Category: Slavery

Introduction

Without a doubt, one can clearly draw a parallel between the punitive system and the system of slavery as it existed in the United States prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. An examination of the history of the penal system as it existed in the State of Texas proves to be the best illustration of the comparisons between the penal system and the system of slavery. Especially since America’s late-twentieth century punitive turn, progressive historians have had to work with blinders on to keep the faith. “Progress,” of course, is a subjective, historically contingent concept. What constitutes betterment for one group may constitute backsliding for another.

For entry-level employees, for example, workplace conditions have clearly improved over the course of the twentieth century. Once required to fill dangerous dawn-to-dusk shifts on subsistence wages, Texas line guards now put in forty-hour weeks and take home sufficient pay to enter the precarious ranks of the lower-middle class.¹ But most advocates of penological advancement base their claims on the lives of prisoners rather than their keepers.²

They have proposed various yardsticks to measure prison improvements, from food quality and work load to whipping frequency and educational opportunities. Even according to Progressives’ own criteria, however, prison amelioration has been ambiguous.

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By some measures, day-to-day convict life has surely improved. Prisoners today endure less arduous farm labor and fewer tune-ups or floggings. They are less likely to be shot down in a cane field or spend the night gasping for air in an over-crowded dark cell. They are less likely to starve or drop dead from heatstroke. By other progressive benchmarks, however, Texas’s prisons have deteriorated. During successive reform movements, critics railed against prison profiteering, inhumane conditions, and institutionalized racism. But all of these facets of prison life outlasted their opponents, and they remain alive and well in Texas’s massive punishment complex.

During the lease era, dissidents’ principal complaint was that profit making corrupted every effort at rehabilitation. ‘The great object of reform will be forgotten whenever the chief object is to make money out of men’s bones and muscles,” admonished one legislator. Such critics rejoiced with the abolition of convict leasing in 1910, having achieved a seemingly decisive victory. During the phenomenal prison buildup of the 1980s, however, for-profit punishment rose from the grave. By 1994, thirty private prisons had sprung up in the state, warehousing more Texas prisoners than lessees ever had and importing rented convicts from as far away as Hawaii.

This time around, the contracts work differently—the state pays private prison operators rather than vice versa—but the business incentives are similar. Private prison corporations, most of them southern companies like Texas’s Correll Corrections, make money by maximizing their prisoner head counts and minimizing expenses. They reward stockholders by spending less on guard wages and training and by providing convicts cheaper food, managed health care, and less expensive programming.³

It remains to be seen whether this re-privatization will lead to depravities on the scale of convict leasing, but preliminary signs are not encouraging. Riots and multiple killings have already tarnished the carefully tended image of the nation’s largest punishment conglomerate, Nashville’s Corrections Corporation of America. In Texas, corruption scandals eerily reminiscent of the lease era have erupted.

In 1994, for example, TDCJ Director Andy Collins was indicted for conspiring to feed inmates watered-down meat substitute so he could line his pockets with the cost savings.⁴ All in all, re-privatization has unfolded as in a leasing opponent’s perverse nightmare. Nearly a century after the abolition of the contract system, well-connected entrepreneurs are once again growing rich off the punishment business, while convicts have regained their dubious status as tradable commodities.

Nor can advocates of progressive prison history take solace in the advancement of reformatory programs. In 1989, Texas stripped the moniker “corrections” from its prisons, thus officially abandoning rehabilitation as a principal rationale of imprisonment for the first time since statehood.⁵ The name change signified the triumph of a punitive revolution. Since the early 1970s, federal court intervention notwithstanding, state politicians, prosecutors, and jurists have repeatedly extended prison sentences, reduced paroles to a trickle, created new classes of felonies, eliminated special protections for juvenile defendants, intensified prosecutions while limiting appeals, and expedited the death penalty.⁶

Many would expect institutionalized racism to have diminished since the heyday of the state slavery system. But despite the victories of the civil rights movement, racial disparities have widened since the 1920s. Today’s post-Jim Crow Texas keeps one in three young African American men under criminal justice supervision, a greater proportion than ever endured the tyrannies of leasing. Although the state’s black population has declined to only 12 percent of the total, African Americans make up 44 percent of the prison and jail population, and they are seven times more likely to end up behind bars than their white counterparts.⁷

As a consequence, the fields surrounding Texas’s twenty-first century prison farms look much like their nineteenth-century predecessors. Every morning, gangs of convicts, made up mostly of blacks or Latinos, trudge out to the cotton fields. Watching over them is an armed overseer on horseback, who like generations of squad bosses before him, is almost invariably white.

Scale, of course, is the most dramatic marker of historical change. Between the 1880s and 1960s, reformers promised that penology would reduce recidivism and decrease prison populations, but nothing of the sort occurred. After climbing steadily in the post-WWE years, Texas’s convict population suddenly doubled in the 1970s, then doubled again by 1993, and then again by 1997. At the peak of the buildup in 1995, Texas was opening a new prison nearly once a week. By 2000, the inmate count had topped 150,000, meaning that on any given day, the TDCJ manages more inmates than were ever put to work in forty years of convict leasing.⁸

Federal court orders were to have improved confinement conditions for this swelling convict mass and indeed, Texas’s tanks and cellblocks have become slightly less crowded. But control units have proliferated. Texas has led a national trend toward total incapacitation. Today, nearly one in four ad-seg prisoners can be found in Texas, some 7,000 out of roughly 28,000 nationwide. At Texas supermaxes like Smith, Terrell, and McConnell, methodically isolated inmates endure conditions that psychologist Craig Haney calls “as bad or worse as any I’ve ever seen.” In 1999, Judge Justice reviewed the progress of Texas’s highest security units and pronounced them “virtual incubators of psychoses.”⁹

Conclusion

From the vantage point of the early twenty-first century, then, most commentators’ claims to historical progress teeter like a house of cards. A sober-minded assessment renders only equivocal conclusions: Texas’s present-day prisons are more bureaucratic, secure, and less acutely abusive than their predecessors. But today’s lawbreakers are far more likely to land in prison to begin with, more likely to count off months or years in high-tech isolation cages, and more likely to carry such an extended sentence that they face only old age and death behind bars. Despite the historical progress, the remnants of a slavery society still remain evident.

Bibliography

Archive and History Department of the Texas State Library. Governors’ Messages, Coke to Ross, 1874-1891. Austin: A. C. Baldwin and Sons, 1916.

Crouch, Ben M. and James W. Marquart. An Appeal to Justice: Litigated Reform of Texas Prisons. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.

Dilulio, John J. Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management. New York: Free Press, 1987.

Hallinan, Joseph T. Going Up the River: Travels in a Prison Nation. New York: Random House, 2001.

Schiraldi, Vincent and Jason Ziedenberg. Texas Tough: An Analysis of Incarceration and Crime Trends in the Lone Star State. Washington: Justice Policy Institute, 2000.

Shapiro, Bruce. “Prison Politics: Under Gov. George W. Bush, Texas Has the Largest—And Fastest Growing—Incarcerated Population in America”. Web.

Texas State Legislature. House Study Group. “Overcrowding in Texas Prisons, ” Special Legislative Report No. 43. Austin, 1979.

Footnotes

1. Currently Texas prison employees are better compensated than their forebears, but they remain egregiously underpaid compared to their unionized counterparts in other states. See Hallinan, Going Up the River.
2. Most prison studies, including this one, have devoted only secondary attention to the lives, subcultures, and working conditions of guards. In the Texas literature, however, there are numerous exceptions. See Crouch, “A Profile of the Typical Correctional Officer;” Crouch and Marquart, An Appeal to Justice; Dilulio, Governing Prisons.
3. Hallinan, Going Up the River, 175, 145.
4. On the VitaPro scandal, see Bruce Shapiro, “Prison Politics: Under Gov. George W. Bush, Texas Has the Largest—And Fastest Growing—Incarcerated Population in America,” Salon, 29 August 2000.
5. In the 1990s, the TDCJ maintained ‘reintegration’ as an objective of punishment but only as a secondary concern. In 1999, Texas Board of Criminal Justice chair Allan Polunsky pledged himself to “promote positive change in behavior and reintegrate offenders into society,” but he insisted that his “chief goal” was to “provide public safety” through incarceration. TDCJ, Annual Report (1999). In the nineteenth century, by contrast, prison officials routinely placed a higher premium on convict reformation. See, for example, Richard Coke, Address to the Legislature, 12 January 1875, reprinted in Governors’ Messages, Coke to Ross, 1874-1891, 83-87.
6. For a sampling of anti-crime measures enacted by the Legislature, see Texas, House Study Group, “Overcrowding in Texas Prisons,” (1979).
7. According to my calculations, the per capita imprisonment rate for blacks was 8.2 times higher than that for whites in 1995. This exceeded the disparities I calculated for any year before 1919. For a detailed analysis of contemporary figures, see Schiraldi and Ziedenberg, “Texas Tough: An Analysis of Incarceration and Crime Trends in the Lone Star State”.
8. Texas’s aggregate prison population, as well as its per capita imprisonment rate, grew faster than any other state in the 1990s. See also Hallinan, Going Up the River, 85; Schiraldi and Ziedenberg, “Texas Tough: An Analysis of Incarceration and Crime Trends in the Lone Star State”.
9. Hallinan, Going Up the River, 5-6. Justice found that Texas control units “deprive inmates of the minimal necessities of civilized life” and are therefore unconstitutional.

Today promises to be a new day if the new law proposed by congress proves to be any good. It will be a new dawn for me, my family, my clan, indeed, my entire race. For me, the only country that I have ever known and called home has been the United States, but the fact that my skin color is different from that of my master compounded with the reality that I am a slave suggest to me that this has not always been my home.

According to the tales that my grandmother constantly barrages us with as we sit late into the night by the fireplace, our home is a place called Africa, a land thousands of miles across the great ocean on the east. Our forefathers were the victims of the exploits of one John Hawkins, the British sea merchant and voyager whose act of acquiring slaves off the Guinea Coast and selling them off to the Spaniards formally introduced the English to slave trade, a phenomena which invariably led to an influx of slaves to the new world (Conrad 11).

In the earlier days of colonial America, the need for black slaves was minimal since the native Indians and the settlers provided all the labor that was required by the colonists. However, with time the natives succumbed to plagues such as smallpox which were brought to their land by the new arrivals.

The fact that a Negro was more resistant to these ailments and could do the work of four or five natives greatly appealed to the new world which had a deficit of human labor. And that has been the fate of my family through three generations. We have toiled in the fields of Master Smith who acquired our great grandparents for a pitiful sum of money from the slave ships. Our task has been to ensure that his vast cotton fields are well tended and to attend to the needs of his household.

Through the years, I have witnessed my relatives die off from diseases which are mostly as a consequent of the overworking and the poor living conditions that we are subjected to. Our days begin at five o’clock in the morning and we’re ill dressed for the biting cold which greets us. In the summer, we have to work through the scorching sun under the pitiless eyes of the slave drivers.

However, all our misery and hardship promises to be a thing of the past. Today is the 8^th of April 1864 and the news around town is that a bill has been passed by congress under President Abraham Lincoln which formally abolishes slavery. The new amendment declares that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist within the United States and congress shall have power to enforce this law through its legislative arm (Holcombe 121). As such, I can consider myself a free man as from today.

No longer shall the traditionally established notion of the inferiority of the Negro which has up to this point been used to justify slavery and its inherent cruelties be used as a basis to enslave me.

In anticipation of the opposition that is no doubt bound to arise following our freedom, the Union army has been mandated to offer protection to us ex-slaves from our masters and anti-slavery abolishment activists who will go to great lengths to undermine this law (Rochester).

I reckon the days ahead are going to be hard as we try to make a living as free people with no money and little support from our white neighbors. However, I am optimistic that someday we will prosper and shall coexist peacefully with our former masters as brothers in harmony. In that time, our history as slaves shall be as a tiny drop in the ocean of memories, all but entirely forgotten.

Works Cited

Conrad, Cecilia. African Americans in the U.S. economy. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Print.

Holcombe, G. Randall. From liberty to democracy: the transformation of American government. University of Michigan Press, 2002. Print.

Rochester. Life After The 13th Amendment. 2006. Web.

America is a land with a rich history which has taken scholars a substantial amount of time in their bid to study it. This paper is about the slavery and the struggles that the slaves underwent and the revolution that took place in a bid to have the slaves freed and pronounced as equal American citizens. This is a very interesting topic that has been written about and that has been very well received as well as criticized.

It is said that it may be possible to prove that African travelers may have landed in America before the Europeans did and in a bid to support this, there are some stone carvings of a Mexican era called Olmec that have facial features of Africans. Christopher Columbus was termed as the first man to discover America. In his expedition, he had a black navigator named Pedro Nino. When Christopher Columbus arrived in Hispaniola he was accompanied by Africans^[1].

This is now currently called Spain. When they left Hispaniola, they were termed as free people and that way they were free by the time they were getting into the Spanish American colonies. Another man called Vasco Balboa travelled to the Pacific Ocean and with him were about thirty Africans. When all this was happening the Europeans had not yet set foot in America.

Slavery was not a new thing and it did not start in America; it was only continued there when the settlers started streaming in. Hernan Cortez started a revolution for the Aztec Empire; black Spanish (Conquistadors) people were trying to resist him in a bid to set up their own kingdom^[2].

The Africans who had been brought in from Africa were used as casual laborers in Mexico, Puerto Rico and Cuba. After Hernan defeated the uprising, they were awarded land by the Spanish King and they started farming.

They were able to produce wheat in bulk. It is also in record that a run-away Moroccan born Muslim slave called Esteban and his friends had tried escaping from the slavery. They boarded a small boat in a bid to free themselves but many died in the sea and only a couple made it as they were washed ashore to what is today referred to as Texas.

This Moroccan is the first known person of African accent to ever set foot in today’s Western part of the United States. Esteban was however included in an expedition that was commandeered by a Mexican known as Marcos Niza. Esteban was killed in this expedition in the town of Hawikuh and this today is known as the boarder of Arizona and New Mexico.

Africans did not stop their quest to discover more land though this was not the primary aim of the expeditions. They went on to accompany Francisco Vasquez from Mexico to the current Kansas. Some Africans chose to settle there. Now the Spanish Kingdom had come to a consensus with the Indians after intense fighting between the Spaniards and the Indians.

Through this, Indian slavery was abolished in their new colonies^[3]. The Africans who had been freed were however restricted from wearing gold, pearls or silk unless they were married to a Spaniard man and they were not also of elite status unless married to a Spaniard.

Africans are regarded as some of the first founders of a number of towns in New Mexico, Texas, Santa Fe, and California just to mention a few. There was also a race that was referred to as mulattoes. These were a combination of European and African ethnicity. They were classified as Africans; they were also forcefully shipped to Latin America and forced to labor in farms and mines.

There was a group of fugitive slaves who elected Gaspar Yanga as their spokesman and they were successful in signing a memorandum of agreement with the Spanish king. Through this they were granted their freedom and their own town too.

This however went on for a period of over two hundred years and the British came in and colonized America, and this led to the streaming in of Europeans in America^[4]. Blacks were recognized as free settlers and they were also indicted in the State House of Representatives.

The changes have been phenomenon and black women were first allowed to vote in Wyoming; and elsewhere children of black accent were allowed to attend school though the segregation was still at its peak.

The African American community took to the streets and they were in demonstration where they were demanding the right to vote as they quoted the constitution^[5]. Great strides were made in their quest and they even had the first black officer to commandeer the Buffalo Soldiers.

It was a great struggle for the African American society. Interestingly, they were making progress no matter how limited it was. They had resolved to keeping to themselves as they were not allowed to attend to white churches or stores.

Bibliography

Davies Catherine, Brewster Claire and Owen Hilary. South American independence: gender, politics, text. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2006.

Eggleston, Edward. A first book in American history: with special reference to the lives and deeds of great Americans. California: American Book Company, 1899.

Olson, James Stuart and Beal, Heather Olson. The ethnic dimension in American history, fourth edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Purvis, Thomas L. A dictionary of American history. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997.

Footnotes

1. Stuart, Olson James and Beal, Heather Olson. The ethnic dimension in American history, fourth edition. (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 113
2. Thomas, Purvis L. A dictionary of American history. (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1997), 54.
3. Edward, Eggleston. A first book in American history. (California: American Book Company, 1899), 18.
4. Edward, Eggleston. A first book in American history. (California: American Book Company, 1899), 28.
5. Catherine, Davies, Brewster Claire and Owen Hilary. South American independence: gender, politics, text. (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2006), 241.

Introduction

Slavery has for a very long time attracted the attention of many history scholars. “Morgan Kenneth, in his book Slavery and the British Empire gives a deep in site of how the British came to embrace slavery in their territory” (Morgan 2). It specifically deals with slavery within the British context.

The book has a consistent narration of slavery, right from the period it was institutionalized in Britain until it was finally eradicated. By reading this book, one gets to internalize the slavery experiences from various perspectives. The book is primarily based on credible evidence derived from genuine sources.

In this regard, the author consulted slavery manuscripts and other secondary sources. The author’s theses are concentrated with minor digressions. Nonetheless, his arguments are rational and they are not so abbreviated.

His arguments are properly coordinated and underpinned with credible statistics, which are mainly stated in words. The book gravitates on slavery that was conducted within British and Atlantic region. In my view, this approach of analyzing slavery is better because it gives an elaborate explanation of slavery in a particular territory.

This is a prime strength of this book because several authors simply recapitulate slavery occurrences, without narrowing down to a specific context of it practice. However, slavery that was extended to other British territories receives less attention in this book.

“The book combines economic, social, political, cultural, and demographic history, with a particular focus on the Atlantic world and the plantations of North America and the West Indies from the mid-seventeenth century onwards” (Morgan 234). Kenneth Morgan examines how slaves were spread in the British Empire. He also mentions how this phenomenon changed overtime. Apart from highlighting the beginning and subsequent entrenchment of slavery in numerous territories, Kenneth Morgan goes further to explain why slavery thrived for long.

Slavery

Slavery reached and became instituted in the Trans Atlantic region earlier than in England. The British Empire adopted slavery in 17^th century, when it occupied America. The ancient slavery was different from the one that was later adopted after European occupation of America.

The latter version of slavery was based on racism than the former. For instance, black slaves were introduced in America due to insufficient laborers in the plantations. In America, plantation farming was particularly boosted by slaves. “Before the civil war, English colonies of Britain were scattered along the eastern seaboard North, America and throughout the Caribbean” (Morgan 7).

The extra colonies of Britain that had slaves were located around the Indian Ocean. In the second phase of the 17^th century, Britain used its territories as potential markets. Britain also derived some raw materials from the territories that were under its control. The transatlantic trade was also thrived during this period. The British slave trade was intensified in the 18tn century.

Merchants and Planters

Many business individuals got engaged in selling slaves because it had lucrative returns. In this case, the pricing of slaves was determined by the supply and demand for slaves. In Bristol slave trade introduced new prospects for commercial development. For example, industries in Bristol provided products that were substituted with slaves.

North America also relied on European supplies. Bristol merchants campaigned for the abolition of monopoly control. “This is because they wanted to be part of the slave trade” (Morgan 36). In America, Interstate slave trade had a positive impact on the economy of seaboard states that had remained poor for long. As the demand for cotton increased, many plantation owners acquired more slaves that they used in producing more cotton.

The Triangular Trade

Trans Atlantic trade is still recognized as one of the main trading activities that took place from the beginning of the sixteenth century all through to the eighteenth century. This business was unique in the sense that it involved the selling of human beings as one of the prime commodities from Africa.

This trade is also commonly termed as triangular trade. This is because it involved three continents. In this case, Africa, America and Europe exchanged goods from one region to another. The beginning of this trade goes back to the fifteenth century. The advancement in marine technology was significant during this time, because it facilitated the travelling of Europeans. Hence, they finally reached Africa.

Slave Life

The manner in which slave masters handled their subjects was not consistent. Living conditions of slaves were influenced by places where they worked. For example, those who operated in farms were overworked as compared to those who worked in homes. Slaves did not have the chance to have families because this could distract their attention.

They were also not allowed to hold religious meetings because this could make them conspire to escape. They were restricted to their masters’ residence. Slave codes existed in various states, and they were used for guiding how slaves interacted with their masters.

Slave Rebellion and Emancipation

Slaves used various tactics to emancipate themselves from forced labor and inhuman treatments that they faced in the hands of their European masters. “The American Civil was crucial to the life of slaves in the sense that it led to the abolition of slavery” (Morgan 156).

The banning of slavery was also championed by various scholars who felt that it was not economical to use slaves in farms and factories. Secondly, many humanitarians felt that slavery was extremely brutal. “President Lincoln took a decisive step towards eliminating slavery by mentioning his emancipation proclamation to members of his cabinet in 1862” (Morgan 166).

Conclusion

“Kenneth Morgan has given shape and coherence to material that has expanded at an extraordinary rate over the past twenty years, and yet he never trivializes in the process of writing a compact study” (Morgan 13). Slavery had profound effects. This is why it has formed part of the historiography of many territories that were affected by it.

Hence, the subject of slavery has been approached differently by various scholars. Slavery faded off gradually especially towards the end of the 19^th century. “Therefore this is a book which manages to be both a survey of the wider scholarly field, and an original argument in itself” (Morgan 345).

Work Cited

Morgan, Kenneth. Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Introduction

Slavery was a system that was adopted throughout America. The system was based on race whereby the whites were considered the superior race. The slaves were to serve their masters who were the whites. The slaves were owned and traded by their owners at will. The slaves, however, were strongly opposed to this system.

The slaves managed to resist the system and adopted their own way of living despite the harsh conditions that they were being put through by their tormentors. This paper discusses the challenges that the slaves encountered as well as their resistance and the relativity of slavery to gender.

How did the slaves resist their condition and create their own way of life

The slaves felt the need to live a good and comfortable life. Despite their lack of freedom and the numerous restrictions that were forced upon them, the slaves resisted their condition and managed to create their own way of life. The slaves still managed to start families despite the harsh conditions.

The slaves would marry, set up homes and eventually get children. This, however, was a big challenge and resulted in the children being regarded as the property of their owners. The family units even extended to the extended family. The marriages between the couples were done by their own people who presided over the ceremony in their cultural way (Foner 216).

Religion was still a very significant aspect in their lives. The slaves did not leave behind their religious beliefs. They still believed in the existence of an almighty spirit who they prayed to. In most cases, baptisms were done in secret. This baptism was presided over by themselves. An appointed leader was to preside over the ceremony. The slaves would go to the river to be baptized. They also taught their children about faith at an early age making them believe in the almighty (Foner 220).

Some slaves learnt how to read. This was very uncommon in the period as the slaves were not allowed or even put in an environment where they could learn to read or write. This was mainly through their individual efforts. They learnt to read slowly through the constant learning and recalling of words. The process took time, but their resilience enabled them to learn (Foner 214).

Slaves resistance strategies against slavery

Slavery was hard for most slaves. The constant mistreatment and denial of rights by the masters who were the whites became too much for the slaves. The slaves were put in situations where their lives were in danger as they were being threatened with death or physical harm.

The most common method used by the slaves in an effort to resist slavery was to escape. The slaves opted for this option so as to liberate themselves from the harsh conditions they were under. They escaped to states where the laws against slavery were minimal. In situations where the laws were reformed advocating for increased slavery, they would move to the nearby countries such as Canada where there was no slavery (Jacobs 90).

Some slaves used the generosity of their masters to their advantage. They managed to convince their masters to free them from captivity. This was through striking a deal with their masters to liberate them so that they may also get the chance to pursue their dreams and live a normal life.

Some slaves felt that the only form of resistance that was to be effective was the use of violence. The slaves armed themselves with all sorts of weapons and used them to attack their masters and other whites. They thought that the whites were the enemies and that the use of force would sway other whites from enslaving them (Jacobs 129).

The use of the political avenue through rallies and speeches was also effective. The whites held rallies where they made speeches campaigning against slavery and advocating for equality. This was effective in getting the support of the people, as the light was shed on the practice of slavery. The speakers insisted on equality because they believed that everyone should be alike, humanity and how slavery was not ethical.

Slaves felt that God did not intend for man to live like that. The constant push for the reform of the bills that supported slavery was also constantly dwelt upon so as to encourage the reformation of the bills. This was to encourage the adoption of bills that campaigned for equality. Some of these bills included the bill that did not grant blacks the right to vote and the slavery bill. These were some of the most effective strategies used by the slaves (Foner 221).

Slavery and gender

The hardships that the slaves experienced were different in relation to gender. Males and women faced different hardships. The hardships that were faced by the men were too much manual labor and abuse by the whites. The men were overworked in the plantations. They toiled and sweated for the whole day with just the relief of minimal minutes of rest.

The women, on the other hand, faced different problems. They were sexually harassed by the whites who pressured them to grant them sexual favors. The slaves would also be raped and they would lose their virginity by force at a very young age. Their mistresses were constantly mistreating the female slaves, and their children were sold at an early age (Jacobs 80).

The men, in response to this hardship, would resort to violence to counter the resistance. They would exert physical force on the whites so as to avenge what had been done to them. The women, on the other hand, resorted to the most common resistance strategy that was used by both slave genders which was escaping from the masters.

Conclusion

The slaves felt that, despite the fact that they were forced into a difficult situation it did not mean that they could not live their lives. Every human being wants to have a comfortable life. They analyzed the situation and got ways of incorporating a worthy lifestyle into their condition of slavery.

The conditions that they adapted in their lives were the bringing up of families, the belief in an almighty being which was religion and education. They did not give in to the efforts of the British in trying to erode their culture. They still maintained aspects that gave them a sense of belonging and identity.

The slaves resisted slavery at all costs. These made them constantly escape from the whites. This was a common thing in the whole country as many slaves all across the country were opposed to the enslaving. In some extreme circumstances, some slaves opted for the use of force as a tool of freedom from slavery. The new avenue that was more peaceful and most effective was the use of politics to aid in the eradication of slavery.

Slavery was different between genders. Both sexes experienced different hardships due to slavery. They opted for different resistance strategies that were convenient for them. The slaves managed to bend the strict slavery system so as to suit them, and whenever they felt the system was not on their side they decided to oppose it so as to push for their goals. The slaves eventually made the entire system become less hard for them by making it flexible.

Works Cited

Foner, Eric. Voices of Freedom. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010. Print.

Jacobs, Harriet. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Mineola, NY: Dover publications, 2001. Print.

Slavery refers to a situation whereby individuals are considered to be belongings and are merchandised. In the American history, slaves were used as workforce by the colonizers in their tobacco, cotton and other agricultural activities. The slaves were also used in development of economic actions such as construction of roads, railways, houses and fighting towers.

Due to the hardships and poor working conditions, the slaves had to find ways and means of survival. They created their own culture and the lifestyles. To start with, they built a very strong societal bound (Fletcher 2004). They started living as a community. They exchanged matrimony vows in an official manner and had kids.

Moreover, the slaves took up family practices. For example, they started using words such as uncle, sister etcetera to refer to people they lived with though not linked by blood. This kind of relationship helped them tighten there kinship ties and have a real sense of understanding amongst them.

Secondly, the slaves had another culture of worshiping. They put up religious conviction that seemed dissimilar to other types of Christianity that the colonizers wanted them to follow. They adopted their own modes of increasing their faith in prayers that mostly were believed to bring goodness in their misery life. The prayers helped them to see the right far end the tunnel in their doomed and darkness environment.

The slaves used the cold war to resist against their masters. For example, they used to act as if they were unwell at any time they had an opportunity so that do not work. They also worked very at a snail’s pace whenever got a chance especially when not supervised.

Despite of the colonizers harshness and harassment of the innocent creatures, the slaves tried to resist their rule in various ways. For instance, the slaves used to destroy their masters by poisoning them especially in food. They also would find an excuse of not working by damaging the operational instruments thus affecting their proper functioning.

The slaves cheated their masters by requesting for a moment to excrete their messed stomach hence run away (Barry 2008). They tricked their masters in other ways such as pretended to be unwell to run away from work. For example, the expectant mothers and girls took advantage of their conditions to stay absent from work.

The slaves acted as if they could not comprehend with the orders from their masters and loitered in work as a way of resisting. Moreover, the slaves resisted the extreme hardship and harassment from their masters by dancing and singing songs full of irony and criticism as a way of scorning them. They also used to disappear without their master’s knowledge and settle in forest and mountains where they tried to kill their masters in addition to committing infanticide and suicide.

As far as colonization was concerned, gender sensitivity was put into consideration. Women and men were treated differently. There were a lot of sexual category detailed divergences in slavery. The women did not trek to toil with men in muscular job categories especially those below the deck, instead they were accepted to travel a one forth of the deck in absence of shackles.

This made the women readily available for satisfying the sexual urge of the men carrying out their chore duties in the sea. The sailors badly treated the women and in fact less or no at all efforts were made to prevent them from the sexual harassment.

Women were taken to be items or rather goods and services in business language in sense that, the demand for them was different due to tastes and preferences. For instance, the women who could bear children had the highest demand. They were believed to give birth to a lot of children exclusive of difficulties (Fletcher 2004).

The merchants scrutinized the women closed to make sure that they get the right choice for themselves. The woman who could bear a child following each two years was well thought-out to be extra cost-effective than the most excellent male functioning on the ranch. This made her to have a high price than any other slave in the vicinity.

In real occurrence of the slavery world, men were taken to be more costly than women. Most of the women were used for labor and for sexual purposes for the male slaves. Women were used to do the household cores such as; cooking, seamstresses and cleaning. Men and women sometimes shared some obligations like home servants and becoming gardeners. The expectant women were well taken care of hence were not taken as slaves.

Men were kept beneath the deck. They had to be kept far from masters because men had more strength hence the colonizers feared them (Barry 2008). Men were valued in the market situation by their capacity to carry out duties in the farm rather than their fertility as it was the the case to women.

The men examination was carried out in the plantations where the most excellent job performer was considered to be most expensive. Men duties were different from women duties but in some cases they worked together for more production to be attained.

In conclusion, slavery remained a history to tell in America. The slaves improved to a great extent the economy of America by increasing the per capita income due to high production level. Some slaves remained in America, even after independence currently known as black Americans.

Works Cited

Barry, Tony. Forced Labor and Human Trafficking, Washington, DC: University Press, 2008. Print.

Fletcher, Stover. Hidden Slaves and Forced Labor in the United States, University of California, Berkeley: Free the Slaves and Human Rights Center, 2004. Print.

Introduction

Slavery is a term used to refer to an affiliation of supremacy and obedience whereby one person possesses another and can extort from the possessed person labor or any other services. Slaves can be people detained against their will, bought or born into this dehumanizing way of life, they are denied the right to leave or to reject work, or even ask for reimbursement.

Slavery in Brazil created the country’s societal arrangement and cultural background. All through the regal period, and for a period of more than six decades after the 1822 independence, slavery was one of the strongholds of the Brazil economy, in particular in the mining and sugar cane production sectors^[1]

Slave Trade in Brazil

In the years after the 1500s Portuguese colonies situated in Brazil began to import African saves in large numbers. This was easy for them as the Portuguese were in control of several slave trade centres in the coast of West Africa where slaves were sold.

African slaves became the preferred choice to work in big sugar cane plantations and mines as they were resilient to tropical diseases and heat and the fact that they were reluctant to run away from their masters was a good thing for the Portuguese as they made more money this way. Soon after the 1600’s African slaves were found to be engaged in all economic sectors of Brazil. This is because they were good workers who worked hard for their masters; rarely got sick and rarely run off into the jungle.

Slave trade was abolished in May 1888 when Princess Isabel signed the; Lei Aurea, the ‘Golden Law’ that made slave trade illegal therefore legally putting an end to slavery in Brazil. The original script and the pen used to sign this document are preserved in the Brazilian national museum as it part of the history of Brazil. This single document freed the slaves and if it was not signed when it was, maybe slavery would have continued for much longer.

Due to the ending of the slave trade in 1888 in Brazil, the African culture is still very pronounced especially in the Bahia and the Northeast. The African slaves still practiced and practice their native cultures, food, music, dance and customs all which are viewed in the pulsating cultural assortment that is now independent Brazil^[2].

Abolition of slavery in Brazil

Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slave trade as slavery. The plight of slaves was noted down in literature that spoke out against slavery and spoke for the slaves themselves. Literature in Brazil included poems that spoke out against the suffering of slaves at the hands of their slave masters who in most cases were than not brutal. Abolitionist literature in Brazil was not limited and each and every person was allowed to freely express themselves and their feelings how they saw fit.

After independence in Brazil, antislavery appeals were found in local dailies and periodicals majority of these appeals however called for a stop to the slave trade and not slavery itself which is ironic. “In 1850, the travel of human slaves to Brazil was stopped due to the consequence of British political and naval pressure”^[3].

Shortly after the stop of slave trade, literature and poetry that depicted free blacks and slaves positively began to make its way into the market, how ever these works did not openly criticize slavery on its own.

Essays, poems, drama and novels began aggressively attacking slavery as a corrupting authority on white slave holders and as a hindrance on economic progress of the country as a whole. This catalyzed the process of abolishing slave trade and slavery itself and the slaves were set free to find and build their own lives away from the slave lives^[4].

It took some years however before the literature works took centre stage in fighting against slavery and positively stating that the slaves should be set free. Arguments based on the sufferings of the slaves were the basis of majority of the literature works they talked about how much the slaves suffered under their masters and this brought about awareness concerning slavery.

Some of the most famous abolitionist in Brazil include: Antonio Frederico de Castro Alves who was termed as the Conscience of Brazil due to his works that openly denounced slavery Os EScravos which contain poems like “Navio Negreiro: tragedia nomar”, “ O Bandido Negro” and “ Vozes d’Africa” published in 1883.

Other poets; Silvio Romero and Valentim Magalhaes also fanned the flames of abolitionism with depictions of extreme brutality and inhumanity of slavery. On top of poems, novels were written that were against slavery and slave trade for example; Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin published in 1852. This novel showed how innocent slaves suffered at the hands of their masters and their overseers.

Joaquim Manuel de Macedo’s As Vitimas Algozes written in 1869 and Bernardo Guimaraes’s A Escrava Isaura written in 1875. O Abolicionismo by Joaquim Nabuco a statesman written in 1883 is widely noted and accepted as an abolitionist work for its common and political appeal. This book disproved of the underlying principle of pro-slavery forces used in opposition for the continuation of Brazilian slavery.

It is important to note that all the above mentioned works of literature were written before 1888 when the golden rule was signed. This is to show that these literature works played a major part in pushing for the abolishing of slave trade and slavery in Brazil. They played a major role in abolishing slave trade and slavery in Brazil as they identified the pleas and cries of the slaves at the hand of their masters and spoke out these injustices for all people to know^[5].

Ways in which Abolitionism was anti slavery and anti slave in Brazil

There were quite a number of ways in which abolitionism was against anti slavery and anti slave in Brazil. This paper will discuss the moral, political, societal motivation behind the abolitionist movement not also forgetting the policies and plans employed in the abolitionist movement. These different ways in which abolitionism is looked upon as being both anti slavery and anti slave will help us understand not only the plight of the slaves but also why other people fought passionately for freedom of slaves and the abolition of slave trade.

Looking at the moral point of view, citizens of Brazil had a number of reasons to be part of the abolitionist movement. Religion was the first moral perspective to join the abolitionist movement, Christians who were at the forefront of this movement believed that it was the duty of the church to correct wrongs made by the society.

Christians viewed slavery as wrong and believed that each person was equal in the eyes of God, so it should also be in the eyes of fellow mankind. Other secular movements joined the movement of abolitionist as they felt slavery was going against the basic foundations of the government as it brought about unfair torment that clearly spelled out inequality among human beings^[6].

The economic and political view of slavery brought about questions of inequality as some politicians saw slavery as being unconstitutional. One of the goals of constitution was to bring equality to all man and slavery was a hindrance to this therefore, the politicians also joined in the abolitionist movement.

Majority of the people were passionate about the cause of ending slavery that they formed a political party that specifically fought for the rights and freedoms of slaves. The fact that the constitution brought forth the equality of all mankind and that citizen also fought for the freedom of the slaves made the abolitionist movement stronger and more effective and finally slave trade and slavery was eradicated all together in Brazil^[7].

Societal reforms were also a huge part of how abolitionist was anti slaves and anti slavery in Brazil. These societal reformers included groups of ethical and outstanding citizens who were concerned with church communities, or new group thinkers. These individuals made it their sole purpose to correct the wrongs of slavery and the wrongs in education, prisons and also voting rights.

These people wanted radical changes in the society that would make the society a much better place to live in for all people. People who joined the reformers were persuaded by the leaders’ views and they saw it as their responsibility to make changes in the society.

The abolitionist movement in Brazil was both anti slave and anti slavery as to employ different ways and tactics to use in spreading the cause in order to get many supporters. One of the major ways of distributing the information they had was through use of leaflets that were distributed all over the countryside.

These leaflets were used to tell people and educate them on the reasons they had for being against slavery and about why they wanted to end it. Novels, poems, stories and other literature works were also used in educating people on why slavery needed to be abolished thus getting support for the abolitionist movement. Organizations against slave trade and slavery also came into being and they fought for equality rights of the Brazilian slaves.

These organizations got a lot of support as they were led by prominent people who were passionate about bringing an end to slave trade and slavery. Several revolts and riots organized by these organizations which included free and enslaved men fighting for their freedom this however led to the slaves being deported to Benin, Nigeria and Togo^[9].

Conclusion

In conclusion, slave trade and slavery was a booming business in the 1800’s. People were captured from their native lands and sailed hundreds of miles to work in plantations, mines under the cruelty and brutality if their masters. These people were also forced to work in their masters houses performing terrible acts that their overseers and masters demanded. Slaves were uprooted from their lives that they knew only to be forced to adapt to a whole new lifestyle that saw the treated far much worse than animals themselves.

The brutality and cruelty of the masters brought about a lot of suffering on the slaves as they were inflicted with wounds that would take a long time to heal not to mention that the punishments that were mostly beatings that at times resulted in death of the slaves. The slaves would at times result to witchcraft to quell the brutality of their master’s and at times the slaves killed their masters.

Some slaves who opted not to run away continued suffering at the hands of their masters and overseers. The biggest issue about slavery was that some of the slaves were born into it and they knew no other life other than the life of submission, and following orders that resulted in punishment when one disobeyed.

The brutality and cruelty of the masters of these slaves brought about activists that rose and fought against slavery and slave trade. These activists brought forth the abolitionist movement that fought for the freedom of all the slaves in Brazil.

The abolitionist movement approached the issues of slavery and slaves from different view points that included the moral, political, societal motivation. These different view points by different people were all anti slave and anti slavery and pushed for reforms in the society that were going to be of help in getting freedom for the slaves.

The ways in which the abolitionist movement spread it views in the countryside where majority of the population were slaves, helped in drumming up major support for the noble cause of putting an end to slavery and slaves. Through the distribution of pamphlets the abolitionist movement was able to educate the people and get a lot of manpower and individuals to participate in the riots and revolts that were arranged by organizations to drum up support that would fight against slavery and slaves.

References

Bentley, J. & Ziegler, H. 2005. Traditions and encounters: A Global Perspective on the past. Mcgraw-Hill College.

Creative commons. 2001. A Brief History of Slavery. Web.

Diouf, S. A. 2009 ed. Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies. Athens: Ohio University Press.

Mattoso, Katia M. de Querios 2004. To be a slave in Brazil, 1550-1888, Rutgers University Press.

Richardson, K. 2009. Abolition- the Role of the individual in Effecting Change. Web.

The Gale Group 2004 Nineteenth-Century Abolitionist Literature of Cuba and Brazil, the Gale Group, Inc. Farmington Hills.

Footnotes

1. Creative commons 2010. A Brief History of Slavery
2. Mattoso, Katia M. de Querios 2004. To be a slave in Brazil, 1550-1888, Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0813511550
3. The Gale Group 2004 Nineteenth-Century Abolitionist Literature of Cuba and Brazil, the Gale Group, Inc. Farmington Hills
4. The Gale Group 2004
5. The Gale Group 2004
6. Richardson, K. 2009 Abolition- the Role of the individual in Effecting Change
7. Richardson, K 2009
8. Bentley, J. & Ziegler, H. Traditions and encounters: A Global Perspactive on the past. Pp 781-805
9. Diouf, S. A. 2009 ed. Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies. Athens: Ohio University Press

Introduction

The issue of slavery was a divisive issue between the North and the South in the 1800’s. While the Northern part abhorred slavery, the Southerners not only practiced it but they also embarked on a spirited campaign to promote and defend the practice. It is therefore not surprising to note that as the Northern opposition to the vice rose, Southerners who were more tolerant toward the practice also embarked on a spirited justification of their work system and mode of life.

This defense by the Southerners finally led to the famous claim that slavery was an evil that could be tolerated and that it eventually brought some positive attributes. This claim partly explains why slavery in the South was able to endure for so long despite the numerous attempts by the North to outlaw the practice. (Queen)

One claim that the South fronted in trying to defend slavery was by claiming that the black men popularly known as Negros were nothing but grown up children. For this reason, the Southerners claimed that the Negros needed to be treated in the same manner as little children.

In order, to justify their claim, they banned the treatment of Negro’s as mad men or criminals. This was also justified by the view that Negro’s have a low moral and intellectual capacity as compared to their white counterparts. On top of this, a Negro was perceived to act in irresponsible ways, just as a baby would act.

This form of irresponsibility was characterized by the inability to keep anything for use in old age. The Southerners therefore claimed that if such a man were let free in the society he would become a big burden. The society was therefore given the obligation of preventing this from happening and the only way to do so was through subjecting the Negro to some form of slavery.

The Negro was also perceived to be of an inferior rank to the whites and putting them at the same level would be the same as giving an upper hand to the white race. This, the Southerners claimed would lead to extinction of the Negro race. In a way, this claim about the Negro being nothing but a grown kid was justified and it led to the success of slavery in the South. (Kirkpatrick)

Another claim that the Southerners made to defend slavery in their region was that the Negro slaves under their care were one of the most free and happy people in the world. To justify this claim, the Southerners allowed children, the weak and the aged Negro’s from any form of work. On top of this, this category of the Negro community had all their needs provided for. This group was therefore considered free of any care or any labor.

The Negro women were also given light chores and their masters protected them from their abusive husbands. Even for those slaves able to work, the Southerners allowed them to do so for only nine hours. This was considered modest by the Southerners and even by the slaves themselves. The Southerners claimed that the slaves could sleep at any time they felt like a luxury that their white counterparts did not have. This perception of a slave at liberty made slavery tolerable and led to its success in the South. (Kirkpatrick)

Another claim that the Southerners used in their defense of slavery was that every society was formed by a society of lesser and higher beings. In a speech delivered to the U.S Senate by Senator James Hammond of South Carolina in 1848, he claimed that a society was incomplete if it was devoid of the low class people to do the menial chores.

The people in the lower class were supposed to not only have a low intelligence but skill as well. according to Senator Hammond, if this class of the society was lacking then the other class of higher citizens who are tasked with building the nation and bringing about civilization would also be missing.

The senator and the other Southerners argued that this lesser class of people formed the foundation of any government and without it, the government would most likely end up failing. The Southerners considered slaves as members of this lower class of citizens. To them, slave was just but a name given to people who performed a certain kind of work.

The Senator claimed that although the Northerners and the rest of the world were working hard to abolish slavery, all that they were merely doing was wiping out the name and not the real essence of slavery. He claimed that only God had the power to abolish slavery by taking away the poor from the face of the earth. According to the Southerners, the only difference between their slaves and the employed class was that they called them slaves and engaged their services for life.

Unlike the other manual laborers, slaves did not face starvation or lack of work at any given time. According to the Southerners, this had led to a high number of beggars in the North unlike the South that had few or no beggars. This claim succeeded in silencing the critics from the North something that gave a new lifeline to slavery in the South. (Dirst)

The other important claim that the Southerners made in their defense of slavery was that all the citizens in the region were free of any fears of attack from their slaves. The Southerners claimed that those who were in danger were those outside the state who had distorted ideas about the condition that the slaves lived in. in demonstrating this, they gave an example of how Virginians would leave behind their households in the care of the slaves to defend their state.

These slaves are the same people whom the North claimed that they could wreak havoc given the slightest chance. This claim was supposed to show that the slaves in the South were content with the kind of life they were living and any attempt to change that would be met with resistance from the slaves. This helped in silencing the Northerners and led to an extension of slavery in the South for many more years. (The Staunton Spectator)

Conclusion

The issue of slavery has been one of the most divisive issues between the South and the North in the U.S. While the North abhorred slavery, the South practiced it on a higher level.

In order to weather the opposition from the North, they came up with excuses that were meant to defend their reasons for failing to ban the practice. These excuses ranged from the kind of treatment that the slaves were being given to the positive attributes that the practice had brought to their society. This spirited defense led to the success of slavery in the whole of the Southern region.

Works Cited

Dirst, Tara. Free Market Labor vs. Slave Labor. Debating the “Mud Sill” Theory, 2005. Web.

Kirkpatrick, Mary. George Fitzhugh, 1806-1881. Cannibals All! Or, Slaves Without Masters, 2010. Web.

Queen, Jacob. What is slavery? 21 September 2010. Web.

The Staunton Spectator. White Southerners’ Defense of Slaveholding: Article One, 1859. Web.

Despite having been written in the 19^th century, Harriet Jacob’s “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl” has attracted both positive and negative criticism due to its relevance in contemporary studies.

In this novel published in the early 1800s, Jacobs recorded her experiences on the horrors of being a female slave in America. While Jacob assumes an apologetic stance about the behavior of slaves, she still manages to highlight the plight and the perils of the persecuted race. In this novel, Jacob largely dwells on the issue of slavery, specifically the perspective of the female slave.

While Jacobs’ intentions were to tell the world what t is to be a female slave, she manages, to highlight other prevalent social ills that have bedeviled the human race through out history. Suffice to state that the perception of some of the issues highlighted through the novel has been affected by the passing of time. However, analyzing the novel in light of contemporary thinking shows the timelessness of the novel. Regardless of the varied perceptions there are a number of social ills that are intertwined with the theme of slavery.

It is impossible to refer to slavery without mentioning race relations. Slavery is perceived in relation to the master servant relations between the whites and the blacks. Furthermore, sexual perversion, parental negligence as well as general moral decadence cannot be discussed without considering the influence of slavery. Therefore, Jacobs uses slavery to illuminate the existence of societal ills such as moral decadence, racism, sexual harassment and parental negligence,

Harriet’s main intention of writing this book was to highlight the perils of slavery especially to women, yet through slavery, the negative effects parental irresponsibility are observed. Suffice to say that the term parental responsibility was conceived differently in the 19^th century America than it is today. In the 19^th century America, the perception of the term was heavily influenced by social relations, rather than paternity.

While the definition of parental negligence is taken in the 21^st century perception, the evidence is taken from Jacobs’ 19^th century occurrences. It is imperative to state that both the black slaves and the white masters, in today’s’ perception of the meaning of the phrase, would be equally accused of negligence of parental duties. Jacobs’ appeals to the reader to understand the peculiar pains the black parents go through implying that the blacks are as powerless (Mian 10).

Yet despite Jacobs appeal such powerlessness would still not excuse them from being accused of parental negligence in the 21^st century. As symbolized through Aunt Martha the fact that slave mothers allowed their children to be sold as slaves without much will to resist would be taken as gross violation of parental responsibilities in today’s democratic world.

Yet the whites too are not innocent of parental negligence. In “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl” Jacobs shows how rampant the whites neglected and even mistreated children born with the slaves. In today’s perception, such negligence is a social ill, yet it would not be as vivid as it is in “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl”, if it is not taken Vis a Vis slavery.

Despite the fact that Jacobs recording of her recollection of slavery and the subsequent criticism of her works happens in different time in history, her works still manage to uncover gross moral decadence within the society. Again, the perception of moral decadence in this case is influenced by the 21^st century thinking.

Within Jacobs work, there exist various instances of what in today’s standards pass as gross violations of social codes of conduct. Yet the immorality within this society can only be uncovered through the evaluations of the effects of slavery. In modern day thinking a person is held responsible of promises made to other, regardless of the prevailing social relations. Yet, Mr. Sands, despite him being the friendliest of the slave owners, breaks promises made to his slaves.

While this may be excusable it is the way in which he sells his slaves including his children that would baffle many of the modern day moralists (Jacobs 145). In Jacob opinion, the slaves can be excused for stealing their masters’ corn, yet stealing by whatever standards is immoral. Yet within this argument, the concept of slave ownership cannot be lost on the readers. Back then, even through it was the norm to own slaves, no moral justification could be given for such acts of immorality.

The concept of slave ownership is founded on debased, insufferable treatment and objectification of the slaves. While the 19^th century reader may not appreciate the immorality of exchanging people for money, the 21^st first century readers sees this as the vilest form of human rights violations. Yet these forms of moral decay cannot be evaluated in isolation from slavery.

Despite the fact that sexual harassment has been treated as an immoral behavior, in Jacobs’ novel it can be isolated from other forms of immoral behavior since it is mostly implicit, rather than explicit. Yet sexual harassment cannot be seen perceived in isolation from slavery. Suffice to state that the victim of slave sexual torture is the women.

Jacobs perfectly attains the goal of portraying the horrors of sexual harassment by juxtaposing the treatment of male slaves against the female slaves. While the male slaves undergo physical torture such as burning freezing and flogging (Jacobs 109), the females slaves goes through a worse from of torture: sexual harassment. Female slaves are forced to have sexual encounters with their masters, who they hold in much despise (Jacobs 146).

McGlinn and McGlinn try to justify the slave’s owner tendencies to force their female slaves if they “would have healthier babies” (11). Yet such acts, like slavery and slave ownership, are a violation of individual rights to self determination. Amidst the debate of the horrors of sexual violence, it cannot be lost on the reader that slavery also plays a role in exposing the subject if women sexuality.

Jacobs refuses to be Narcom’s mistress and instead marries and has two children with Mr. Sands. Child argues that sexuality in this case portrays the reversal of power between the slave and the master (xxxvii). Thus in Jacob’s novel “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl”, sexual violence cannot be isolated from slavery, since it is the tool with which the slave master use to propagate and impose themselves as superior to their slaves.

It is impossible to mention slavery without mentioning race relations. Jacobs perceive the issue of race in relation to the relationships between the blacks and white. In her analyzing, Jacobs presents the perception of both the white and the blacks about themselves and about each other. Despite her good attempt to show the differences in perception about inter racial relationships, she still manages to portray her own personal reflection on the issue of race, thus:

“Truly, the colored race is the most cheerful and forgiving people on the face of the earth. That their masters sleep in safety is owing to their superabundance of heart; and yet they look upon their sufferings with less pity than they would bestow on those of a horse or a dog”. (Jacobs 141).

While Child (xlv) argues that such sexual relations between the blacks and the whites are Jacobs’ attempts to bridge the racial gap, the above mentioned assertions by the author show that the blacks bore much of the suffering of this skewed relationship. Jacobs’s assertion thus contradicts Child’s claims since Jacobs sees race relation in terms of the persecutor versus the persecuted (48).

Jacobs argues that the black slaves despite their best efforts to be humane, still get persecuted, their “superabundance of heart” notwithstanding. Mian’s (18) argument comes closer than Childs in explaining race relations in the novel and claims that motherhood is Jacobs most effective way of bridging the gap between the two races.

However, within Mian’s argument the influence of slavery in highlighting other prevalent social ills emerge since she claims that “whether slaves or free, mothers are held in high esteem” (18). In view of Mian’s, Jacobs’ and Child’s argument it is thus clear that slavery illuminates racism as a social ill.

Jacob’s novel “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl” is personal to some extent while still manages to be objective. Primarily, the author intends to give her won personal experiences as a slave woman. Jacob attains this through the juxtaposition of the treatment of the male slave to the psychological torture that the slave woman goes through.

While the novel centre of attention is slavery, other important issues are illuminated. In this regard it can be argued that the issue of slavery is the platform on which Jacobs highlights other prevalent societal ills.

Though unintentional, Jacobs presentation of her experience as a slave also exposes to the reader to the morass that is the sexual relationship between the slaves and their masters. Even though Jacobs relationship with Mr. Sands tries to portray the lighter side of inter racial sexual relationship, there are other instances through which this kin of relationship can only be termed as pervasive. Moreover, parental negligence is also depicted, and manifested through slavery.

The whites neglect children born with their black slaves, sometimes to the extent of selling those children to other slave owners. This highlights the fact that the white took social status as more important than parental responsibility. All these are manifestations of slavery. While Jacobs justifies immoral behavior by the slaves such as stealing, such kind of immorality is portrayed and manifested in relation to slavery.

Amidst the debate on slavery, it cannot be lost on the reader that race is of paramount importance in relation to the notion of slavery. Yet in this novel, it is the grotesque side of the relationship between the blacks and the white that dominates. At best the whites treat the blacks as mere object much to the consternation of the backs. Therefore through slavery, the general moral decadence within this society is underscored.

Works Cited

Child, Maria. Harriet A. Jacobs: Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written By Herself. John Harvard Library. 2009. Web.

Jacobs, Harriet. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. (Electronic ed). 2003. Web.

Mcglinn Jeanne and James Mcglinn : A Teacher’s Guide To The Signet Classics Edition Of Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents In The Life Of A Slave Girl. 2009. Web.

Mian, Naseem. Perversion of Motherhood in Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl n.d. Web.

Introduction

American history is one of the richest histories in the world encompassing a wide range of events, seasons, movements and revolutions. From George Washington to Barrack Obama, America has continuously witnessed fascinating and historical moments.

Its global superiority and influence is attributed to efforts made by people like President Lincoln who are known throughout history. One of the famous historic events in the history of America was slavery, which led to the rise of movements that continuously fought for equality. This paper analyses slavery from 1492-1877, giving remarkable timeline events in history.

Slavery timeline

It is believed that by 1501, slaves from parts of Africa were being ferried to Santo Domingo by Spanish settlers for the purpose of championing their interests^[1]. The move was however met with resistance from slaves who engaged in revolts in order to fight for their human rights.

A good example is the Caribbean slave revolt of 1522 when enslaved people termed slavery as exploitation of rights. Under British colonialism, colonies in North America began receiving slaves from Africa with the first destination being Jamestown. They were treated like indentured servants and freed after a fixed period of time.

Seventeenth century welcomed the first anti-slavery publication which was released by Samuel Seawell, a jurist and printer in Massachusetts. This publication propagated efforts by activists and anti-slavery activities in North America through public awareness. Mr. Seawell believed that the only way of achieving the goal was through publications.

Nevertheless, the journey to realize equal treatment was not easy; it was resisted by colonizers. In 1705 slaves were described as property to be sold and bought, giving their masters authority to mistreat and kill those who demonstrated any form of resistance^[2]. Virginia was the first state to recognize this creed as its law makers viewed slavery as real estate industry at that time.

Abolitionist Society

The movement was started in 1775 in Philadelphia for the purpose of fighting for the release of Negroes who were being held unlawfully as slaves. The movement was later named as Pennsylvania Abolition Society and is recognized as the oldest anti-slavery society in America. The society reorganized itself in 1780s to widen its mandate and activities^[3].

One of these missions was to improve the living standards of Africans who were being undermined by white people. Besides fighting for the rights of enslaved and the need to end slavery, the movement promoted education and employment for the African-American community.

Slavery after 1775

The Declaration of Independence was to allow all United Colonies in America to be free and independent states. The Fugitive Slave Act was adopted in 1793 to outlaw any measures that would prevent the recapture of slaves who tried to escape. This undermined efforts to end slavery and promote the lives of African-Americans who were less considered. With continued pressure and efforts to have equal right in America, United States banned the importation of African Slaves in 1808.

This was seen as a forward step in ending slavery that was being compared to the real estate business. However, the ban did not end importation of slaves from Africa as white settlers smuggled slaves into the country. Even though United States had banned slave trade, the Missouri Comprise allowed it to be admitted as a slave state in 1820 while Maine was considered as a free state^[4].

Compromise of 1850

This was a series of five legislative bills that were to enhance a balance between Northern and Southern regions by controlling the spread of slavery. The first bill allowed entry of California to the Union as a free state whereas the second one gave the people of Utah and New Mexico a chance to vote and decided for their states.

According to the third bill, the Republic of Texas relinquished parcels of land which it had acquired in New Mexico. This enabled Texas to pay a debt it owed Mexico after receiving $ 10 million from the land^[5]. In addition, the fourth bill prohibited slavery in the District of Columbia. Controversially, the fifth bill imposed a heavy fine on federal officials who failed to arrest defiant salves.

Slavery after the Compromise of 1850

Kansas and Nebraska were allowed by Congress to choose between slavery and free states through the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. This resulted into clashes between the pro and anti- Kansas-Nebraska Act, forcing the Supreme Court to intervene. Through the Dred Scott Decision of 1857, the court dismissed the idea of slaves being granted citizenship arguing that they were not recognized by law^[6]. The court further stated that Congress lacked constitutional mandate to outlaw slavery in Kansas and Nebraska.

It is believed that the Dred Scott Decision fully contributed to the Civil War immediately after the election of Abraham Lincoln as the first republican President from Illinois in 1860. Existing differences between Northern and Southern States continued before hitting the peak in 1961 when southern states pulled out of the Union.

The secession was nullified by President Lincoln who ordered soldiers to quell the rebellion through an attack on the South. This led to a fatal clash that lasted four years, claiming the lives of more than six hundred thousand people. It was during this time that the president drafted the Emancipation Proclamation which was issued in January 1863^[7]. The decree freed slaves in rebel states leaving those in loyal states in bondage.

Consequently, pressure mounted for the amendment of the proclamation to completely abolish slavery in the United States. The 13^th Amendment of 1865 outlawed slavery in the United States^[8]. This allowed black people to hold legislative offices, promoted social justice and access to public facilities.

Nevertheless, the fight went on as some states continued to undermine African-Americans. Several massacres were witnessed including the “Opelousas Massacre” in1868 and the “Clinton Massacre” in 1875. The appointment of President Rutherford in 1877 marked the end of reconstruction although segregation continued to haunt African-Americans.

Conclusion

It is evident that slavery is a major component of the American history which had significant impact on the most powerful nation on the planet. The war against it was brutal and fatal, claiming the lives of many black and white people. Efforts to end slavery led to the formation of influential and important movements that have remained active in fighting against social injustices and promoting equality in the American society.

Bibliography

Davis, Ronald. “Slavery in America: Historical Overview.” Slavery in America. Web.

Henretta, James and David Brody. America: A Concise History. Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2009.

Schneider, Dorothy and Carl Schneider. Slavery in America. New York City: Infobase Publishing, 2006.

Footnotes

1. Ronald Davis, “Slavery in America: Historical Overview”. Slavery in America.
2. Dorothy Schneider and Schneider Carl, Slavery in America (New York City: Infobase Publishing, 2006), 16.
3. Ronald Davis, “Slavery in America: Historical Overview,” Slavery in America.
4. Ibid
5. Dorothy Schneider and Schneider Carl, Slavery in America (New York City: Infobase Publishing, 2006), 17.
6. James Henretta and Brody David, America: A Concise History (Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2009), 349.
7. Ronald Davis, “Slavery in America: Historical Overview,” Slavery in America.
8. Dorothy Schneider and Schneider Carl, Slavery in America (New York City: Infobase Publishing, 2006), 17.