Category: Slavery

Introduction

In their interviews, two ex-slaves reveal their attitudes towards the days of slavery, remembering their childhood, parents, masters’ attitudes, and other details. Comparing the interview with Aunt Harriet Smith in Hempstead, Texas, and the one with George Johnson in Mound Bayou, Mississippi, one may note that both of them focus on their daily lives during their enslavement.

Voices from the Days of Slavery

Aunt Harriet Smith and George Johnson discuss how their masters took them to the local church and organized a music band for male slaves, respectively. According to the reminiscence of Aunt Harriet Smith, many slaves were unaware of God and related issues: “We, sure, didn’t know there was any such thing as God and, and, and God, you know.” Indeed, she explains that church was something unusual yet interesting for them (“Results 1-2 of 2 for Interview with Aunt Harriet Smith, Hempstead, Texas, 1941 part 1 of 4”). It is possible to suggest that by involving their slaves in the religious sphere of life, masters wanted to educate them and make them more spiritually enlightened, respectful, and kind.

Taking into account the issue of slaves and the church, it seems essential to consider the situation from a different angle. Prichard claims that American slave-owners and churchmen sought out arguments in the Bible’s sacred writings to call upon slaves to obey their masters (109). It was not difficult to find such quotes in the Bible, given a bit of free interpretation and subjectivity. Indeed, the so-called “theoretical” justification for the enslavement of Negroes was found in the book of Genesis through the story of how Ham, the son of Noah, saw the “nakedness” of his hopeless father.

The angry Noah cursed the son of Ham, Canaan, for this, promising that he would be a slave of slaves to his brothers (“Joseph Sold Into Slavery (Genesis 37)”). The theologians of that period argued that Negroes were the descendants of Canaan, and, therefore, it was legitimate to place them into slavery. Referring to the authority of the Bible, the clergy demanded patience, obedience, and submission from the slaves. Especially popular were references to the epistle of the apostle Paul to the Ephesians, where he compares Jesus Christ to the slaveholder, urging the slaves to obey their masters with fear and trembling.

George Johnson notes that his master’s band of Negroes consisted of 14 men who played songs such as “Dream On,” “I’m a Soldier,” “Flower Flop,” and more. Singing was something powerful and allowed slaves to express themselves—not only for the band members but also for other men, women, and children on plantations, at homes, and in yards. More to the point, like Aunt Harriet Smith, George Johnson notes that they had dances and “danced ah, thirty-two on a set” ( “Results 1-2 of 2 for Interview with George Johnson, Mound Bayou, Mississippi, September 1941 part 2 of 6”).

In this regard, one may claim that the era of enslavement was also represented by such activities as singing, dancing, and churchgoing, all of which were organized by masters for their Negroes and show a merciful and caring attitude. As typical representatives of slaves, Aunt Harriet Smith and George Johnson speak about their masters with respect and some extent of gratitude. For example, Aunt Harriet Smith states that masters “never whipped none of their colored people” (“Results 1-2 of 2 for Interview with Aunt Harriet Smith, Hempstead, Texas, 1941 part 1 of 4”); Johnson notes the same. Even though these ex-slaves were dependent on their masters, their attitudes may be regarded as the outcome of the appropriate treatment of slaves.

However, on the other hand, slavery entails conditions under which the life, freedom, and destiny of a person are in the hands of another. It is an open form of exploitation of man by man based on strength. In many states, slavery was the basis of the economy and a source of prosperity for colonialists, Latinists, and planters, especially in Southern states (Krauthamer 37).

Both the slave trade and slaveholding, in general, created a certain “style” of life, of which unrestrained cruelty, arbitrariness, and violence were characteristic (Fraser 71). As noted by Aunt Harriet Smith, she and her family had never known freedom. Thus, the slavery system is not only responsible for the enslavement and death of millions of Africans but also for the moral damage that is inflicted on society as a whole, generating racial prejudices, barriers, and discrimination. Slavery remains slavery even if the masters have a good attitude because people are being robbed of their freedoms and rights.

Summary

Research shows that the enslavement epoch, while often known as cruel and inhumane, was also merciful and intelligent in some cases. Even if the issue with church leaves room for controversy, slaves’ participation in music cannot be ambiguous as it undoubtedly benefited their development and knowledge. Comparing Aunt Harriet Smith from Texas and George Johnson from Mississippi, one may state that the latter can be characterized as more aware of the social life and his role in society, while the former seems to be more “enslaved”—forced to visit the church and devoid of any entertaining activities except traditional Negroes’ dancing and singing. Thus, it is possible to conclude that slaves’ lives were completely determined by the state and their particular masters.

Works Cited

Fraser, James, M. Between Church and State: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural America. Johns Hopkins UP, 2016.

“Joseph Sold Into Slavery (Genesis 37).” Bible.org

Krauthamer, Barbara. Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South. University of North Carolina Press, 2013.

Prichard, Pobert, M. A History of the Episcopal Church. 3rd ed., Morehouse Publishing, 2014.

“Results 1-2 of 2 for Interview with Aunt Harriet Smith, Hempstead, Texas, 1941 part 1 of 4.” The Library of Congress, memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/afcesnbib:@field(TITLE+@od1(Interview+with+Aunt+Harriet+Smith,+Hempstead,+Texas,+1941++part+1+of+4+)).

“Results 1-2 of 2 for Interview with George Johnson, Mound Bayou, Mississippi, September 1941 part 2 of 6.” The Library of Congress, memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/afcesnbib:@field(TITLE+@od1(Interview+with+George+Johnson,+Mound+Bayou,+Mississippi,+September+1941++part+2+of+6+)).

Introduction

Written by the American historian Eric Foner, the book “The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery” provides a detailed biographical portrait of Abraham Lincoln and his stance on slavery. Foner states that his purpose of writing the book was to examine what was Abraham Lincoln’s thought about slavery¹.

The author focused on Lincoln’s public life and the speeches he made in regards to slavery and his position during the Civil War. In particular, Foner avoids engaging or referring to the previous works by historians. Instead, he focuses on the speeches and writings by Lincoln.

In this book, Foner states that the book is important in history classes as well as creating knowledge for the Americans about their history, especially by appreciating the important role that Abraham Lincoln played during the abolishment of slavery and the civil war.

The Author states that the American people have a reason to thank God for Abraham Lincoln, despite the deficiencies that the president had, because he was willing to grow. It is worth noting that the book has been written in a scholarly approach, suggesting that it was meant for scholarly work.

By the time of the book’s publication in 2010, Eric Foner was a professor of History at the Columbia University. He specializes in the American History, especially in the social, economic and political aspects of the country during the Civil War and Reconstruction Eras².

Summary

The author’s main argument is based on his review of Lincoln’s speeches and writings as well as his biography. By digging deep into Lincoln’s history, times, speeches and writings, Foner has attempted to examine the President’s stance on slavery in the United States and his reaction to the issue that greatly affected the American society and economy.

From these sources, Foner’s general argument (thesis) is that Abraham Lincoln had a moderate approach to the issue of slavery and expressed the willingness to ‘grow’, which changed his attitudes with time. Foner further argues that Lincoln’s hope was to see the slave-holding states choose preservation of the States’ union rather than defending slavery.

Foner argues that Lincoln’s speeches and writings indicate that he initially supported the idea of colonizing the freed slaves back to Africa, but eventually abandoned the idea and supported the new idea of ending slavery and recognizing the black people as equal citizens of the US. In particular, Foner supports his thesis by showing how desperate Lincoln was to win the Civil War against the southern states by ending slavery.

Thus, he argues that the president’s ability to learn and take the right stance during the period not only ended the Civil War and Slavery, but also contributed to the preservation of the union of states.

In summary, Foner starts by tracing the evolution of President Abraham Lincoln’s ideas about the issue of slavery. The author starts with a biography of Lincoln. He analyzes the president’s early career in the Illinois legislature in the 1830s, his term in Congress during the 1840s and his career as the leader of the Republican Party in the 1850s.

In addition, a deep examination of Lincoln’s presidency during the Civil war has been developed. There is a clear focus on what Lincoln said in public and his writings. The author focuses on issues that Lincoln mentioned in his speeches. For instance, he examines Lincoln’s first experience with the problem of slavery when growing up in Kentucky.

When in Illinois, Lincoln was dealing with issues related to slavery because he was practicing law in the state. Then, Lincoln’s political career has received a lot of focus in the book. Foner shows how Lincoln’s stance on slavery changed significantly as his political career changed and his capacity faced serious problems associated with slavery, the civil war and the threat to the union.

Although he was a republican, he changed from his support of the idea of repatriating the freed slaves to the African continent and started supporting the idea of making the black people a part of the American population.

Critical analysis

As stated above, Foner’s main source of evidence is the writings and speeches that Abraham Lincoln made in his public career, from his days in the legal practice up to the time of his assassination. For instance, Foner states that his intention was to use these sources to examine the evolution of Abraham Lincoln’s ideas, stance and policies about slavery from his early life in Kentucky to his career in politics (Foner XVII).

Foner states that Lincoln’s ability to grow was based on his early encounter with issues relating to slavery as well as marriage to a daughter of a slave owner. For instance, Foner indicates that Lincoln, when serving as a lawyer representing slave owner, said, “I am a natural antislavery individual. If the act of slavery is not wrong, then I do not believe there is any wrong action”.

However, Foner also states that Lincoln used such words as “nigger” and “dark” in his writings and speeches. Foner also cites cases in which Lincoln expressed his support of the idea that the black people were physically different from the whites³.

However, Lincoln states that Lincoln’s entry into politics and party affairs of the Whig party changed his perceptions towards slavery and the black communities in the US. Foner states that Lincoln steered a “middle course”. For instance, Foner states that Lincoln thought that slavery was violating the basic principles of the American constitution. According to Foner, Lincoln “remained devoted to the federal constitution of the US”.

Noteworthy, Foner’s work is based on an in-depth analysis of the speeches and writings Lincoln made in public. In addition, he examines Lincoln’s upbringing, including the issues that faced him when growing up in Kentucky and during his stay in Illinois.

It also examines the social, economic and political issues that took place when Lincoln entered active party politics. An in-depth examination of the private life of Lincoln, including his marriage, has been done.

Nevertheless, Foner’s methodology is biased because he refuses to engage or refer to other historian’s work, especially those who focused on Lincoln and his presidency.

Therefore, it is possible to develop counterarguments, especially by claiming that Lincoln hardly grew, especially on the issue of slavery because he was only responding to the changing circumstances in the American politics rather than being part of the change.

Conclusion

Foner’s work proves that Lincoln experienced dramatic change in his life, especially in terms of his thought about slavery. This is demonstrated in the author’s ability to trace Lincoln’s perception of slavery from his early days in Kentucky to his presidency. Thus, this book contributes to the existing knowledge about Lincoln’s role in ending the civil war and slavery and preservation of the union of states.

Bibliography

Foner, Eric, and Lisa McGirr. American history now. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011.

Foner, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton, 2010.

VanderMey, Randall Verne Meyer, John Van Rys, and Patrick Sebranek. The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2014.

Footnotes

¹ Randall VanderMey, Verne Meyer, John Van Rys, and Patrick Sebranek, The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching (Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2014), 222.

² Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), i-446.

³ Eric Foner and Lisa McGirr, American history now (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011), 18-64.

Introduction

Slavery in the United States of America is a highly important topic to discuss even at the present moment. Although this regime and level of racial discrimination have been left in the past, people must still learn the history of American slaves who were owned by white citizens. Not only does this let one learn more about the country in which they reside, but it also shows its citizens how freedom was gained for all inhabitants. The following paper will present a discussion of slavery in the USA and an explanation of the tremendous impact it made on the lives of all Americans. It will also include a description of Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation and coverage of various Civil War events.

Discussion

As mentioned in the introductory section, slavery existed in a period when the United States of America was not an attractive country for immigrants from Africa. Once a black person was noticed in towns or cities, he or she could be caught and sold to slaveholders, regardless of their free status (Berlin 26). Although these people could have families and jobs, their freedoms were disregarded by other citizens due to their skin color, which was the main basis for discrimination. It is a well-known fact that nowadays those with racist beliefs are disapproved of in the US. However, when the famous American Revolution was going on, people with black skin were treated as representatives of a lower racial caste (Thirty-Ninth Congress of the USA). It is necessary to mention that individuals of Arabic, Hispanic, or other non-white ethnic backgrounds were not enslaved and were regarded as free people of color (Berlin 54).

The majority of slaves transferred from Africa were forced to work on the cotton plantations of businessmen from the CSA (Confederative States of America). They also worked at farms, mills, and other places that required cheap human labor. As mentioned previously in the paper, black people were not paid for their hard work. In addition, their living conditions were inappropriate – they had no access to clean water for hygienic purposes, no beds, no private rooms, and so on (Berlin 27). It would be accurate to state that many black people could not bear living in such conditions. Their lives were short, with a majority of them dying because of fatigue and exhaustion (Berlin 32). Some of those who were enslaved might be treated better than others if their owner saw that a particular person worked hard and brought much profit to his or her slaveholder. The majority of people deprived of their rights had to work in fields under the burning sun for more than twelve hours every day. They were not allowed to have any days off or vacations.

The situation with slavery became critical, with white people disregarding the rights of individuals from Africa, and the government of the USA became seriously concerned with the idea of emancipation (Thirty-Ninth Congress of the USA). It appeared that almost all businesses situated in the territories of the CSA back then were powered by slaves. However, Afro-Americans’ civil rights were respected in the Northern part of the country when Abraham Lincoln was in rule. The president wanted to make all people in his country free and equal (Thirty-Ninth Congress of the USA). After he was elected in 1860, the politician started considering the emancipation of slaves (Lincoln). Nevertheless, his colleagues told him that giving freedom to the approximately four million black people from the Southern states of the country would have an adverse impact on its economy and the well-being of white citizens in the CSA.

Abraham Lincoln asked governors of several states in the South to support his emancipation strategy (Lincoln). All seven territories (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Georgia, and Texas) refused to free their slaves and become part of the Northern States. Although many governors refused to support Lincoln’s strategy, they had to stand against his army forces in the Civil War that started later. The main purpose of the multiple battles between the Union and the Confederates was to make all people in the country free and equal.

When the war was almost over, President Lincoln issued and signed the Emancipation Proclamation on the first day of 1863, ordering “That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free,” (Lincoln). Almost three million former slaves were freed. In response to this, some slave-owners took their workers and moved to the South or other territories outside of the country as they believed that their economic system would be destroyed according to the new laws of the United States of America (Berlin 71). Indeed, black people were fully freed even in the Southern states once the Civil War was over.

Unfortunately, the American economy was not as stable and prosperous as it has become in the present. Therefore, many black people preferred to stay and work for their previous masters after the war ended in 1865, as they could not find any other jobs (Berlin 63). Indeed, the Reconstruction Era was a hard time for all people who inhabited the former CSA. However, nowadays, American citizens cannot even think about going back to this regime of discrimination based on race. However, the thirteenth amendment that was issued at the end of the Civil War stated that every citizen of the USA could not be enslaved unless he or she was punished for breaking the law (General Records of the United States Government). It appears that this kind of racism is now both illegal and immoral. Although many other adverse political and economic situations happened in the USA after Emancipation, this event presents a border between the country’s past and the future (Lincoln).

Impact on the Modern Society

Since the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, citizens of the United States of America have never faced slavery again (Lincoln). Nevertheless, this part of the country’s history made a tremendous impact on all people who live here because racism is considered to be immoral and remains a taboo topic. Discussions of these phenomena are inappropriate in the society of African Americans as well. There is no other country in the world that considers the topics of both racism and slavery as limited as they have become America. People are allowed to talk about slavery and discrimination against black individuals only at schools during history classes. Otherwise, it is considered to be offensive to people of color.

Conclusion

Slavery in the USA was one of the toughest periods in the country’s history. Slaves did not have appropriate living conditions, food, water, or other benefits of contemporary civilization. Thankfully, Abraham Lincoln signed and issued the Emancipation Proclamation that made all black people in the USA free since 1863. This event may be regarded as a critical moment in American history that promoted citizens’ rights and dignities. Nowadays, regular citizens are discouraged from mentioning racism and slavery in public places and cannot discriminate against people of color. Inhabitants of the USA must learn the history of slavery to understand how their nation became one of the greatest liberty symbols in the world.

Works Cited

Berlin, Ira. The Long Emancipation: The Demise of Slavery in the United States. Harvard University Press, 2015.

General Records of the United States Government. “Proposed Thirteenth Amendment Regarding the Abolition of Slavery.” DocsTeach. 1861. Web.

Lincoln, Abraham. “Emancipation Proclamation.” DocsTeach. 1863. Web.

Thirty-Ninth Congress of the USA. “Civil Rights Act of 1866.” DocsTeach. 1866. Web.

Slavery is among the oldest institutions that spread rapidly throughout the world. It existed in the Western Hemisphere, Europe, Middle East, and vast parts of Asia for a long time. It took its roots before the emergence of any religion in the world. The principles that governed it were so peculiar. In most occasions, slaves worked tirelessly in order to meet their needs and the needs of the lords at very low pay.

The main victims of slave trade were the black people. The blacks were not only massively enslaved, but also sold into bondage across the continents. A lot of religious people also played a significant role in advancing slavery; Christians and Muslims also took part in enslaving others.

This paper aims at providing detailed information on how slavery was abolished. This paper will expound on the diverse methods employed in eradicating slavery in many parts of the world.

Abolishment of slavery is one of the greatest achievements that took place in the world. It took approximately two centuries for it to be eradicated since it involved overcoming opposition and cunning inversions from diverse parties. The signs of abolishment of slavery started being visible in the early 18^th century when evangelical Christians made up of mostly Britons held an anti-slavery political crusade (Sowell, 210).

The crusade managed to mobilize most Britons into exerting pressure on the British government. “British governments found themselves forced to push the anti-slavery effort further and further towards its logical conclusion”, (Sowell, 210).

To meet the demands of their citizens, the British government was forced, not only to do away with the international slave trade, but also to abolish the practice of slavery throughout the British Empire. Additionally, the British governments were forced to take part in bribing and coercing other nations into stopping slavery.

The abolishment of slavery in Britain empires and the involvement of the British in preaching against slavery contributed immensely towards the end of slavery in the United States and France. It also led to the French government to take part in intercepting ships involved in slave trade via the effort of its navies.

The effort employed by the British government also led to the spread of Western civilization to many nations including despotic governments such as Russia.

The Quakers also played a significant role towards ending slavery in the world. They were the ones who laid an example that was followed by the worldwide political revolution. Worldwide political revolution, headed by William Wilberforce, was made up of the evangelical leaders from Church of England, involved itself greatly in preaching against slavery.

Its effort led to Henry Thornton, a renowned banker, to start up an anti-slavery crusade. Additionally, the effort put by Wilberforce, Thornton and their allies played a significant role towards ending slavery. They spent over 20 years pressing for the abolishment of slavery via drafting slavery abolishing bills.

Protests also played a significant role towards ending slavery. For instance, the memorandum penned by black Americans in early 1688 led to the reduction of the number of Negro slaves in the United States (Doren, 276). According to the Negros, only fervent protests could stop Europeans from inhumanly handling the blacks. The perception of the Negros about slavery also played a significant role towards Newton’s confession.

It led to him denouncing slavery and note that it was a crime that needed eradication. Additionally, the diminishing acts of the Europeans led to many slaves opposing them. In most occasions, “they charged slaves with blasphemy while in the midst of cruel punishments that resulted from their enslaved status” (Schwartz, 430)

Emergence of international antislavery opinions also played a significant role towards ending slavery. According to Bender (19), “international antislavery opinions led to the evolution of man’s moral perception” (Bender, 19). It made slaves not only to understand themselves, but also their roles in the society.

It also made men under slavery to realize that no man was born to be a slave. Additionally, the experiences gathered by men with lordship and bondage contributed to their quest for their rights.

Publication devices such as books and pamphlets and presentations such as poems, sermons and plays played a significant role towards eradicating slavery. They achieved this by not only airing out the “problems of slavery in Western Culture, but also creating public awareness” (Bender, 25). Additionally, they aided people from different areas to share ideas pertaining to slavery.

In her article, Dorchen Leidholdt expounds on how children and women were and still are exploited sexually. According to her, any sort of dominance contributed immensely towards advancement of slavery. For instance, she argues that men dominance over women, adults over children, and first world over third world countries contributes immensely towards the occurrence of oppression among the disadvantaged in the society.

According to her, it is also evident that “most slavers were motivated by a desire for sexual gratification, economic gain, or power and domination, or a combination of these factors” (Leidholdt, 2). However, formation of a coalition among continents such as Africa, Australia, and Asia played and a significant role towards eradicating slavery.

In most occasions, “the Coalition worked against all slavery-like practices such as sexual violence, sex trafficking, and exploitation” (Schwartz, 1). Its work played a significant role in abolishing slavery practices in different nations.

Poverty and acceptance of prostitution as a viable practice in the society have also been associated with women and children involvement in sexual practices. They lead not only to many women and children being exploited by their employees, but also advancing sex tourism in most countries (Leidholdt, 7).

According to Leidholdt (3), the Coalition “urges the Working Group to continue addressing slavery and slavery-like practices that affect primarily women and children in order solve slavery problems.”

In conclusion, slavery is one of the oldest institutions in the world that existed almost everywhere. Most of its victims were the blacks; majority of the Europeans overworked the blacks in order to increase their revenue. Unfortunately, most religions also took part in enslaving the blacks in the past.

It took about two centuries for slavery to be abolished fully. Among the things that led to the eradication of slavery include abolishment of slavery practice in British governments and involvement of British in coaxing other nations to stop slavery. The formation of anti-slavery political crusade in the 18^th century by the evangelical Christians also contributed immensely towards the abolishment of slavery.

Wilberforce, Thornton and their allies also played a momentous role towards its abolishment. However, it is evident that slavery-like practices still exist in most societies. Poverty, as well as acceptance of prostitution as a societal element plays a significant role in advancing sexual slavery.

Works Cited

Bender, Thomas. The Antislavery Debate. Capitalism and Abolitionism as a Problem in Historical Interpretation. New York: Cornell University. 1992. Print.

Doren, V. Charles. A History of Knowledge. New York: Ballantine Books. 1992. Print.

Leidholdt, Dorchen. Prostitution – A Modern Form of Slavery. New York. Web.

Schwartz, B. Stuart. Black Latin America: Legacies of Slavery, Race, and African Culture. New York: Duke University Press. 2002. Print.

Sowell, Thomas. Race and Culture. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. 1994. Print.

Introduction

The view of American slavery and discrimination against black people has been widely discussed in various works of literature. In literature, the plight of American slaves is described through analysis and portrayal of their miserable life, disruption of family and brutality (Gates 153).

Also, most literary works attempt to describe the existence of a strong desire for freedom among almost all black slaves and their fate as they struggle to escape from slavery.

Secondly, some literary works have attempted to describe slavery from the point of slave hunting in Africa.

Most authors blame African kings and chieftains for capturing and selling their fellow African tribes to slavery, the whites who deal with slaves and the white settlers who purchase slaves in America and West Indies (Gates 153).

Perhaps, one of the best narratives describing the plight of the captured African people and their journey through slavery is Equiano’s ‘The interesting narrative of Olaudah Equiano.’

Olaudah Equiano provides an in-depth analysis of his real journey from Africa through slavery and his work after acquiring freedom. ‘The role played by various slave dealers and owners is brought into the limelight in this narrative.

An analysis of the narrative builds a negative perception of slavery in the United States because slavery is displayed as a true violation of human rights through disruption of family life and human relations, kidnappings and a wide range of inhuman actions against the black people.

The impact of Olaudah Equiano’s narrative on the perception of American slavery

Written as his autobiography, Equiano’s narrative describes his journey from a humble and normal life in West Africa to slavery in America and finally a free life in London.

The narrative, written by Olaudah Equiano in 1789, provides an analysis of the fate of Africans who are kidnapped from their homes in Africa to slavery in America and Europe.

The story begins with a description of early Igbo country, where Equiano was born. Being an Igbo, Equiano begins the story by describing the Ibo culture, customs associated with food, religion, and clothing.

He also describes the beautiful and productive nature of Igbo land, where he likens the Igbo people of West Africa with Jews (Shields 1).

From this introduction, a new perception of slavery is developed; the author attempts to describe how Africans were targeted in slavery simply because Europeans considered them as being inferior, less civilized and barbaric.

This notion may explain why Africans were treated like animals rather than humans (Bugg 572). Europeans thought that they had the right to force Africans out of their homes into slavery.

From this narrative, it is clear that Europeans are not the only group of people that perpetrated atrocities in Africa, but rather African leaders, out of their greed for wealth and power, were involved in capturing and selling their fellow Africans into slavery (Shields 1).

The new perception of slavery is that it was an evil act deeply rooted in Africa and perpetrated by European traders in collaboration with African merchants and chieftains.

For example, village traders, in the story, village traders are busy kidnapping children for sale. In chapter two, African slave dealers kidnap small children from their homes to sell them to African slave dealers, kings, and wealthy Africans.

Here, the reader is introduced to Equiano’s capture, alongside his younger sister, from their home in Eboe (Bugg 572). After their capture, the author and his sister are made for walking for a long distance before they are separated and sold to different traders (Equiano 61).

Also, the narrative creates a new perception of slavery, where it shows how slavery in America has instilled the spirit of kidnapping children for resale in West African traders. For instance, once he is kidnapped, the author is exchanged as a trade item from one trader to another.

He also has a brief tenure as a slave to a certain chieftain in a beautiful African country. Also, a rich widow in Timnah briefly enslaves him (Equiano 51). Finally, the author is sold to traders who bring him through different African regions to the West African Coast (Equiano 69).

Here, he is sold to a certain owner of a large slave ship headed for West Indies across the Atlantic. The desperations and difficulties faced by the author and his fellow slaves across the ocean are documented in the story.

On arrival to West Indies, the author witnesses the brutality at the slave market, but he is lucky to be taken aboard a Dutch ship heading to North America (Costanzo 64).

Here, a new perception of slavery is developed. The author attempts to show how African slaves had to be lined up in the slave market for the highest bidder.

Being muscular, young and energetic was an important feature that each buyer was looking for (Costanzo 128). It is clear that to the white buyers, African slaves were mere animals.

However, it is clear that some salves were being sold to Europe, though in few numbers. For instance, some European traders bought slaves for their friends and relatives back in Europe as a present or as domestic workers.

The perception created by the author is that slavery in America was meant to increase production in farms, while in Europe, it was taken as a small form of normal exchange of gifts (Bugg 574).

Moreover, the narrative by Equiano tends to create a perception that American slavery was deeply rooted in the beliefs held by Europeans that they had the right to purchase or sell a black slave at will.

This perception may have led to the belief in later years that the whites had the right to “own” black people as their slaves and determine how and where they live and what they do (Gates 159). For instance, they had the right to sell and buy slaves like animals.

Slaves were being sold for commercial purpose or as pets. For example, on arrival in the American Coast, the author is sold to a plantation owner in Virginia, where his tenure involves light field jobs and household chores.

After some few months, Equiano is again sold to Michael Henry Pascal, a member of the British royal navy and captain of a trade ship. He is bought as a “present” to the captain’s friends in England (Equiano 94).

At the time of the journey from Virginia to England, the author was around 11 years old. That was in 1757. The captain renames him ‘Equiano Gustavus Vassa.’ A white American boy named Robert Baker is present in the ship, and the two boys become friends (Shields 1).

On arrival in England, the author is introduced to Christianity. He attends church services and receives some bible lessons from Robert Baker (Equiano 105).

However, he has to return to the sea with Pascal. In the seas, he experiences successive sea battles between Pascal’s Ship and pirates as well as other merchants. By now, the author has become acquainted with the Europeans and their culture (Equiano 111).

Each time he accompanies Pascal to England, he has to visit schools in London, where he finally develops an urge to read and write. Again, he is sold to Doran, another ship owner, who takes him to West Indies and sells him to Robert King, a Quaker in Philadelphia (Shields 1).

Here, he works in various positions such as loading and offloading boats, clerk and personal secretary. Also, the author renders his services to various captains in the sea, who find him a knowledgeable navigator (Equiano 231).

During these voyages, the author decides to do a side business- he starts buying items in each voyage and sells them in America and Europe (Gates 156). However, it is difficult to sell his items to the whites because they abuse and discriminate him.

Others even failed to pay him, while some even assaulted him. This section of the story creates an additional perception of slavery in the USA by describing the problems facing Africans, even those who had bought their freedom (Shields 1).

It is clear that a free black person has to endure more problems than those in slavery because every white person in the street has the right to mistreat and discriminate an African (Shields 1).

By failing to pay for the items taken from such a small boy, the whites indicate that slavery was not just meant to improve economical gains, but also because the whites perpetrated it as they did not consider Africans as equal beings.

This perception indicates that the white people were not willing to give any form of freedom to the African slaves. Even if some Africans bought their freedom, they were supposed to remain inferior to the whites (Shields 1).

Despite this, he can accumulate enough money to buy his freedom before moving to London for education. As a free person, several captains hire him as a navigator or steward. In this position, the author visits several nations in the world. Also, he commits his life to Christianity.

After several voyages, he accepts an offer to work as a church leader in a Jamaican plantation, but tires off and returns to England.

Here, he works for Governor McNamara and is involved in a plan to relocate freed slaves to Sierra Leone. In 1791, he married Susanna Cullen in Wales. In the final chapter, the author appeals to the reader to contribute to the abolition of the slave trade and slavery.

From this analysis, it is clear that the author has made several impacts on the American view of slavery.

For instance, slavery cannot be fully considered as an atrocity created and perpetrated by the Europeans alone; rather it was a form of collaboration between African leaders and white traders. Both groups were driven by greed for wealth and power.

While Europeans were driven by the greed to gain money from agricultural production in the West Indies, African chieftains and kings were driven by the greed to sell their fellow Africans to gain wealth and political power.

Secondly, it is clear that slaves had a dire need for freedom and would do anything to buy their freedom. As portrayed by the author, he had to tolerate discrimination and abuse when selling fruits and other items in Virginia and Philadelphia.

His aim was just to obtain enough money to buy his freedom. Also, he was ready to convert into a new religion to give him hope for the best in his future.

This narrative builds a negative perception of slavery in the United States because it is slavery portrayed as a true violation of human rights by disrupting families, relationships, kidnapping children and carrying out atrocities against the Africans.

Works Cited

Bugg, J. “Deciphering the Equiano Archives”. Modern Language Association of America 122.2 (2007): 572-573. Print.

Costanzo, A. Equiano, Olaudah. The Oxford Companion to African American Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.

Equiano, O. The interesting narrative of Olaudah Equiano. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1789. Print.

Gates, Henery L. The Signifying Monkey. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.

Shields, E. Thomson, “Equiano, Olaudah,” American National Biography Online, 2008. Web.

Eric Foner, author of the book Give Me Liberty which details historic events in the United States history, especially towards liberty and equality. American slavery is discussed in the first volume of this book as a theme that contributed to liberty for all Americans. Slavery remains to be a historic activity that led to the liberation of individuals living within the American borders, free or slaves. The liberation however had to come with a struggle such as the American and Civil wars that ended slavery in the United States. Slaves were taken to work mostly on agricultural farms as well as other economic activities, especially in southern America. In northern America, few skilled slaves were taken to work in the industries as the region underwent the industrial revolution. The slaves performed their tasks under strict supervision by their masters who ensured that they only served them barring them from realizing their ambitions.

Foner defines paternalistic ethos or paternalism refers to the unwelcome inhibition of an individual’s freedom by another individual, where the act is justified by stating that it is for the individual’s best interest (67). This was a common practice during the slavery period where slaves were owned by their masters who dictated their objectives and goals in life. Slaves engaged in activities that were determined by their masters and in return were handed a good life by receiving constant medical care and the provision of basic needs (Foner, p131). Although this was kind of the slave owners, they denied the slaves their basic freedom of choice where they could not improve their skills and abilities to attain their personal goals in life. This led to the American and Civil wars that violently stated the freedom required for the slaves.

Assuming the position of the wealthy plantation owner, paternalism was directed towards creating a master-servant relationship that was supposed to be mutual. The slave owner gains directly from the welfare of the slaves and the slaves gained directly from offering their services to the slave owner. Paternalistic ethos was meant to ensure order within the practice of slavery and avoid an uprising by the slaves. Societies were undergoing civilization and humans from the less developed nations at the time could not survive. By employing them in the developed nations, they would acquire basic skills that they can employ back at home and improve the development of their nations. Christianity and access to medical care necessitated slavery otherwise the slaves would perish (Foner, p162). Slavery was therefore to the best of their interest where they could progress later in life.

As a slave, the paternalistic ethos was meant to define our position in society as servants. This means that we were to serve our masters without question and perform our delegated tasks according to their will. Paternalism ensured that we identified sources of authority and channels through which we could seek redress. The lack of freedom was the only aspect of paternalism that proved to be a major issue although it is the basic assumption of slavery.

As a capitalist northerner, paternalism should ensure order among the slaves and their relationship with their owners. It should also ensure the welfare of both the slaves and the slave owners who required each other’s services. Paternalistic ethos aimed at creating a lasting relationship between the slaves and slave owners by allowing the slaves to realize their potential and receiving wages for their services.

Works Cited

Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty!: An American History, Vol. 2, Ch 11. Boston: Norton, W. W. & Co., Inc., 2004.

Introduction

The level of dependency of the antebellum South and North on slavery was quite steep as they almost fully relied on cotton as the key factor that made their economies evolve and develop. The fact that quite a huge number of white people moved to the “Deep South” where cotton planting was among the most lucrative forms of income-generating activities, just goes to show that the whites relied on the slaves that they moved along with to get their work done.

African slave trade

The majority of them viewed the Southern states as their frontier opportunities. They believed that the way forward in matters about economical elevation. Since they moved to the new regions with their slaves and also managed to keep their contacts with the traders, they exhibited the fact they relied quite heavily on the slaves to perform farm duties. Most of the whites, who migrated, did so between the periods of 1820 – 1860. They numbered around 200,000.

Another fact that depicts their heavy reliance on slaves was that they hardly considered investing in fertilizers, which would boost their production. This was because they took up new land, which they would not require fertilizer since the ground was fertile and all that they required was new slaves to till the land, as well as take care of their crops. The slaves were considered as a cheap way of working since they did not cost much to maintain. The outlook that is represented by this picture is that they relied on the business of farming to enhance their lives.

With the advent of the cotton gin, white people saw the advantages that were proffered since a gin was able to process the short-staple cotton which had proven to be quite a tedious and challenging task. The introduction of the gin by Eli Whitney saw a rapid increase in the demand for the crop in the industry. The gin was made to cut down n the cost of producing the cotton while it was still in the field to off the field.

There was more need for slaves who would work on farms for the crops to do better than others would. More farms were opened up in a bid to address the problem of supply. Without the slaves, there would be no production or rather very poor production of the crop in the field.

The dependence of the whites on slavery was so high that most of the activities virtually slowly stopped when the slave trade was questioned. The majority, if not all, of the farmhands, were slaves who were brought in to carry out free labor thus providing low costs to their masters. The whites greatly benefitted from the use of free human labor. The Southern, as well as Northern regions, had developed highly from the farming activities that they had carried out in the past.

Without the slaves working and toiling on the farms, the whites would have hardly enjoyed the developmental aspects that they encountered during that period. It was during this period that a lot of aspects such as industrialization took place. Globalization was believed to have emanated from the region since it was way or rather steps ahead of many other places in the world. Many of the features that are specialized in the issue of globalization started in the region. Hence, it can be stated that slavery played a major role in globalization although it was not as pronounced as other aspects that shaped globalization.

Without the issue of slavery, the regions would have taken a long time to develop. The role that slavery played in developing the region was quite crucial. It is evident when one views it differently from how they had in the past. Most of the industrialists and developers, as well as entrepreneurs, were almost all beneficiaries of the era. This could be either by proxy or through blood relations or rather kinship or ancestry.

Slavery has played a major role in the development of the regions since it is what made them thrive. Without the slaves, there would have been hardly any or rather minimal elements of developments within the regions. The facts that bound, concerning reliance on slavery, the issues of slaves, show that the regions relied heavily on slavery for them to thrive in activities that they carried out to make a living.

How did slavery shape the development of white Southern society?

The Southern society was quite evidently shaped by slavery, in that, there was plenty of economic growth there since the advent of the farming activities. The Northern side was less active in terms of farming activities as well as the use of slaves since they did not rely on farming as their main or rather core income-generating activity.

The development in the white Southern society was adversely affected since the white people in the region would diversify their lives and try to suit the circumstances that they had encountered. By this, it means that they had to adjust their lifestyle according to their farming activities.

The development of white people in southern society was also quite shaped by slavery because the reliance of the economy of the region was quite wholly upon the farming activities that took place there. The fact that most of the farming activities were done by white people but the physical activities, which revolved around the actual work, was quite entailing does not discount the fact that the developmental aspects of the region were based upon the slave’s activities.

The societal status of an individual was, at one point in time, pegged on the size of farmland that he or she owned. This would in most cases, also revert to the number of slaves that he or she owned. Owning a great number of slaves was considered a symbol of wealth.

Most of the proceeds from the farms that the slaves worked in went to enhancing the lives of the people who resided in the area. They built their homes and towns, and they required more supplies from the manufacturers of various items. This implied that the factories and suppliers in the region had to increase their output in a bid to keep up with the increasing number of people in the areas. This meant that the business aspects of society were enhanced.

The development of the white Southern society was also enhanced by the fact that the fear of an uprising caused them to come up with measures such as advanced weapons that they would use to counter any such uprising. Stronger weapons that would deter people from committing felonies made their industries more popular since they were creating them in mass.

When the slaves labored out in the fields to ensure that a good crop was harvested, the gains and proceeds from the transactions that followed went towards the development of the region. The cities grew and more people settled for farming. The farming business advanced to levels that brought the region at par with the Northern region, which was considered as the industrial hub of the United States of America.

Along with the slaves, came other sorts of merchandise from across the globe. The trade among the various continents was highly developed. This was mainly because most slave traders traveled across the oceans and seas in search of the various items that they deemed rare in other regions. In this case, they discovered that, in the course of their travels, they could gather some extra items and proffer them for trade-in regions where they were scarce. One example is the spices from the regions such as Arabia. There were quite a several items, which were there and were not in other regions such as the South and North of America. The traders would bring the items to the region and trade them with the people there together with the slave and thus brought about development since slavery was the core business.

The region also experienced an influx of skilled persons at the close of the use of slaves since the slaves turned to make themselves useful to society in quite a several ways. Many would seek specialized skills and others would start their businesses. They would play a major part in enhancing the regions by contributing to economic growth. The majority of the skilled workers who were sought after in Europe in the earlier years were slowly replaced by the slaves who started taking up jobs at more affordable costs hence, development in the region.

With the abolition of the slave trade and slavery at large, most people discovered other more lucrative methods of making a living. Most of them diversified to other businesses after the cotton boom died down. The exploration of other avenues opened a floodgate of business opportunities, which had not been in the past explored.

In terms of education, slavery played a major role since there emanated a need for schools to be opened to cater to people who were formerly slaves as well as their children. This created job opportunities for teachers as well as others who were employed. The increased number of schools saw the slaves put their skills to good use since they were able to tap into their talent and explore their abilities.

Conclusion

Overall, the fact that slavery shaped the development of the white Southern society in many ways remains quite evident. As much as it took quite some time to come through, the fact remains that the development that took place in the region would have been retarded in more than one way if the slaves had not come to the region.

Thomas Jefferson is recognized as one of the most influential personalities in United States history, who is well known around the world for penning the Declaration of Independence. At the same time, there are also controversies concerning Jefferson’s biography, and one of the main ones is the ownership of slaves. Nevertheless, it is wrong to consider Jefferson’s participation in slavery as a fact that invalidates Jefferson’s pro-independence activity, such as the Declaration of Independence.

Although Jefferson had slaves, he actually undertook considerable efforts to prohibit the practice in the country. Specifically, Jefferson presented his Report on the Government for the Western Territory, which implied abolishing slavery, yet the provision did not receive enough votes (Jacobus 16). Such a fact demonstrates commitment of Jefferson to the prohibition of slave ownership even in a time when such an idea was uncommon. Additionally, with the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson set the foundation for the abolition of slavery in the future. For instance, he included the phrase about all men being created equal in the writing, which he borrowed from the French philosopher Rousseau (Jacobus 17). Although during Jefferson’s time, the phrase was understood as implying white men only, later, it began to refer to people of all genders and races. Additionally, there is evidence that proves that Jefferson was not racist, namely, his romantic relationship with a woman of mixed race (Jacobus 16). Thus, the claim that Jefferson’s participation in slavery invalidates his writing of the Declaration of Independence is not justified considering the efforts of the politician to abolish the practice.

The fact that Thomas Jefferson owned slaves does not constitute a sufficient factor that negates the importance of the Declaration of Independence. Personally, Jefferson opposed the institution of slavery and attempted to prohibit it with his Report on the Government for the Western Territory. Moreover, the Declaration of Independence laid the groundwork for the future decision of the U.S. government to abolish slavery.

Work Cited

Jacobus, Lee A. A World of Ideas: Essential Readings for College Writers.10th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2016.

The history of slavery has had a huge impact on both the United States and African Americans in its territory. Gradually, American Society made the transition from the general public approval of slavery to the movement of abolitionism. The North and South of the US also differed significantly in their perception of this practice. While pro-slavery arguments were actively developed and persisted for a long time in the South, the concept of free labor and the first attempts at abolitionism was born in the North. Southerners viewed slavery as morally justified by appealing to the intellectual inferiority of African Americans and the happiness that their masters brought them. Northerners, on the contrary, believed that slavery violated the human rights of African Americans, which did not allow moral justification for this practice. Non-expansionist arguments marked the transitional period between full acceptance and the abolition of slavery, trying to describe the necessary transformations. Pro-slavery, non-expansionist, and abolitionist perspectives on the moral foundations of slavery identify both differences between the North and south of the US and the gradual evolution of the nation’s view of African people.

The pro-slavery view was prevalent in the US South, where the vast plantations needed extensive slave labor. This perspective was partly based on the belief that there were fundamental differences between races. Among the proponents of slavery, there were many proponents of the argument about the physical and mental inferiority of African Americans compared to white people. In particular, James Hunt’s (1864) famous paper presented before the Anthropological Society of London supports the position that “the Negro belongs to a distinct type of Man to the European” (p. 24). Thus, the author emphasizes that African Americans are not equal in characteristics to Europeans, which morally justifies slavery. Most notably in this regard, Hunt (1864) acknowledges the horrors of the slave trade but also considers that slaves in the US are physically and intellectually more advanced than their race in Africa. Thus, the proponents of slavery were convinced that the use of slave labor ennobles African Americans, which constitutes its moral value.

Pro-slavery views were also based on the belief that slave labor was morally justified since masters provided their slaves with comfortable conditions and various benefits. George Fitzhugh (1857) argued that compared to African Americans involved in the free labor common in the North, slaves in the South enjoyed greater privileges. He was convinced that the paternalism of the slave owners provided African Americans with all the necessary benefits and also made them members of the community and family. This view is also supported by Hunt (1864), who argues that slaves care more about their masters and families than their children. Supporters of slavery were convinced that slaves received better conditions and were also protected from the uncertainties of the free labor of the North. This view is also consistent with the physical and mental inferiority of African Americans, as it describes them as needing the patronage of their masters.

Proponents of slavery in the South sought to prove the uniqueness and justification of the way of life in the region. Faust (1979) notes that “the pro-slavery argument rested on intellectual values and moral-philosophical assumptions shared throughout mid-nineteenth-century America” (p. 64). In their desire to determine the moral foundations of slavery, the southerners actively appealed to the Bible as the paramount source of Christian truth. Proponents of slavery were sure that God had chosen slave owners as special people (Faust, 1979). In particular, slavery was morally justified by the fact that Jesus did not deny it in the New Testament, and the apostle Paul clearly viewed it as not contradicting Christian principles. Harper et al. (1852) elaborate on this in The pro-slavery argument and conclude that “it is impossible, therefore, to suppose that Slavery is contrary to the will of God” (p. 107). The search for and description of the moral foundations of slavery became for the inhabitants of the South some attempt to search for the meaning and manifestation of the intellectual independence of the region.

Additionally, Thomas Cooper argued as a utilitarian that the Southern model of slavery brought the greatest benefit to the greatest number of people (Kilbride, 1993). Thus slavery was also considered consistent with the utilitarian moral principle, which supported the pro-slavery argument. Although the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham defined utilitarianism as greater happiness for most people, Cooper was convinced that slavery contributed equally to both slaves and masters (Bentham, 1823; Cooper, 1787). The proponent of slavery concluded that African Americans were intellectually and morally inferior, while enslavement gave them meaning and happiness in life.

Non-expansionist arguments largely reflected the nation’s ongoing transition from the complete acceptance of slavery as the norm of society and the realization of the inevitability of its disappearance in the future. Faust (1979) underlined that for the society of that time, slavery seemed the basis of civilization. The desire of the Southerners for the further expansion of the United States towards Mexico also assumed the use of slave labor for the development of a new region (Fotouhi, 2006). However, the proponents of free labor demanded that slavery be abandoned in the new territories. Further expansion with the use of slaves required, according to the northerners, excessive human resources (Fotouhi, 2006). Thus, non-expansionists did not openly oppose slavery in the existing US territories, realizing its economic necessity, but were against slavery in the newly conquered territories.

The spread of slavery in the territory of the already independent United States is explained by the increased demand for lops and sugar produced on the Southern plantations. Hammond (2012) notes that the rise of slavery is closely related directly to westward expansion. Although African Americans, as well as Native Americans, actively opposed the expansion of slavery, the economic interests of the southern planters were far more significant. The slavery that existed throughout the country was considered morally justified since it provided the economic foundations for its existence.

A debate developed about how future free African Americans, former slaves, could integrate into society and contribute to its economic prosperity. Proponents of non-expansionism realized the need for slavery as the backbone of economic activity (Engerman, 1986). They understood that the transition to free labor would require a transformation that could slow down US development. The expansion of slavery to the southwest was morally acceptable because “in the interior of the North American continent, slavery and sovereignty often advanced together” (Hammond, 2012, p. 180). The non-expansionists advocated for an end to the northeast expansion of slavery, as they could not effectively control the Southerners.

In particular, slavery was considered morally justified since many, although they understood the need for abolitionism, did not see a way to turn slaves into free workers. Joseph Marryat (1816) speculated: “How to induce men, who have no artificial wants, to devote themselves to daily toil, is a difficulty almost insurmountable” (p. 222). Representatives of the religion also began to actively call on Christians to limit slavery and actively fight against its expansion to new territories (Johnson, 1848). Johnson (1848) urged to set the newly acquired territories for free people and to limit the spread of slavery there by law. From the point of view of the non-expansionist argument, already existing slavery could not be eliminated, but it was possible not to extend this practice to new territories. From a moral perspective, the retention of the slaves was seen as a necessity since they, due to their nature and habits, could not effectively participate in free labor.

The abolitionist movement originated in the North and sought to abolish slavery completely as a morally unacceptable phenomenon. While free labor was actively developing in the North, the Southerners continued to exploit slaves to maintain economic prosperity actively. The main arguments of the abolitionists were that slavery violates human rights and likens it to property, while all people are born free. In fact, in What became of the slaves on a Georgia plantation? Details a slave auction in Georgia where people were bought and sold as property (Doesticks, 1863). From a moral perspective, such an attitude toward people violated their natural rights and deprived them of the opportunity to control their own destinies.

The most convincing evidence in this respect is that slaves were deprived even of the opportunity to be with their loved ones. The practice of taking newborn children from African American slaves was widespread, as described in the autobiography of Frederick Douglass (2009). In particular, he himself was separated from his mother while still an infant and had no opportunity to contact her. Douglass (2009) states that “it is a common custom… to part children from their mothers at a very early age” (p. 16). This is confirmed by Doesticks (1863), who describes that small children were also sold at the slave auction, the value of which increased every year. This is confirmed by Doesticks (1863), who describes that small children were also sold at the slave auction, the value of which increased every year. Slaves were seen as a commodity that had no emotions and no will of their own, which in the second half of the nineteenth century gave rise to the movement of abolitionism.

Abolitionists believed that African Americans were as free as white Americans, which is the natural law. Pleasants (2010) call the emergence of the abolitionist movement a great example of “morally motivated protest” (p. 177). Although he notes that it is likely that a purely moral argument is not enough to abandon the long-standing institutionalized practice of slavery, abolitionism arose to a large extent to protect the human rights of slaves (Pleasants, 2010). In the second half of the nineteenth century, it became clear that limiting the free will of man could not be morally justified by economic needs. These views were actively supported in the North but rejected in the South. The North, by that time, due to active industrialization and trade, integrated free labor into former slaves into its society. The technically and economically obsolete South, however, had to rely on traditional means of production to sustain itself.

In general, from the abolitionist point of view, slavery deprived African Americans of their natural human rights and took away their free will. In turn, such aspects of this practice do not allow moral justification for the economic benefits that slave labor potentially brings. Abolitionists sought to restore the rights of African Americans’ rights and prove that they could exist independently in the United States and did not need the patronage of their masters.

References

Bentham, J. (1823). A fragment of government, Or, a comment on the commentaries. Printed for E. Wilson, Royal Exchange.

Cooper, T. (1787). Letters on the slave trade: First published in Wheeler’s Manchester Chronicle; And since re-printed with additions and alterations. C. Wheeler.

Doesticks, K. (1863). What became of the slaves on a Georgia plantation?: Great auction sale of slaves, at Savannah, Georgia, March 2d & 3d, 1859. A sequel to Mrs. Kemble’s journal. Harvard College Library.

Douglass, F. (2009). Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American slave. John Harvard Library.

Engerman, S. L. (1986). Slavery and emancipation in comparative perspective: A look at some recent debates. Journal of Economic History, 46(2), 317-339.

Faust, D. G. (1979). Southern stewardship: The intellectual and the pro-slavery argument.American Quarterly, 31(1), 63-80.

Fitzhugh, G. (1857). Cannibals all! Slaves without masters. Morris Publisher.

Fotouhi, D. (2006). Expansionism, slavery, and sectionalism: James K.Polk and American enlargement under the fluctuating forces of manifest destiny. Humanities, 2, 1-14.

Hammond, J. C. (2012). Slavery, settlement, and empire: The expansion and growth of slavery in the interior of the North American continent, 1770-1820.Journal of the Early Republic, 32(2), 175-206.

Harper, W., Dew, T. R., & Hammond, J. H. (1852). The pro-slavery argument: As maintained by the most distinguished writers of the Southern states. Walker, Richard & Co.

Hunt, J. (1864). On the Negro’s place in nature. Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, 2, 15-56.

Johnson, E. M. (1848). The communion of saints. Printed by I. Van Anden, Eagle Building, 30 Fulton Street.

Kilbride, D. (1993). Slavery and utilitarianism: Thomas Cooper and the mind of the Old South.The Journal of Southern History, 59(3), 469-486.

Marryat, J. (1816). Thoughts on the abolition of the slave trade: And civilization of Africa, with remarks on the African institution, and an examination of the report of their committee recommending a general registry of slaves in the British West India Islands. Published for J.M. Richardson and J. Ridgway.

Pleasants, N. (2010). Moral argument is not enough: The persistence of slavery and the emergence of abolition.Philosophical Topics, 38(1), 159-180.

The book North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States: 1790 – 1860 by Leon Litwack is an illustration of how African Americans were treated in the northern states just before the start of The Civil War. Before the Civil War, the ideology of white supremacy was embraced almost as tenaciously in the North as it was in the South. In his book, Litwack illustrates that emancipation from slavery did not automatically confer status on par with that of white people. According to the author, although the lack of rights for slaves in the South was more pervasive, “even the more subtle forms of twentieth-century racial discrimination had their antecedents in the antebellum North” (64). Although the slave had been freed from his shackles, he still carried the stigma of a degraded inferior and was seen as a burden at the very least. This attitude toward the negro led to a concentrated attempt to keep him in roles that belonged to people of lower breeds, which was kind of like a self-fulfilling prophecy. The whites from the north and their political representatives aggressively discriminated against the African-Americans because they felt that the two races were genetically inferior.

Litwack takes caution not to make a strong argument. The majority of northern white people opposed slavery, and northern African-Americans enjoyed greater rights than slaves. Furthermore, the majority of northern whites would continue to draw a clear line between giving black people political and social equality as well as legal protection and the theoretical right to life, liberty, and property. Although there were differences in the forms of prejudice between the northern states, the psychology of discrimination coupled with legislative boundaries restricted the northern blacks in practically every area of existence. Northern politicians who attempted to outlaw slavery at the federal level were thwarted by this system.

Politicians openly and blatantly declared their allegiance to white supremacist principles. They competed with one another by making similar claims of loyalty to the pre-battle American way of life, which presupposed that this was a country run by white people, with black people having no political voice and only a predetermined social and economic role. Litwack in his book carefully outlines the social and economic roles that African Americans were required to undertake. After tracing the gradual abolition of slavery in the North, Litwack observes that since there is no mention of race in the Constitution and Congress did not adopt a consistent approach to determining whether the free black person was a citizen, the individual states were given free rein to deal with the free black person. A black person was excluded from voting during a time when it was being opened to the whole public. Politicians were only held accountable to the whims, biases, and demands of a white public because the majority of northern states had disenfranchised African Americans. Few of them were willing to take the risk of political death.

The African Americans in the northern states had few political choices as they were mainly barred from the electoral process and participating in the legal system. As suffrage spread throughout the Jacksonian era, it frequently came at the expense of African-American segregation. Equal voting rights were granted in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont where northern African-Americans were allowed to take part in the electoral process. Certain northern states prevented African-Americans from not only testifying in courts against whites but also from serving in courts. As a result, justice in the northern states became “two-sided,” with the sentence for African-Americans being disproportionately harsher.

Political segregation, in Litwack’s opinion, has significant psychological, social, and economic effects. The education and literacy levels were lower in segregated educational systems, which had the dual effects of triggering political mobilization and severely restricting African-Americans’ employment options. African Americans were restricted to low-wage employment and as a result, they could only afford to reside in the worst areas. Even when it was financially feasible, moving into better housing prompted violence and threats from white neighbors. As a result of the aggressive segregation of black people from white communities, Litwack claims that leaving the ghetto was almost impossible. Therefore, it was exceedingly challenging for many African-Americans to have much confidence in a brighter future due to economic and social discrimination. In summary, northern whites constructed a system to support their belief that blacks were inferior.

Contrary to the South, the North did support a strong abolitionist movement, but it was weakened by prevalent racial biases. Some abolitionists prioritized eradicating southern slavery over improving the lives of free black people. Many of those who did speak up for black people in the North were cautious to distinguish between advocating integration and extending civil protections.

The Philadelphia Antislavery Society said that it was not their duty to encourage social intercourse between colored and white families, yet voted by a very slim margin to accept black members. The abolitionist literature, according to Litwack, “contributed its contribution to the public idea of the Negro, alluding to his frequent references to his meek, subservient, humorous, minstrel-like features”(203). In contrast to what was unimaginable in the South, African-Americans actively engaged in Northern abolitionism. According to Litwack, “William Lloyd Garrison and The Liberator appeared some years after negro abolitionism” (204). Naturally, the fact that black abolitionist leaders were regularly ignored by a movement that claimed to be on their side infuriated them. Others see it as a serious risk to tie emancipation’s future to a predominately white movement.

In the end, Litwack adopts a positive perspective on the conflicts within abolitionism. He asserts that the movement “shared these weaknesses with nearly every organized social movement and political party in antebellum America,” despite conceding the “factionalism, strong partisanship, restricted class views, and even hypocrisy” of the movement (230). The fact that abolitionists refrained from letting these flaws significantly impede their fight for civil rights attests to their earnestness, at the very least.

It is natural to draw comparisons between the situation of the Negro in the pre-battle North and the slave in the South. Indeed, a lot of publicists and politicians from both sides frequently used that analogy to imply that the lives of slaves and free African Americans were the same. The conventional contrast between Northern racial generosity and Southern intolerance, however, is just as crude an oversimplification as this stance. There were significant discrepancies between the conditions of northern free Negroes and southern slaves, just as there were significant differences between the conditions of northern white industrial workers and southern bondsmen.

With this investigation, Litwack established new ground, and his thesis is solidly substantiated. Even while it might not be fair to demand that he do something other than what he set out to do, his effort nevertheless makes one ponder about the system’s beginnings and development. What were the effects of Dred Scott and Plessy v. Ferguson, to name a few further queries? Despite being crucial in developing American racial relations, Litwack pays scant attention to each case in this article. Most crucially, how did Northern exclusionary regimes and Southern slavery interact? Did they have any mutual impact besides diminishing abolitionism? In other words, North of Slavery is a good book because it makes readers think about the subject it explores and encourages additional study.

Work Cited

Litwack, Leon F. North of Slavery: The Negro in The Free States: 1790 – 1860. 1st ed., The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London, 1961, pp. 70-76.