1794. Web.
Mustakeem, Sowande. Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2016.
Footnotes
Sowande Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2016), 36.
Elizabeth Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I: 1441-1700 (New York: William S Hein, 2002), 3. Web.
Ibid., 4.
Mustakeem, Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage, 43.
Ibid., 87.
Ibid., 87.
Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I: 1441-1700,21. Web.
Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano: Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, Written By Himself (Lonon: Printed for, and Sold by the Author, 1794), 67. Web.
For more than 200 years, African American people experienced oppression and restrictions that affected their independence and life quality. Today, many sources discuss the characteristics of slavery, its causes, and the outcomes and describe the conditions under which the Civil War began. In addition to illustrative narratives, modern readers can access primary sources where people share their memories. This paper will offer a comparison of the textbook and accounts information to promote a better understanding of slavery. Despite certain similarities like inconstant opportunities, sacrifices, and dependence on circumstances, the differences between the reading and the textbook cannot be neglected in terms of their emotional coverage, childhood experience, and clothing details.
Discussion
The similarities between the sources are based on the fact that American history consists of similar and definite attempts to change living conditions, establish new economic relationships, and stabilize political powers. It is impossible to ignore slavery as a significant period in American life, its impact, and its lessons. Thus, some authors identify the same opportunities for slaves, their inevitable sacrifices, and the inability to deal with circumstances imposed by white society.
In the accounts and the textbook, different opportunities for slaves are given through the prism of sacrifices and unfair attitudes. Although enslaved lives were based on the principles of paternalism, some African Americans achieved economic prosperity (Corbett et al. 303). Similar combinations of negative and positive experiences are given in the stories of real slaves. For example, Lou Smith mentioned, “Mother and I wasn’t happy” when they were alone at Miss Jo’s house (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 301). With time, “my mother took over the charge of the house… and we were all purty happy after that” (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 302). In both sources, the authors explain that African Americans were enslaved by White Americans, who restricted their freedoms and created bad living conditions. The lives of slaves were not easy because of “endured daily traumas as human property” (Corbett et al. 322). Many slaveowners neglected the basic needs of Black people, which caused early deaths and suffering. The sources also prove that many Black families were separated as Whites did not find it necessary to consider their ties and feelings for their own financial and labor gains.
Comparing the offered sources, certain differences were revealed, focusing on human emotions, attention to children’s experiences, and even access to clothes. Even the most professional writers are not always able to depict the level of fear in characters. Modern people can hardly imagine a day from the slave’s life, their emotions, and controversies. For example, there was an enslaved boy who “was scared to go home, and he stayed out in de words for several days” because he lost the horse of his master when he fell asleep (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 302). Slaves experienced serious harm and fear of making mistakes, increased obligations, and uncertainty about their future. In the textbook, Corbett et al. point out that slaves “feared the risk” and did not want to expose “themselves or their families” to white anger (307). Still, such facts are not enough to cover the damage and injustice that Black individuals survived. Thus, the emotional coverage of the accounts is stronger and more vivid than in the textbook to describe the impact of slavery on human life.
Another interesting observation is the conditions under which children lived. Eighty-three-year-old Lou Smith from Oklahoma presented her story to prove the difference. She was a little girl in a large family, and her job was “nussing de younguns… from daylight to dark” (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 300). Another narrator, 87-year-old Beaugard Tenneyson, tells the story of his brother, who took care of the horse and joined the rebels with his master, where he died (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 311). Black children completed different work depending on their owners’ needs, abilities, and the necessity to support their families. In the textbook, attention is paid to children who “could be sold and sent away at any time,” and their parents did everything possible to reveal “the best way to survive under slavery” (Corbett et al. 304). In books, not much distinction between adult and child labor is usually given because slavery did not recognize age or gender differences. Personal experiences and memories present a better description of how unfair and miserable treatment toward children was in 19th-century America.
Finally, many slaves underlined the importance of clothing in their enslaved lives. Those individuals who were considered “free slaves” enjoyed the opportunities their owners offered, including “plenty of food and good clothes… jeans suits in winter…shoes for all” (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 314). However, most slaves had little or no clothes, and children “just wore one garment, a sort of slip without any sleeves” (Oklahoma Writers’ Project 301). Some owners did not find it necessary to provide their slaves with clothes, while others were too greedy to spend their money. As a result, enslaved people got sick, had skin injuries and diseases, and died fast from sepsis and poor hygiene. In the textbook, clothing manufacturing was discussed as an outcome of the cotton industry’s progress, when slaves could have “inexpensive clothing, called ‘slops’” (Corbett et al. 302). Books do not have much evidence to prove the nudity of slaves, especially children, while personal accounts are enough to share unfeigned emotions and suffering.
Conclusion
All these differences and similarities between the textbook and the accounts strengthen an understanding of American history and the slavery period in particular. Sometimes, it is hard to believe that people could experience such injustice in developing relationships. However, sacrifices, opportunities, and dependences are well-explained in both sources. At the same time, emotions, children’s experiences, and clothing are better understood through reading personal stories that slaves were eager to share with their descendants.
Different types of social bondage, such as slavery were widespread in Africa for centuries, and the slave trade has been a substantial item of income, that accompanied other goods trade. Ross Dunn and Laura Mitchell (2014) note in their book: “between the years 800 and 1600 … five thousand slaves, both men and women, crossed the Sahara Desert each year, along with gold and other goods, to serve in wealthy households, workshops or army units in Muslim lands. Indian Ocean traders also bought slaves in East Africa for shipment to Arabia, Egypt, Persia, or India” (Dunn, Mitchell, p. 535). However, it was not before the end of the fifteenth century, that the slave trade has significantly changed its direction, turning mostly to American destinations, and gradually began to develop and take a good deal of African economy, until it reached its peak by the 1780s.
Main body
Supply is created by demand, and in this case, a few reasons can be identified for increasing proportions of African slave labor compared to the use of other forms of servitude, or people of other origins. First of all, the Africans became a popular source of manpower, when Portuguese and other Europeans understood, that instead of disembarking and raiding the dangerous, well-guarded African coasts to acquire slaves, or unnecessarily exposing themselves to fatal tropical diseases, it was far easier to make agreements with local leaders and sellers for trading slaves to gold, silver and manufactured goods for a reasonable price. Since the beginning of the sixteenth century, the African slaves were shipped to Europe and Eastern Atlantics, but later the colonies started demanding workers and the trade shifted to the Americas.
The second reason was the actual impossibility of using the Native Americans as manpower since the beginning of the sixteenth century. By that time, the local population has reduced significantly due to the epidemics of diseases brought by colonists from Europe and Africa, from which the aborigines had no immunity. Also many were already enslaved by that time and often died from harsh working conditions and mistreatment. Another important reason was the edict of the Holy See: “Paul III (1534-49), in a Brief on 29 May 1537 to Cardinal Juan de Tavera, Archbishop of Toledo, forbade … that American Indians should be reduced to slavery or despoiled on any pretext whatsoever of their possessions … at the beginning of June 1537, the Pope in the Bull ‘Veritas Ipsa’ … proclaimed the absolute condemnation of slavery and annulled retrospectively all contracts providing for it, so that slaves had the right to free themselves from their state of servitude” (Conti, 1979).
Another important reason was the origin of the slaves themselves. The black African slaves were often stronger and sturdier than most Native Americans or Europeans, and the color of their skin allowed them to work long hours in the hot climate. These working qualities became crucial when the sugar plantations and sugar production became the main source of economic power in the region. However, most of the slaves were coming from different parts of Africa, and spoke different languages, had different cultures and beliefs, which allowed the slave owners to ensure there will be no chance for rebellion.
Conclusion
Although these reasons explain why African slaves were the most popular source of labor in the Americas for almost four centuries, the question of why the Africans themselves were eager to enslave and sell their fellow countrymen, remains open. The researchers have different opinions on this topic, and place different degrees of guilt upon European merchants, as Dunn and Mitchell (2014) state in their book, but there is no orthodox opinion, so the truth remains uncovered yet.
References
Dunn, R., & Mitchell, L. (2014). Panorama: A World History Volume 2: From 1300.New York City, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Conti, L. (1979). The Catholic Church and the slave trade. In The African slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century: reports and papers of the meeting of experts organized by Unesco at Port-au-Prince, Haiti, 31 January to 4 February 1978 (p. 265). Paris, France: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.