Morrisons Beloved provides a literary account on African-American tradition that allows the author to create an intense representation and analysis of slavery in American history. At this point, Morrison implicitly criticizes historical and ritual methods based on healing and spiritual influence that shapes the basis of upbringing. From this viewpoint, the author reconstructs the conceptual knowledge, as well as historical background, to confront the spiritual oppression and intellectual persistence of African-Americans.
In such a manner, the novel widens the concept of freedom and provides a new meaning of such words as rememory and disremember. In particular, although Seths new life is deprived of slavery, her memories and her past do not allow her to forget her identity and her affiliation to Sweet Home. The words rememory and disremember provide strong opposition to Sethes inner struggle with her psychological recovery and her attitude to the role of slavery in the nations welfare.
In the novel, Morrison builds the connection between the heroines inner confrontation and the general recovery process of the American nation that sets codes and rights for former slaves. Sethe, the protagonist of the story, constantly resorts to her past, although she is not reluctant to rememorize it: if you go there you who was never there if you go there and stand in the place where it was it will happen again; it will be there waiting for you (Morrison 42).
To explain this issue, Krumholz remarks in her analysis, Sethes process of healing in Beloved&is a model for the readers who must confront Seths past as part of our past&that lives right here where we live (395). At this point, the proposed interpretations refer to the ideas that past traumas and challenges continue affecting consciousness indefinitely and, therefore, it is possible to recollect unhappy and destructive moments.
Even though Sethe relates to future tense, she underscores the inevitability of the presence of memories. She features the past as a physical construct, which also confirms the materiality of American history. By recovering memories and recognizing their physical presence, Morrison amplifies the inevitability of the bond between national history and individual perception.
On the one hand, Sethes strong desire to disremember the past imposes a serious psychological pressure. On the other hand, rememory of Seths previous life at Sweet Home prevents her from forgetting her murdered daughter. Nevertheless, the heroine denies the past and, therefore, she strives to get the best future for her children.
As she sees the threat to her daughters future, she decides to kill her and provide a better afterlife rather than let her be doomed to live in Sweet Home: Collected every bit of life she had made, all the parts of her that were precious and fine and beautiful&dragged them through the veil (Morrison 190). It is clear from the passage that Seth establishes a slight distinctions between death and life.
Also, the passage indicates Sethes comparison of her children with the most precious part of her being. So, taking Sethes children away from her would mean destroying everything she loved and praised in her life. Although Sethes murder is considered a morally unjustified act, the emphasis is still placed on the criticism of slavery as the rememorized past that ruins her future.
In Beloved, Morrison makes use of supernatural rituals and traditions to shape the reality in which characters live (Krumholz 397). In particular, Morrison provides the novel with the possibility to transform and build individual perception, as well as influence the characters social relations. The ritual method implies a certain strategy for learning epistemology in which knowledge construct depends on the spiritual context.
Despite her faith in the healing power of ritual, Morrison reconstructs the parallels between the fragments of Sethes emotional and psychological recovery. At this point, Krumholz stresses, personal and historical past is retrieved and reconstructed (400). At this point, the author employs narrative techniques, such as repetition, to make a transition to the ritual dynamics within the novel retrospective.
Moreover, the presence of the supernatural becomes the major obstacle for Sethe to disremember the past and lead a life in a new place free from slavery. About the above-presented consideration, the concept of rememory stands at the core of ritual, which corresponds to several episodes in the novel. In the first episode, Paul D tries to make Sethe return to reality and ignore any supernatural influence on her consciousness.
The second section is dedicated to Sethes constant searching for reconciliation, which makes her overwhelmed with her past mistakes. The presence of Beloved complicates the heroines attempt to overcome the grief and forces her to suffer from the pain. The final episode refers to the forcing out of Beloved from the community to allow Beth to reconcile with her experiences and recognize the situation from a different angle.
The evidence from the text shows that slavery experiences are accumulated through fragmented recollections, culminating in the revelation of Sethes murder of her child (Krumholz 400). Subsequent episodes introduce the process of Seths realization of the impossibility to restore the past, as well as her final relief from the previous experience.
Therefore, the concept of rememory and disremember are involved in the process of Seths re-evaluation of her past deeds. In the novel, Morrison focuses on the concept of memory as the means of recollecting and bringing together the members of Seths family. To do that, the heroine has to cross spatial and time boundaries. Also, memory is presented as an unpredictable process related to spiritual and material space.
Beloved starts the process of heroines gradual reconciliation and psychological cleansing. Seths rememory sets the ground for the transformative process of the spiritual self in the real world. In the novel, Morrison remarks, trust and memory, yes, the way she believed it could when he cradled her before the cooking store (114).
By introducing the historic flashbacks, the author explains that the future and present tense cannot exist without the past because the latter creates identity and belonging. In conclusion, Morrison introduces the concept of rememory and disremember to explain Seths constant struggle with her past, as well as her reconciliation with the future, being an integral component of her identity.
In particular, Sethe undergoes three stages of realization by engaging in the ritual of healing. From this viewpoint, the heroines psychological pressure strongly correlates with historical recovery. The history of slavery is possible to reconsider through Sethes experience, as well as her struggle with fears.
In this context, Beloved is the obstacle that does not allow Sethe to relieve from the grief. In general, the story creates a new understanding of how the African-American community managed to overcome the slavery period in American history.
Works Cited
Krumholz, Linda. The Ghosts of Slavery: Historical Recovery in Toni Morrisons Beloved. African American Review 3 (1992): 395. Print.
The theme of slavery has been thoroughly investigated over many decades; the world of literature reflects this global problem of humanity through national sufferings, and social oppressions experienced throughout centuries. The paper will be concentrated on the analysis of the works The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano by Olaudah Equiano, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass, and Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs, through which the authors managed to reflect their personal experience, exaggerating slavery reality through its corruptive power, cannibalism and psychological oppression.
The horror of slavery was demonstrated by Equianos narrative, depicting the period of slave trade through human moral mistakes. The story The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano appeared to be the background for the stories of abolitionists, who dedicated their works to the disclosure of slavery as the grave error developed by people from generation to generation.
The stench of the hold while we were on the coast was so intolerably loathsome, that it was dangerous to remain there for any time (Equiano, 113)
It is necessary to underline the fact that the author shows American slaves through their sufferings of horror treatment; the slaves lived in poor conditions and were sold as cargo, being packed and transferred from ship to ship.
They also made us jump, and pointed to the land, signifying we were to go there. We thought by this, we should be eaten by these ugly men (Equiano, 205)
Equianos narrative managed to reflect the atmosphere of slavery horror touching African cannibalism producing emotional effect on the basis of personal experience. It is the reflection of life under the pressure of constant fear and psychological pressure. Besides, the narrative touched the problem of social isolation, being taken from native land to the world of Western culture, striving to keep his purity and innocence characterizing him as an African.
Further on, the theme of social isolation as the basic slavery component was continued by Douglass narrative in the story Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; the author touched the problem of social ignorance concentrating of whites strategies and power aimed against black people.
My natural elasticity was crushed, my intellect languished, and the disposition to read departed, the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died:
the dark night of slavery closed in upon me; and behold a man transformed into a brute! (Douglass, 89)
The author managed to demonstrate the limitations of rights and freedoms oppressing black people; slaves were deprived of opportunity to get any knowledge, as this could lead them to capability sense and self-sufficiency, being the path to freedom. The narrator demonstrated how slave owners kept black people aside from getting any education; the story appeared to be the reflection of white peoples power over the nation of Afro-American origin. The author managed to illustrate the destructive effect of slaveholding promotion, which gradually leads to moral health damaging and psychological oppressions suffered by the whole humanity. It is necessary to stress that the theme is close to modern period, when the racial discrimination problem is still faced by most Eastern World countries.
And finally, it is necessary to analyze the depth of slavery problem through the story by Jacobs Harriet Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl; the author raised the theme of slavery corrupting power and morality destruction. Special stress is given to the slavery mastership, which is the basic element in slave-holders psychological destruction.
When he told me that I was made for his use, made to obey his command in everything; that I was nothing but a slave, whose will must and should surrender to his, never before had my puny arm felt half so strong (Jacobs, 114)
Personal experience of the author depicts white people as inhumane monsters oppressing their servants and providing horrible conditions for their existence. It is necessary to stress that the story provides a comparative line between good and bad slave owners, which have almost the same features, being characterized by betrayal and roughness.
The central problem of the story was focused on the characters unrealized dream; the dream of having a family and a home, getting freedom and living in love. It should be stressed that the disclosure of slavery destructive nature was highlighted by the narrative through personal freedom limitation and moral oppressions.
The three narratives analyzed above appeared to be presented as the authors tool to demonstrated the depth of slavery horror and reflect the feelings of fear suffered black people living in the oppressive conditions.
The analysis of the stories The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano by Olaudah Equiano, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass, and Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs, gave an opportunity to evaluate the depth of one common problem shared by the authors narratives, the problem of slavery destructive power and horror corruption. The stories managed to reflect the atmosphere of black people oppressions and limitations which are still suffered in some countries. The theme of slavery appeared to be emotionally colored and thought provoking because of personal experience image disclosure and the depth of horror reality created by human beings through slavery promotions.
References
Douglass, F. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Penguin Classics, 1982.
Equiano, O. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. Coffeetown Press, 2008.
Jacobs, H. Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl. Oxford University Press US, 1988.
The theme of slavery has been thoroughly investigated over many decades; the world of literature reflects this global problem of humanity through national sufferings, and social oppressions experienced throughout centuries. The paper will be concentrated on the analysis of the works The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano by Olaudah Equiano, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass, and Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs, through which the authors managed to reflect their personal experience, exaggerating slavery reality through its corruptive power, cannibalism and psychological oppression.
The horror of slavery was demonstrated by Equianos narrative, depicting the period of slave trade through human moral mistakes. The story The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano appeared to be the background for the stories of abolitionists, who dedicated their works to the disclosure of slavery as the grave error developed by people from generation to generation.
The stench of the hold while we were on the coast was so intolerably loathsome, that it was dangerous to remain there for any time (Equiano, 113)
It is necessary to underline the fact that the author shows American slaves through their sufferings of horror treatment; the slaves lived in poor conditions and were sold as cargo, being packed and transferred from ship to ship.
They also made us jump, and pointed to the land, signifying we were to go there. We thought by this, we should be eaten by these ugly men (Equiano, 205)
Equianos narrative managed to reflect the atmosphere of slavery horror touching African cannibalism producing emotional effect on the basis of personal experience. It is the reflection of life under the pressure of constant fear and psychological pressure. Besides, the narrative touched the problem of social isolation, being taken from native land to the world of Western culture, striving to keep his purity and innocence characterizing him as an African.
Further on, the theme of social isolation as the basic slavery component was continued by Douglass narrative in the story Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; the author touched the problem of social ignorance concentrating of whites strategies and power aimed against black people.
My natural elasticity was crushed, my intellect languished, and the disposition to read departed, the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died:
the dark night of slavery closed in upon me; and behold a man transformed into a brute! (Douglass, 89)
The author managed to demonstrate the limitations of rights and freedoms oppressing black people; slaves were deprived of opportunity to get any knowledge, as this could lead them to capability sense and self-sufficiency, being the path to freedom. The narrator demonstrated how slave owners kept black people aside from getting any education; the story appeared to be the reflection of white peoples power over the nation of Afro-American origin. The author managed to illustrate the destructive effect of slaveholding promotion, which gradually leads to moral health damaging and psychological oppressions suffered by the whole humanity. It is necessary to stress that the theme is close to modern period, when the racial discrimination problem is still faced by most Eastern World countries.
And finally, it is necessary to analyze the depth of slavery problem through the story by Jacobs Harriet Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl; the author raised the theme of slavery corrupting power and morality destruction. Special stress is given to the slavery mastership, which is the basic element in slave-holders psychological destruction.
When he told me that I was made for his use, made to obey his command in everything; that I was nothing but a slave, whose will must and should surrender to his, never before had my puny arm felt half so strong (Jacobs, 114)
Personal experience of the author depicts white people as inhumane monsters oppressing their servants and providing horrible conditions for their existence. It is necessary to stress that the story provides a comparative line between good and bad slave owners, which have almost the same features, being characterized by betrayal and roughness.
The central problem of the story was focused on the characters unrealized dream; the dream of having a family and a home, getting freedom and living in love. It should be stressed that the disclosure of slavery destructive nature was highlighted by the narrative through personal freedom limitation and moral oppressions.
The three narratives analyzed above appeared to be presented as the authors tool to demonstrated the depth of slavery horror and reflect the feelings of fear suffered black people living in the oppressive conditions.
The analysis of the stories The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano by Olaudah Equiano, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass, and Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs, gave an opportunity to evaluate the depth of one common problem shared by the authors narratives, the problem of slavery destructive power and horror corruption. The stories managed to reflect the atmosphere of black people oppressions and limitations which are still suffered in some countries. The theme of slavery appeared to be emotionally colored and thought provoking because of personal experience image disclosure and the depth of horror reality created by human beings through slavery promotions.
References
Douglass, F. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Penguin Classics, 1982.
Equiano, O. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. Coffeetown Press, 2008.
Jacobs, H. Incidents in the Life of a slave Girl. Oxford University Press US, 1988.
The study of the history of the development of America reveals the issue of race as being central in the economic, social and political development of the nation. The phenomenon of racial slavery in America emerged with the demands in the Southern states concerning the economic viability of controlled and bound labor.
The existence of norms and values that restricted the free citizens from exploiting each other initiated the emergence of racial exploitation. The discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus provided a new source of labor upon which Americas prosperity would thrive.
An analysis of the social and economic structure of the colony of Virginia illustrates that the distortion of the indentured servant system in the colony made the concept of racial slavery considerably attractive.
The separation of indenture servants and English landowners marked the onset of racial slavery with Massachusetts becoming the first colony to legalize slavery in 1641 (Dattel, 2009). In Virginia, laws on slavery stated that the child of a slave was automatically subject to enslavement, which made slavery a generational phenomenon.
The story of the seizure of Anthony Johnsons land following a declaration by a jury in Virginia that the government could reposes Johnsons land because he was a negro promoted the acceptance of racial exploitation directed towards Negros, mulattos and Indians.
IN 1672, the king of England embarked on a venture to feed the increasing demand for slaves and charted the Royal African Company, which was at the center of British slave trade.
The 1698 declaration by the England Parliament that any Briton was at liberty to trade in slaves marked the onset of a period of 50 years during which millions of Africans in slave ships reached the coasts of North and South America.
As the European empire expanded, the colonization of America brought with it vast tracts of land that required intensive labor. The arrival of a Dutch ship loaded with slaves from Africa provided a solution to the problem of working on the harsh conditions that had proved unfavorable for the natives.
The fluctuation of tobacco prices eased the demand for slaves, which later increased with the invention of the cotton gin and the replacement of tobacco with cotton as the main cash crop. The expansion of plantations in America in the 18th century demanded an increase in the supply of laborers causing a peak in the transatlantic slave trade.
The demand for laborers in the South increased with the invention of the cotton gin, which increased the cultivation cotton on a large scale due to the enhanced processing capability. In this regard, the South became a major hub for the slave trade and cotton-growing regions experienced an explosion of the slave population.
The impact of slavery is evident in the transformation and equalization of economies in both low country and upcountry because it had become easier to process both the long staple and short staple cotton grown in the two regions respectively.
However, political inequality persisted as evident by the fact that the electoral value of the salves in the upcountry was only three-fifths of a vote.
Slavery played a key role in the Westward expansion because the land seized from the Indians provided new settlements in which cultivation of tobacco and cotton blossomed. The territorial expansion of U.S involved the movement of American settlers with their slavers into news territories as evident by the case of Texas.
The ban on slavery in Texas by the Mexican government, aimed at taming the influence of Americans, faced considerable opposition by slave owners who forced freed slaves into signing life indenture contracts.
Tension between the Mexican government and American settlers caused an outbreak of a rebellion, which eventually led to the annexation of Texas and the concession of New Mexico and California. The onset of the demise of slavery began with the establishment of an anti-slavery movement spearheaded by William Wilberforce and the Quakers.
The growing unease regarding the slave trade even among key participants such as Europe saw Denmark take a leading step in abolishing slave trade in 1792 (Horton & Horton, 2005). In 1807, Britain enacted regulations that stipulated stiff fines on any individuals found guilty of importing slaves into Britain.
Slavery was a central theme in the years following the break of the Civil War, which although having began as a struggle to prevent the segregation of the North and the South, tilted towards the freeing of slaves.
In the early years of the War, a large number of Southern slaves escaped to the North, which was a favorable occurrence for the Union considering that the slaves served as cooks, guards and soldiers.
The slaves were escaping oppression and exploitation in the North, which included physical and sexual abuse as evident by the narrations of Harriet Jacobs in the book Life of a Slave Girl . The status of a slave as property meant that plantation owners could use them in whatever way they wanted including sexual exploitation of women and the sale of salve family members.
Harriets narrations bring to light the cruel and sadistic treatment of slaves, which thrived on proclamations such as the 1857 Scott Decision by the U. S Supreme Court categorizing slaves as subhuman property devoid of any rights whatsoever.
Narratives, such as Life of a Slave Girl played an important role in changing the perspective of the whites on slaves because the affluent middle class had the time and resources to read the literature.
The fleeing of slaves from the South was detrimental to the chances of the Southerners winning the Civil War and the desperation for soldiers forced the Confederate army to begin enlisting African Americans.
However, the decision came late and the Union army, which had a large number of volunteers and fleeing slaves from the South, gained an edge over the Confederate army. The enactment of laws demanding the seizure and freeing of slaves as part of the property of dissidents in the South was a step forward towards the abolishment of slavery.
According to the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, slaves in the rebelling states would gain outright freedom in a hundred days starting from September 22, 1862 (Ward, 2008).
The ease on regulations restricting blacks from joining the U.S Army and creation of units such as the Colored Troopers created a system through which freed slaves influenced the outcome of the Civil War.
The end of the Civil War in 1865 provided an opportunity for individuals in the Congress and other anti-slavery groups to champion for the adoption of the 13th Amendment, which constitutionally outlawed slavery in America and strengthened the ban on slave trade that had been in place since 1807.
References
Dattel, E. R. (2009). Cotton and race in the making of America: the human costs of economic power. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee.
Horton, J. O., & Horton, L. E. (2005). Slavery and the making of America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ward, A. (2008). The slaves war: the Civil War in the words of former slaves. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Like in other continents, slavery forms a major component of the African history. Encompassed with a myriad of intertwined factors, slavery in Africa was viewed from different perspectives. With several decades having passed since the abolition of slavery in most parts of the world, historians carry the historic memories of slavery in Africa.
Ranging from slave trade to child slavery, Africa witnessed countless atrocities, which were mainly perpetuated by powerful countries from Europe and among African communities. In understanding slavery in Africa, it is important to consider its origin and its greatest impact on the continent. This research paper analyses slavery in Africa, detailing its causes, dimensions and abolition among other major aspects of the slavery.
Background
Europe started exploring ways of establishing relationships with Africa through trade between 800 and 1500 AD. It was during this time that Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and English traders sailed to access many countries in Africa to find market for their products which they bought from Europe and Asia.
In their initial efforts, Europeans were interested in the trading of gold, ivory tusks, feathers and other metals that were considered valuable (Claude 23). During this commercial interaction, many European countries discovered that African leaders were willing to exchange some of their people as slaves for other supplies.
Several trade routes were also established by colonies in the Atlantic to facilitate trade between several points. According to historic revelation, 1535 AD was the year when the first group of people left Africa for Americas in exchange for several business commodities (Manzo 394).
In exchange for slaves, European countries supplied ammunition, riffles and other goods to African kings. After an agreement was reached between Europeans and African leaders, slaves were packed in huge sailing boats and taken to different American colonies and to the Caribbean Island. While in these Islands, the slaves were traded for molasses, tobacco, sugar and cotton before they exchanged what they received back for guns from Europe (Claude 21).
This was the origin of what was later to be known as the Triangle Trade Route which contributed to the sale of at least ten million people from Africa. This practice continued and spread around Africa and other parts of the world before several countries joined efforts in illegalizing slave trade.
For the case of the United States, the country had to engage in the famous Cold War until 1865 AD when the trade was officially illegalized. It is for this reason that there are men and women in South and North America of African descent (Miers and Kopytoff 11).
Although there has been no consensus on the actual factors that led to the rise of slavery in Africa, many scholars concur that the need for agricultural labor was a major reason that contributed to the rise and escalation of slave trade in Africa. As it shall be noted later, other people have postulated the role of commerce and politics as key players in African slavery.
To the contrary, some anthropologists have argued that there were no sufficient reasons to support African slavery, having in mind that most people depended on gathering and hunting as a major source of food. From all directions, Africa as a continent was connected with slavery to the rest of the world as they were key players in the civilization process (Manzo 398).
In the northern part of Africa, slavery was mainly practiced in Sahara desert and in those lands which bordered it to the south together with the current Western Sahara, Algeria and Morocco. In addition, Tuaregs practiced slavery in the Central Sahara. The institution of slavery was also common among the Ethiopians, Sudanese, Egyptians and among the Somalis. Slavery was also known in several states from West Africa.
Dimensions of Slavery
There were two main dimensions that were directly linked to slavery and slave trade in Africa. These were external and internal dimensions. In general, the external dimension involved the trading of slaves across the Sahara, Red Sea, Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean worlds (Marcus 66). Although this trade commenced in ancient times, history reveals that it continued after colonial periods.
During early years, African slaves were found working in Greece, Rome, Europe and in the Islamic world among other places. The capture of Constantinople by Ottoman in 1453 led to a stop of the movement of slaves from the Balkans and the Black Sea region. This resulted into disconnection of the Mediterranean from its principal source of slaves, leaving the region with no other option but Africa, which became its new source of slaves (Marcus 66).
The last period of the external slave trade took place between the 15th to the 19th centuries, involving Atlantic, Oriental and the Islamic worlds. Notably, the Islamic world was sophisticated and selective as slavery served both economic and social functions. Due to this complexity of the market, African slaves were not as valuable as those from Georgia and Circassia.
Although these girls were on high demand in most parts of the world including Morocco, they were scarce and expensive (Marcus 67).Arabs valued Ethiopian slaves more than any other man because they were believed to be refined and intelligent and therefore they were not suited for heavy duties.
On the other hand, external slave trade was mainly conducted within the African continent. The trade was divided into sections; North Africa traded with West Africa while the Southern part of Africa traded mostly with Central and Eastern regions.
Ghana was a key player during this period and was highly valued because of its richness in gold that was found in Offin and Pra rivers, which had a high concentration of this valuable mineral. A part from gold, Ghana was also a source of ivory and kola nuts. The Savanna region was a major source of millet, ostrich feathers, sorghum, ivory, wheat, slaves, livestock, cloth and gum (Marcus 68).
Acquisition of Slaves
Slaves in Africa were basically acquired through fives ways which were: warfare, raiding and kidnapping, pawning, market supply and tribute paying. The main slavery output emanated from prisoners of war (Marcus 68).Warfare was quite common among the forest and Savanna states of East, West, South and Central Africa. Jihads were also influential as they enslaved people ranging from the Red Sea in the east to the Senegambia in the West.
On the other hand, slave markets were established depending of the sizes of the regions and members of royalties as they were allowed to move freely to any part of the markets and purchase slaves. Caravan routes offered the best sites for the establishment of these markets, while West and North Africa considered Trans-Saharan routes to be imperative during slave trade (Marcus 70).
Similarly, raiding and kidnapping were common practices used to acquire slaves from a particular region. It is believed that these practices were well institutionalized in the Bambara Society while the Berbers and Tuaregs were well known for raiding their neighbors who were found to the south.
This method of slave procurement was also utilized by the Damagaram, inhabitants of Northern Nigeria. However, in other regions like Sokoto Caliphate and Nilotic Sudan, the exercise was considered to be a state affair (Miers and Kopytoff 12).
Many other slaves were obtained through paying of tribute (Miers and Kopytoff 171). Yoruba of Nigeria are extensively known for having employed this method. Additionally, the Sokoto Caliphate always ordered tribute from subjects and this was only honored using slaves as the key commodity recognized by leaders and empires.
The last method applied in slave acquisition was pawning. This referred to cases where a slave was given out to serve as security for borrowed money. The pawn therefore served as a commitment to settle the debt and was expected to work for the creditor and be taken care of by the host until the debt was cleared. Although pawning was not a direct form of slavery, non-redeemed pawns ended up serving as slaves for the rest of their lives and were common in Ghana, Nigeria among the Igbo and in Mozambique among the Sena (Marcus 67).
Roles of slaves
Slaves were mainly needed as a major source of labor in agriculture, industry and trade. However a few slaves were employed in administration of the state, empires and kingdoms. Other slaves were used to perform domestic duties, in the military and for personal satisfaction.
Agriculture, Trade and Industry
Slave labor was necessary for several economic activities among African communities. These activities included hunting, fishing, farming and animal rearing among others. Slaves were also played a major role in collection of food plants like coconuts, shea butter, oil palm and kola nuts (Marcus 70).
With regard to trade, slaves mainly served as trading agents, merchants or porter, working for the state and also for individuals. In some cases, slaves took charge of trade roots and were expected to collect taxes as directed by the authority. In addition, slaves worked in several industries including gold mining, cloth weaving, iron working, art and craft industries and salt making.
Administration and Military
Slaves were highly needed to provide security to kingdoms and empires as well as to serve during warfare. Others served as bodyguards to chiefs and kings whereas a few trusted slaves were entrusted with command responsibilities during battles. During entertainment, slaves were horn blowers and drummers and served as caretakers of the Royal Mausoleum. They also engaged in other departments like finance and kitchen among others (Marcus 71).
Domestic chores
Both male and female slaves performed domestic roles in shrines, palaces and individual households, engaging in washing, cooking, cleaning, sweeping and fetching of water and firewood. Other slaves were sacrificed mainly during major functions and ceremonies in accordance with traditional beliefs and practices. This was also common as occasioned by death of prominent personalities (Marcus 67).
Effects of Slavery in Africa
Slavery in Africa had numerous effects ranging from positive to negative, with the latter dominating. The first effect of slavery revolves around the manner in which most slaves were procured by communities and empires. As a key method of acquiring slaves, raiding propagated hostility among villages and other attacking groups (Nunn 139).
As a result of this animosity, involved parties had to break alliances, agreements, trading relations among other forms of association. Consequently, conflicts between communities were common as each fought towards protecting their own interests.
As mentioned before, slavery in Africa presented itself in two dimensions, involving slavery activities within and outside the continent. The trans-Atlantic trade which has deeper roots in African Slavery led to the exportation of at least ten million people from Africa to Europe and other continents.
Notably, this number does not account for countless slaves who died during raids or during long journeys to the coast before they were shipped and ferried to various European destinations (Nunn 139 It therefore suffices to mention that these practices turned against different communities as they became impediments towards economic development and social strengthening.
Ethnic Fractionalization
Raiding and kidnappings, which were core methods of capturing slaves, had detrimental impact on most African societies. Since the attacks happened among African communities, the continent felt the entire impact of slavery (Nunn 141).
Accordingly, hostility rose as every community wanted to domineer and protect its people against unauthorized slavery. Several contacts that had promoted peace between communities got broken by insecurity, banditry, and massive suspicion whose main origin was slavery that had escalated to every part of the continent during the 19th century.
This discouraged the formation of larger communities and identities and explains why Africa as a continent is fragmented into countless ethnic groups, some of which do not have broader identities. Viewed from a development point of view, ethnic fragmentation significantly hampered development in most African ethnic communities that was contributed by raids and insecurity (Nunn 141).
Weakening of states
High level of insecurity among communities resulted into high demand for weaponry like knives, firearms and swords for the defense of communities. These items were only found in Europe, forcing African kings to export slaves in exchange of these devices that were considered to be very important. The gun slave cycle continued as acquisition of firearms increased both insecurity and the need for high-level security protection (Nunn 142).
There was heightened animosity among states as Europeans benefitted from the supply of slaves to meet their needs, causing political instability of not only ethnic groups but also the entire state. In extreme cases of political instability and increased cases of insecurity, governments disintegrated and got replaced by weak and smaller kingdoms.
There is documented evidence about the existence of well established political structures, which stagnated and collapsed at the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century. In addition, this fragmentation further determined ethnic and language homogeneity among African communities (Nunn 142).
Besides these factors, deterioration of legal institutions as people adopted enslavement to be the main method of enforcing the law. Traditional methods like punishment, exiles and compensation were substituted with slavery through paying of tributes (Miers and Kopytoff 171).
With slavery having dominated Africa for years, the nurtured society led to a prevalent predatory behavior among most communities that was accompanied with low production. People believed in raiding and forceful acquisition of wealth, which can be linked to continued war in some parts of the continent. On the other hand, some historians argue that slavery led to the introduction of better breeds of animals and crop varieties that promoted high food production (Nunn 143).
Conclusion
With reference to the above analysis of slavery in Africa, it is clear that these practices had significant impact on the entire African society with some of the effects being felt today. From disintegrated governments to collapsed judicial system, Africa suffered severely in the hands of slavery which was promoted by both external and internal factors. With most societies having been left under insecure governments and unstable social structure, Europe highly benefited from the slavery as it dominated the trans-Atlantic Trade.
Works Cited
Claude, Melliassoux. The slave trade and development. Diogenes 45.3 (1997): 23-30.
Manzo, Kate. Exploiting West Africas children: trafficking, slavery and uneven development. Area 37.4 (2005): 393-401. Print.
Marcus, Colchester. Slave and enclave. Ecologist 23.5 (1993): 66-74.
Miers, Suzanne, and Kopytoff Igor. Slavery in Africa: historical and anthropological perspectives. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979. Print.
Nunn, Nathan. The Long-Term Effects of Africas Slave Trades. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 1.1 (2008): 139-176.
Townsend, Cummins. Keeping score: Winners and losers in the transatlantic slave trade. Reviews in American History 21.3 (1993): 379-405.
Slavery is a term used to refer to an affiliation of supremacy and obedience whereby one person possesses another and can extort from the possessed person labor or any other services. Slaves can be people detained against their will, bought or born into this dehumanizing way of life, they are denied the right to leave or to reject work, or even ask for reimbursement.
Slavery in Brazil created the countrys societal arrangement and cultural background. All through the regal period, and for a period of more than six decades after the 1822 independence, slavery was one of the strongholds of the Brazil economy, in particular in the mining and sugar cane production sectors[1]
Slave Trade in Brazil
In the years after the 1500s Portuguese colonies situated in Brazil began to import African saves in large numbers. This was easy for them as the Portuguese were in control of several slave trade centres in the coast of West Africa where slaves were sold.
African slaves became the preferred choice to work in big sugar cane plantations and mines as they were resilient to tropical diseases and heat and the fact that they were reluctant to run away from their masters was a good thing for the Portuguese as they made more money this way. Soon after the 1600s African slaves were found to be engaged in all economic sectors of Brazil. This is because they were good workers who worked hard for their masters; rarely got sick and rarely run off into the jungle.
Slave trade was abolished in May 1888 when Princess Isabel signed the; Lei Aurea, the Golden Law that made slave trade illegal therefore legally putting an end to slavery in Brazil. The original script and the pen used to sign this document are preserved in the Brazilian national museum as it part of the history of Brazil. This single document freed the slaves and if it was not signed when it was, maybe slavery would have continued for much longer.
Due to the ending of the slave trade in 1888 in Brazil, the African culture is still very pronounced especially in the Bahia and the Northeast. The African slaves still practiced and practice their native cultures, food, music, dance and customs all which are viewed in the pulsating cultural assortment that is now independent Brazil[2].
Abolition of slavery in Brazil
Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slave trade as slavery. The plight of slaves was noted down in literature that spoke out against slavery and spoke for the slaves themselves. Literature in Brazil included poems that spoke out against the suffering of slaves at the hands of their slave masters who in most cases were than not brutal. Abolitionist literature in Brazil was not limited and each and every person was allowed to freely express themselves and their feelings how they saw fit.
After independence in Brazil, antislavery appeals were found in local dailies and periodicals majority of these appeals however called for a stop to the slave trade and not slavery itself which is ironic. In 1850, the travel of human slaves to Brazil was stopped due to the consequence of British political and naval pressure [3].
Shortly after the stop of slave trade, literature and poetry that depicted free blacks and slaves positively began to make its way into the market, how ever these works did not openly criticize slavery on its own.
Essays, poems, drama and novels began aggressively attacking slavery as a corrupting authority on white slave holders and as a hindrance on economic progress of the country as a whole. This catalyzed the process of abolishing slave trade and slavery itself and the slaves were set free to find and build their own lives away from the slave lives[4].
It took some years however before the literature works took centre stage in fighting against slavery and positively stating that the slaves should be set free. Arguments based on the sufferings of the slaves were the basis of majority of the literature works they talked about how much the slaves suffered under their masters and this brought about awareness concerning slavery.
Some of the most famous abolitionist in Brazil include: Antonio Frederico de Castro Alves who was termed as the Conscience of Brazil due to his works that openly denounced slavery Os EScravos which contain poems like Navio Negreiro: tragedia nomar , O Bandido Negro and Vozes dAfrica published in 1883.
Other poets; Silvio Romero and Valentim Magalhaes also fanned the flames of abolitionism with depictions of extreme brutality and inhumanity of slavery. On top of poems, novels were written that were against slavery and slave trade for example; Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin published in 1852. This novel showed how innocent slaves suffered at the hands of their masters and their overseers.
Joaquim Manuel de Macedos As Vitimas Algozes written in 1869 and Bernardo Guimaraess A Escrava Isaura written in 1875. O Abolicionismo by Joaquim Nabuco a statesman written in 1883 is widely noted and accepted as an abolitionist work for its common and political appeal. This book disproved of the underlying principle of pro-slavery forces used in opposition for the continuation of Brazilian slavery.
It is important to note that all the above mentioned works of literature were written before 1888 when the golden rule was signed. This is to show that these literature works played a major part in pushing for the abolishing of slave trade and slavery in Brazil. They played a major role in abolishing slave trade and slavery in Brazil as they identified the pleas and cries of the slaves at the hand of their masters and spoke out these injustices for all people to know[5].
Ways in which Abolitionism was anti slavery and anti slave in Brazil
There were quite a number of ways in which abolitionism was against anti slavery and anti slave in Brazil. This paper will discuss the moral, political, societal motivation behind the abolitionist movement not also forgetting the policies and plans employed in the abolitionist movement. These different ways in which abolitionism is looked upon as being both anti slavery and anti slave will help us understand not only the plight of the slaves but also why other people fought passionately for freedom of slaves and the abolition of slave trade.
Looking at the moral point of view, citizens of Brazil had a number of reasons to be part of the abolitionist movement. Religion was the first moral perspective to join the abolitionist movement, Christians who were at the forefront of this movement believed that it was the duty of the church to correct wrongs made by the society.
Christians viewed slavery as wrong and believed that each person was equal in the eyes of God, so it should also be in the eyes of fellow mankind. Other secular movements joined the movement of abolitionist as they felt slavery was going against the basic foundations of the government as it brought about unfair torment that clearly spelled out inequality among human beings[6].
The economic and political view of slavery brought about questions of inequality as some politicians saw slavery as being unconstitutional. One of the goals of constitution was to bring equality to all man and slavery was a hindrance to this therefore, the politicians also joined in the abolitionist movement.
Majority of the people were passionate about the cause of ending slavery that they formed a political party that specifically fought for the rights and freedoms of slaves. The fact that the constitution brought forth the equality of all mankind and that citizen also fought for the freedom of the slaves made the abolitionist movement stronger and more effective and finally slave trade and slavery was eradicated all together in Brazil[7].
Societal reforms were also a huge part of how abolitionist was anti slaves and anti slavery in Brazil. These societal reformers included groups of ethical and outstanding citizens who were concerned with church communities, or new group thinkers. These individuals made it their sole purpose to correct the wrongs of slavery and the wrongs in education, prisons and also voting rights.
These people wanted radical changes in the society that would make the society a much better place to live in for all people. People who joined the reformers were persuaded by the leaders views and they saw it as their responsibility to make changes in the society.
The abolitionist movement in Brazil was both anti slave and anti slavery as to employ different ways and tactics to use in spreading the cause in order to get many supporters. One of the major ways of distributing the information they had was through use of leaflets that were distributed all over the countryside.
These leaflets were used to tell people and educate them on the reasons they had for being against slavery and about why they wanted to end it. Novels, poems, stories and other literature works were also used in educating people on why slavery needed to be abolished thus getting support for the abolitionist movement. Organizations against slave trade and slavery also came into being and they fought for equality rights of the Brazilian slaves.
These organizations got a lot of support as they were led by prominent people who were passionate about bringing an end to slave trade and slavery. Several revolts and riots organized by these organizations which included free and enslaved men fighting for their freedom this however led to the slaves being deported to Benin, Nigeria and Togo[9].
Conclusion
In conclusion, slave trade and slavery was a booming business in the 1800s. People were captured from their native lands and sailed hundreds of miles to work in plantations, mines under the cruelty and brutality if their masters. These people were also forced to work in their masters houses performing terrible acts that their overseers and masters demanded. Slaves were uprooted from their lives that they knew only to be forced to adapt to a whole new lifestyle that saw the treated far much worse than animals themselves.
The brutality and cruelty of the masters brought about a lot of suffering on the slaves as they were inflicted with wounds that would take a long time to heal not to mention that the punishments that were mostly beatings that at times resulted in death of the slaves. The slaves would at times result to witchcraft to quell the brutality of their masters and at times the slaves killed their masters.
Some slaves who opted not to run away continued suffering at the hands of their masters and overseers. The biggest issue about slavery was that some of the slaves were born into it and they knew no other life other than the life of submission, and following orders that resulted in punishment when one disobeyed.
The brutality and cruelty of the masters of these slaves brought about activists that rose and fought against slavery and slave trade. These activists brought forth the abolitionist movement that fought for the freedom of all the slaves in Brazil.
The abolitionist movement approached the issues of slavery and slaves from different view points that included the moral, political, societal motivation. These different view points by different people were all anti slave and anti slavery and pushed for reforms in the society that were going to be of help in getting freedom for the slaves.
The ways in which the abolitionist movement spread it views in the countryside where majority of the population were slaves, helped in drumming up major support for the noble cause of putting an end to slavery and slaves. Through the distribution of pamphlets the abolitionist movement was able to educate the people and get a lot of manpower and individuals to participate in the riots and revolts that were arranged by organizations to drum up support that would fight against slavery and slaves.
References
Bentley, J. & Ziegler, H. 2005. Traditions and encounters: A Global Perspective on the past. Mcgraw-Hill College.
The issue of slavery was a divisive issue between the North and the South in the 1800s. While the Northern part abhorred slavery, the Southerners not only practiced it but they also embarked on a spirited campaign to promote and defend the practice. It is therefore not surprising to note that as the Northern opposition to the vice rose, Southerners who were more tolerant toward the practice also embarked on a spirited justification of their work system and mode of life.
This defense by the Southerners finally led to the famous claim that slavery was an evil that could be tolerated and that it eventually brought some positive attributes. This claim partly explains why slavery in the South was able to endure for so long despite the numerous attempts by the North to outlaw the practice. (Queen)
One claim that the South fronted in trying to defend slavery was by claiming that the black men popularly known as Negros were nothing but grown up children. For this reason, the Southerners claimed that the Negros needed to be treated in the same manner as little children.
In order, to justify their claim, they banned the treatment of Negros as mad men or criminals. This was also justified by the view that Negros have a low moral and intellectual capacity as compared to their white counterparts. On top of this, a Negro was perceived to act in irresponsible ways, just as a baby would act.
This form of irresponsibility was characterized by the inability to keep anything for use in old age. The Southerners therefore claimed that if such a man were let free in the society he would become a big burden. The society was therefore given the obligation of preventing this from happening and the only way to do so was through subjecting the Negro to some form of slavery.
The Negro was also perceived to be of an inferior rank to the whites and putting them at the same level would be the same as giving an upper hand to the white race. This, the Southerners claimed would lead to extinction of the Negro race. In a way, this claim about the Negro being nothing but a grown kid was justified and it led to the success of slavery in the South. (Kirkpatrick)
Another claim that the Southerners made to defend slavery in their region was that the Negro slaves under their care were one of the most free and happy people in the world. To justify this claim, the Southerners allowed children, the weak and the aged Negros from any form of work. On top of this, this category of the Negro community had all their needs provided for. This group was therefore considered free of any care or any labor.
The Negro women were also given light chores and their masters protected them from their abusive husbands. Even for those slaves able to work, the Southerners allowed them to do so for only nine hours. This was considered modest by the Southerners and even by the slaves themselves. The Southerners claimed that the slaves could sleep at any time they felt like a luxury that their white counterparts did not have. This perception of a slave at liberty made slavery tolerable and led to its success in the South. (Kirkpatrick)
Another claim that the Southerners used in their defense of slavery was that every society was formed by a society of lesser and higher beings. In a speech delivered to the U.S Senate by Senator James Hammond of South Carolina in 1848, he claimed that a society was incomplete if it was devoid of the low class people to do the menial chores.
The people in the lower class were supposed to not only have a low intelligence but skill as well. according to Senator Hammond, if this class of the society was lacking then the other class of higher citizens who are tasked with building the nation and bringing about civilization would also be missing.
The senator and the other Southerners argued that this lesser class of people formed the foundation of any government and without it, the government would most likely end up failing. The Southerners considered slaves as members of this lower class of citizens. To them, slave was just but a name given to people who performed a certain kind of work.
The Senator claimed that although the Northerners and the rest of the world were working hard to abolish slavery, all that they were merely doing was wiping out the name and not the real essence of slavery. He claimed that only God had the power to abolish slavery by taking away the poor from the face of the earth. According to the Southerners, the only difference between their slaves and the employed class was that they called them slaves and engaged their services for life.
Unlike the other manual laborers, slaves did not face starvation or lack of work at any given time. According to the Southerners, this had led to a high number of beggars in the North unlike the South that had few or no beggars. This claim succeeded in silencing the critics from the North something that gave a new lifeline to slavery in the South. (Dirst)
The other important claim that the Southerners made in their defense of slavery was that all the citizens in the region were free of any fears of attack from their slaves. The Southerners claimed that those who were in danger were those outside the state who had distorted ideas about the condition that the slaves lived in. in demonstrating this, they gave an example of how Virginians would leave behind their households in the care of the slaves to defend their state.
These slaves are the same people whom the North claimed that they could wreak havoc given the slightest chance. This claim was supposed to show that the slaves in the South were content with the kind of life they were living and any attempt to change that would be met with resistance from the slaves. This helped in silencing the Northerners and led to an extension of slavery in the South for many more years. (The Staunton Spectator)
Conclusion
The issue of slavery has been one of the most divisive issues between the South and the North in the U.S. While the North abhorred slavery, the South practiced it on a higher level.
In order to weather the opposition from the North, they came up with excuses that were meant to defend their reasons for failing to ban the practice. These excuses ranged from the kind of treatment that the slaves were being given to the positive attributes that the practice had brought to their society. This spirited defense led to the success of slavery in the whole of the Southern region.
Written by the American historian Eric Foner, the book The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery provides a detailed biographical portrait of Abraham Lincoln and his stance on slavery. Foner states that his purpose of writing the book was to examine what was Abraham Lincolns thought about slavery1.
The author focused on Lincolns public life and the speeches he made in regards to slavery and his position during the Civil War. In particular, Foner avoids engaging or referring to the previous works by historians. Instead, he focuses on the speeches and writings by Lincoln.
In this book, Foner states that the book is important in history classes as well as creating knowledge for the Americans about their history, especially by appreciating the important role that Abraham Lincoln played during the abolishment of slavery and the civil war.
The Author states that the American people have a reason to thank God for Abraham Lincoln, despite the deficiencies that the president had, because he was willing to grow. It is worth noting that the book has been written in a scholarly approach, suggesting that it was meant for scholarly work.
By the time of the books publication in 2010, Eric Foner was a professor of History at the Columbia University. He specializes in the American History, especially in the social, economic and political aspects of the country during the Civil War and Reconstruction Eras2.
Summary
The authors main argument is based on his review of Lincolns speeches and writings as well as his biography. By digging deep into Lincolns history, times, speeches and writings, Foner has attempted to examine the Presidents stance on slavery in the United States and his reaction to the issue that greatly affected the American society and economy.
From these sources, Foners general argument (thesis) is that Abraham Lincoln had a moderate approach to the issue of slavery and expressed the willingness to grow, which changed his attitudes with time. Foner further argues that Lincolns hope was to see the slave-holding states choose preservation of the States union rather than defending slavery.
Foner argues that Lincolns speeches and writings indicate that he initially supported the idea of colonizing the freed slaves back to Africa, but eventually abandoned the idea and supported the new idea of ending slavery and recognizing the black people as equal citizens of the US. In particular, Foner supports his thesis by showing how desperate Lincoln was to win the Civil War against the southern states by ending slavery.
Thus, he argues that the presidents ability to learn and take the right stance during the period not only ended the Civil War and Slavery, but also contributed to the preservation of the union of states.
In summary, Foner starts by tracing the evolution of President Abraham Lincolns ideas about the issue of slavery. The author starts with a biography of Lincoln. He analyzes the presidents early career in the Illinois legislature in the 1830s, his term in Congress during the 1840s and his career as the leader of the Republican Party in the 1850s.
In addition, a deep examination of Lincolns presidency during the Civil war has been developed. There is a clear focus on what Lincoln said in public and his writings. The author focuses on issues that Lincoln mentioned in his speeches. For instance, he examines Lincolns first experience with the problem of slavery when growing up in Kentucky.
When in Illinois, Lincoln was dealing with issues related to slavery because he was practicing law in the state. Then, Lincolns political career has received a lot of focus in the book. Foner shows how Lincolns stance on slavery changed significantly as his political career changed and his capacity faced serious problems associated with slavery, the civil war and the threat to the union.
Although he was a republican, he changed from his support of the idea of repatriating the freed slaves to the African continent and started supporting the idea of making the black people a part of the American population.
Critical analysis
As stated above, Foners main source of evidence is the writings and speeches that Abraham Lincoln made in his public career, from his days in the legal practice up to the time of his assassination. For instance, Foner states that his intention was to use these sources to examine the evolution of Abraham Lincolns ideas, stance and policies about slavery from his early life in Kentucky to his career in politics (Foner XVII).
Foner states that Lincolns ability to grow was based on his early encounter with issues relating to slavery as well as marriage to a daughter of a slave owner. For instance, Foner indicates that Lincoln, when serving as a lawyer representing slave owner, said, I am a natural antislavery individual. If the act of slavery is not wrong, then I do not believe there is any wrong action .
However, Foner also states that Lincoln used such words as nigger and dark in his writings and speeches. Foner also cites cases in which Lincoln expressed his support of the idea that the black people were physically different from the whites3.
However, Lincoln states that Lincolns entry into politics and party affairs of the Whig party changed his perceptions towards slavery and the black communities in the US. Foner states that Lincoln steered a middle course . For instance, Foner states that Lincoln thought that slavery was violating the basic principles of the American constitution. According to Foner, Lincoln remained devoted to the federal constitution of the US .
Noteworthy, Foners work is based on an in-depth analysis of the speeches and writings Lincoln made in public. In addition, he examines Lincolns upbringing, including the issues that faced him when growing up in Kentucky and during his stay in Illinois.
It also examines the social, economic and political issues that took place when Lincoln entered active party politics. An in-depth examination of the private life of Lincoln, including his marriage, has been done.
Nevertheless, Foners methodology is biased because he refuses to engage or refer to other historians work, especially those who focused on Lincoln and his presidency.
Therefore, it is possible to develop counterarguments, especially by claiming that Lincoln hardly grew, especially on the issue of slavery because he was only responding to the changing circumstances in the American politics rather than being part of the change.
Conclusion
Foners work proves that Lincoln experienced dramatic change in his life, especially in terms of his thought about slavery. This is demonstrated in the authors ability to trace Lincolns perception of slavery from his early days in Kentucky to his presidency. Thus, this book contributes to the existing knowledge about Lincolns role in ending the civil war and slavery and preservation of the union of states.
Bibliography
Foner, Eric, and Lisa McGirr. American history now. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011.
Foner, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton, 2010.
VanderMey, Randall Verne Meyer, John Van Rys, and Patrick Sebranek. The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2014.
Footnotes
1 Randall VanderMey, Verne Meyer, John Van Rys, and Patrick Sebranek, The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching (Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2014), 222.
2 Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), i-446.
3 Eric Foner and Lisa McGirr, American history now (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011), 18-64.
Written by the American historian Eric Foner, the book The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery provides a detailed biographical portrait of Abraham Lincoln and his stance on slavery. Foner states that his purpose of writing the book was to examine what was Abraham Lincolns thought about slavery1.
The author focused on Lincolns public life and the speeches he made in regards to slavery and his position during the Civil War. In particular, Foner avoids engaging or referring to the previous works by historians. Instead, he focuses on the speeches and writings by Lincoln.
In this book, Foner states that the book is important in history classes as well as creating knowledge for the Americans about their history, especially by appreciating the important role that Abraham Lincoln played during the abolishment of slavery and the civil war.
The Author states that the American people have a reason to thank God for Abraham Lincoln, despite the deficiencies that the president had, because he was willing to grow. It is worth noting that the book has been written in a scholarly approach, suggesting that it was meant for scholarly work.
By the time of the books publication in 2010, Eric Foner was a professor of History at the Columbia University. He specializes in the American History, especially in the social, economic and political aspects of the country during the Civil War and Reconstruction Eras2.
Summary
The authors main argument is based on his review of Lincolns speeches and writings as well as his biography. By digging deep into Lincolns history, times, speeches and writings, Foner has attempted to examine the Presidents stance on slavery in the United States and his reaction to the issue that greatly affected the American society and economy.
From these sources, Foners general argument (thesis) is that Abraham Lincoln had a moderate approach to the issue of slavery and expressed the willingness to grow, which changed his attitudes with time. Foner further argues that Lincolns hope was to see the slave-holding states choose preservation of the States union rather than defending slavery.
Foner argues that Lincolns speeches and writings indicate that he initially supported the idea of colonizing the freed slaves back to Africa, but eventually abandoned the idea and supported the new idea of ending slavery and recognizing the black people as equal citizens of the US. In particular, Foner supports his thesis by showing how desperate Lincoln was to win the Civil War against the southern states by ending slavery.
Thus, he argues that the presidents ability to learn and take the right stance during the period not only ended the Civil War and Slavery, but also contributed to the preservation of the union of states.
In summary, Foner starts by tracing the evolution of President Abraham Lincolns ideas about the issue of slavery. The author starts with a biography of Lincoln. He analyzes the presidents early career in the Illinois legislature in the 1830s, his term in Congress during the 1840s and his career as the leader of the Republican Party in the 1850s.
In addition, a deep examination of Lincolns presidency during the Civil war has been developed. There is a clear focus on what Lincoln said in public and his writings. The author focuses on issues that Lincoln mentioned in his speeches. For instance, he examines Lincolns first experience with the problem of slavery when growing up in Kentucky.
When in Illinois, Lincoln was dealing with issues related to slavery because he was practicing law in the state. Then, Lincolns political career has received a lot of focus in the book. Foner shows how Lincolns stance on slavery changed significantly as his political career changed and his capacity faced serious problems associated with slavery, the civil war and the threat to the union.
Although he was a republican, he changed from his support of the idea of repatriating the freed slaves to the African continent and started supporting the idea of making the black people a part of the American population.
Critical analysis
As stated above, Foners main source of evidence is the writings and speeches that Abraham Lincoln made in his public career, from his days in the legal practice up to the time of his assassination. For instance, Foner states that his intention was to use these sources to examine the evolution of Abraham Lincolns ideas, stance and policies about slavery from his early life in Kentucky to his career in politics (Foner XVII).
Foner states that Lincolns ability to grow was based on his early encounter with issues relating to slavery as well as marriage to a daughter of a slave owner. For instance, Foner indicates that Lincoln, when serving as a lawyer representing slave owner, said, I am a natural antislavery individual. If the act of slavery is not wrong, then I do not believe there is any wrong action .
However, Foner also states that Lincoln used such words as nigger and dark in his writings and speeches. Foner also cites cases in which Lincoln expressed his support of the idea that the black people were physically different from the whites3.
However, Lincoln states that Lincolns entry into politics and party affairs of the Whig party changed his perceptions towards slavery and the black communities in the US. Foner states that Lincoln steered a middle course . For instance, Foner states that Lincoln thought that slavery was violating the basic principles of the American constitution. According to Foner, Lincoln remained devoted to the federal constitution of the US .
Noteworthy, Foners work is based on an in-depth analysis of the speeches and writings Lincoln made in public. In addition, he examines Lincolns upbringing, including the issues that faced him when growing up in Kentucky and during his stay in Illinois.
It also examines the social, economic and political issues that took place when Lincoln entered active party politics. An in-depth examination of the private life of Lincoln, including his marriage, has been done.
Nevertheless, Foners methodology is biased because he refuses to engage or refer to other historians work, especially those who focused on Lincoln and his presidency.
Therefore, it is possible to develop counterarguments, especially by claiming that Lincoln hardly grew, especially on the issue of slavery because he was only responding to the changing circumstances in the American politics rather than being part of the change.
Conclusion
Foners work proves that Lincoln experienced dramatic change in his life, especially in terms of his thought about slavery. This is demonstrated in the authors ability to trace Lincolns perception of slavery from his early days in Kentucky to his presidency. Thus, this book contributes to the existing knowledge about Lincolns role in ending the civil war and slavery and preservation of the union of states.
Bibliography
Foner, Eric, and Lisa McGirr. American history now. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011.
Foner, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton, 2010.
VanderMey, Randall Verne Meyer, John Van Rys, and Patrick Sebranek. The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching. Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2014.
Footnotes
1 Randall VanderMey, Verne Meyer, John Van Rys, and Patrick Sebranek, The College Writer: A Guide to Thinking, Writing, and Researching (Mason, OH: Cengage Learning, 2014), 222.
2 Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), i-446.
3 Eric Foner and Lisa McGirr, American history now (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2011), 18-64.
Despite having been written in the 19th century, Harriet Jacobs Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl has attracted both positive and negative criticism due to its relevance in contemporary studies.
In this novel published in the early 1800s, Jacobs recorded her experiences on the horrors of being a female slave in America. While Jacob assumes an apologetic stance about the behavior of slaves, she still manages to highlight the plight and the perils of the persecuted race. In this novel, Jacob largely dwells on the issue of slavery, specifically the perspective of the female slave.
While Jacobs intentions were to tell the world what t is to be a female slave, she manages, to highlight other prevalent social ills that have bedeviled the human race through out history. Suffice to state that the perception of some of the issues highlighted through the novel has been affected by the passing of time. However, analyzing the novel in light of contemporary thinking shows the timelessness of the novel. Regardless of the varied perceptions there are a number of social ills that are intertwined with the theme of slavery.
It is impossible to refer to slavery without mentioning race relations. Slavery is perceived in relation to the master servant relations between the whites and the blacks. Furthermore, sexual perversion, parental negligence as well as general moral decadence cannot be discussed without considering the influence of slavery. Therefore, Jacobs uses slavery to illuminate the existence of societal ills such as moral decadence, racism, sexual harassment and parental negligence,
Harriets main intention of writing this book was to highlight the perils of slavery especially to women, yet through slavery, the negative effects parental irresponsibility are observed. Suffice to say that the term parental responsibility was conceived differently in the 19th century America than it is today. In the 19th century America, the perception of the term was heavily influenced by social relations, rather than paternity.
While the definition of parental negligence is taken in the 21st century perception, the evidence is taken from Jacobs 19th century occurrences. It is imperative to state that both the black slaves and the white masters, in todays perception of the meaning of the phrase, would be equally accused of negligence of parental duties. Jacobs appeals to the reader to understand the peculiar pains the black parents go through implying that the blacks are as powerless (Mian 10).
Yet despite Jacobs appeal such powerlessness would still not excuse them from being accused of parental negligence in the 21st century. As symbolized through Aunt Martha the fact that slave mothers allowed their children to be sold as slaves without much will to resist would be taken as gross violation of parental responsibilities in todays democratic world.
Yet the whites too are not innocent of parental negligence. In Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Jacobs shows how rampant the whites neglected and even mistreated children born with the slaves. In todays perception, such negligence is a social ill, yet it would not be as vivid as it is in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , if it is not taken Vis a Vis slavery.
Despite the fact that Jacobs recording of her recollection of slavery and the subsequent criticism of her works happens in different time in history, her works still manage to uncover gross moral decadence within the society. Again, the perception of moral decadence in this case is influenced by the 21st century thinking.
Within Jacobs work, there exist various instances of what in todays standards pass as gross violations of social codes of conduct. Yet the immorality within this society can only be uncovered through the evaluations of the effects of slavery. In modern day thinking a person is held responsible of promises made to other, regardless of the prevailing social relations. Yet, Mr. Sands, despite him being the friendliest of the slave owners, breaks promises made to his slaves.
While this may be excusable it is the way in which he sells his slaves including his children that would baffle many of the modern day moralists (Jacobs 145). In Jacob opinion, the slaves can be excused for stealing their masters corn, yet stealing by whatever standards is immoral. Yet within this argument, the concept of slave ownership cannot be lost on the readers. Back then, even through it was the norm to own slaves, no moral justification could be given for such acts of immorality.
The concept of slave ownership is founded on debased, insufferable treatment and objectification of the slaves. While the 19th century reader may not appreciate the immorality of exchanging people for money, the 21st first century readers sees this as the vilest form of human rights violations. Yet these forms of moral decay cannot be evaluated in isolation from slavery.
Despite the fact that sexual harassment has been treated as an immoral behavior, in Jacobs novel it can be isolated from other forms of immoral behavior since it is mostly implicit, rather than explicit. Yet sexual harassment cannot be seen perceived in isolation from slavery. Suffice to state that the victim of slave sexual torture is the women.
Jacobs perfectly attains the goal of portraying the horrors of sexual harassment by juxtaposing the treatment of male slaves against the female slaves. While the male slaves undergo physical torture such as burning freezing and flogging (Jacobs 109), the females slaves goes through a worse from of torture: sexual harassment. Female slaves are forced to have sexual encounters with their masters, who they hold in much despise (Jacobs 146).
McGlinn and McGlinn try to justify the slaves owner tendencies to force their female slaves if they would have healthier babies (11). Yet such acts, like slavery and slave ownership, are a violation of individual rights to self determination. Amidst the debate of the horrors of sexual violence, it cannot be lost on the reader that slavery also plays a role in exposing the subject if women sexuality.
Jacobs refuses to be Narcoms mistress and instead marries and has two children with Mr. Sands. Child argues that sexuality in this case portrays the reversal of power between the slave and the master (xxxvii). Thus in Jacobs novel Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , sexual violence cannot be isolated from slavery, since it is the tool with which the slave master use to propagate and impose themselves as superior to their slaves.
It is impossible to mention slavery without mentioning race relations. Jacobs perceive the issue of race in relation to the relationships between the blacks and white. In her analyzing, Jacobs presents the perception of both the white and the blacks about themselves and about each other. Despite her good attempt to show the differences in perception about inter racial relationships, she still manages to portray her own personal reflection on the issue of race, thus:
Truly, the colored race is the most cheerful and forgiving people on the face of the earth. That their masters sleep in safety is owing to their superabundance of heart; and yet they look upon their sufferings with less pity than they would bestow on those of a horse or a dog . (Jacobs 141).
While Child (xlv) argues that such sexual relations between the blacks and the whites are Jacobs attempts to bridge the racial gap, the above mentioned assertions by the author show that the blacks bore much of the suffering of this skewed relationship. Jacobss assertion thus contradicts Childs claims since Jacobs sees race relation in terms of the persecutor versus the persecuted (48).
Jacobs argues that the black slaves despite their best efforts to be humane, still get persecuted, their superabundance of heart notwithstanding. Mians (18) argument comes closer than Childs in explaining race relations in the novel and claims that motherhood is Jacobs most effective way of bridging the gap between the two races.
However, within Mians argument the influence of slavery in highlighting other prevalent social ills emerge since she claims that whether slaves or free, mothers are held in high esteem (18). In view of Mians, Jacobs and Childs argument it is thus clear that slavery illuminates racism as a social ill.
Jacobs novel Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl is personal to some extent while still manages to be objective. Primarily, the author intends to give her won personal experiences as a slave woman. Jacob attains this through the juxtaposition of the treatment of the male slave to the psychological torture that the slave woman goes through.
While the novel centre of attention is slavery, other important issues are illuminated. In this regard it can be argued that the issue of slavery is the platform on which Jacobs highlights other prevalent societal ills.
Though unintentional, Jacobs presentation of her experience as a slave also exposes to the reader to the morass that is the sexual relationship between the slaves and their masters. Even though Jacobs relationship with Mr. Sands tries to portray the lighter side of inter racial sexual relationship, there are other instances through which this kin of relationship can only be termed as pervasive. Moreover, parental negligence is also depicted, and manifested through slavery.
The whites neglect children born with their black slaves, sometimes to the extent of selling those children to other slave owners. This highlights the fact that the white took social status as more important than parental responsibility. All these are manifestations of slavery. While Jacobs justifies immoral behavior by the slaves such as stealing, such kind of immorality is portrayed and manifested in relation to slavery.
Amidst the debate on slavery, it cannot be lost on the reader that race is of paramount importance in relation to the notion of slavery. Yet in this novel, it is the grotesque side of the relationship between the blacks and the white that dominates. At best the whites treat the blacks as mere object much to the consternation of the backs. Therefore through slavery, the general moral decadence within this society is underscored.
Mcglinn Jeanne and James Mcglinn : A Teachers Guide To The Signet Classics Edition Of Harriet Jacobss Incidents In The Life Of A Slave Girl. 2009. Web.
Mian, Naseem. Perversion of Motherhood in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl n.d. Web.