Category: Slavery

No matter how much time passes, minority groups have and will always be regarded as the others in a society, whether it is a city, state, or a country. These others are considered as the social outcasts of a community and have to find abode in a different community of their own people. They do not be any different from the rest of the people except for some characteristics like color, creed, religion, gender, etc. America has faced a serious threat in the form of cultural diversification and African-Americans have been the worst victims in the fight between multi-ethnic human groups made to live the life of second-grade citizens; the others.

In association with a particular community, these groups can be defined as various classes of people that differ from the chief class, also known as the dominant group, living in the area (Feagin, 1990). These differences may be based on widely varying characteristics, such as spoken languages, physical features, religion, cultural activities, etc. It is also true in most cases that the principal group has a larger economic and political influence on the society, but provides unequal treatment to the other groups (Feagin 1990). Furthermore, individuals belonging to minority groups enjoy lesser social, recreational, and other miscellaneous facilities than those of the dominant group.

A racial minority group can be classified as a group of individuals having certain distinct physical features that differentiate them from the dominant individuals (Feagin 1990). These characteristics may include hair color, eye color, the shape of the bones, skin complexion, etc. This article discusses a period in the history of the United States during which racial minority reached its highest level, the period of slavery.

Although numerous state laws and regulations have been passed for the past few decades or so, requiring all White people to treat their fellow countrymen equally, signs and indications of the existing racial tension are still visible today. In order to avoid any further civil war, it is high time to prove wrong what George Aiken has said so staunchly: “If we were to wake up some morning and find that everyone was the same race, creed, and color, we would find some other cause for prejudice by noon.” (NationMaster 2005)

The slaves used in America during the years of slavery were Black Americans that descended from a people that lived in a part of Africa known as Western Sudan. During the early 17th century, the Portuguese, British, French, and Dutch started to bring African slaves into their American colonies. They were mercilessly loaded onto slave ships and held in iron confinements throughout the journey across the Atlantic Ocean; barely half of the African prisoners reached America alive for enforced slavery (Hornsby 1990).

The first Africans brought to the Americas were forced to work as indentured servants, who only needed to work for their owners for about four to seven years after which they were set free. Although the indentured servants were rightfully freed at the end of their contract, they were still restricted to reside amongst the lower classes of the community. However, Africans, imported as slaves, were assigned to no freedom even after years of relentless labor. There was a sharp increase in the number of slaves during the 18^th century, and by the mid of the century, 200,000 of them were working in the American colonies (Hornsby 1990).

By the middle of the 17^th century, the colonial governments, regarding the slaves, passed many rules and regulations, known as the slave codes. These laws prevented the Black people from keeping weapons, gaining knowledge, traveling around without their owners’ consent, and giving testimonies against Caucasians. Moreover, the Black people had to face more aggressive treatment for some offenses, as compared to the White people; and the status of Black slaves was such that the owner received lesser punishment for murdering his servant than for murdering some other random person for the same reason (Hornsby 1990).

Although the slaves were skilled at doing all kinds of work, including deforestation, nursing, crafting, etc., they were most useful in farming. As a result of the introduction of new machines, the agriculture industry grew rapidly requiring more workers, and thus greatly increasing the number of Black slaves living in the country (Hornsby 1990)

Throughout the period of slavery, the slaves were faced with pathetic living and working conditions. The slaves used various methods so as to avoid and object to the horrendous working conditions, but were physically tortured in retaliation (Hornsby, 1990). The owners provided shelter and other basic needs to their slaves, but the caliber of these compensations varied widely throughout the country. Slaves hired to pick and plant cotton had the longest working hours that is from dawn till dusk, than any other type of slave. Although a few of these slaves lived as well as the non-slave workers, most of them had to endure the worst living standards possible.

The renowned Methodist preacher Josiah Henson recollected his memories of the time he spent as a field slave in the following words: “Our dress was of tow-cloth; for the children, nothing but a shirt…a wool-hat once in two or three years…and a pair of coarse shoes once a year. We lodged in log huts, and on bare ground. Wooden floors were an unknown luxury. In a single room were huddled, like cattle, ten or a dozen persons, men, women, and children…. We had neither bedsteads nor furniture…. Our beds were collections of straw and old rags…a single blanket the only covering. The wind whistled and the rain and snow blew in through the cracks, and the damp earth soaked in the moisture till the floor was miry as a pig-sty.” (Henson 23)

Most of the slaves that worked as house servants resided in the servant quarters. They had shorter working time and although enjoyed more benefits than the field workers, they largely depended on the will of the family they served. Moreover, many of the slaves who eventually obtained freedom after a few years previously worked as house attendants (Davis 1990).

Slaves residing in the southern states had to endure greater restraints than those living in the north. For example, they were not allowed to marry, possess any form of assets, give testimonies in court cases, or had a right to freedom. As the practice of slavery was not so organized, the slaves were still secretly engaged in these practices. For instance, the masters had no assurance that their slaves are fully submissive or even faithful to them.

Hence, in order to persuade the slaves to devote themselves fully to their service, some masters kept a fair attitude towards them and rewarded them occasionally with presents or bonuses. On the other hand, most of the owners used harsh means to control their slaves, such as whipping, food restrictions and threatening to trade the other members of the slave’s family (Davis 1990).

Throughout the years of slavery, masters and their slaves had widely contrasting points of view. But the law, being biased towards White people, gave the reigns of reward and punishment to the masters. However, the slaves still engaged themselves in activities that helped them overcome their problems (Davis 1990).

Apart from these activities, their beliefs also assisted them in enduring the years of torture. Their religion made them feel an important component of society and provided them with the prospect of a much better afterlife. Such was their determination that despite being prevented from acquiring education, they created their own methods of communication (Davis 1990).

Slavery inflicted vast effects on both, masters and slaves. Although it disheartened many of them, it forced many others to fight against it. Similarly, although it created widespread loathing amongst many masters and their slaves, it brought about admiration amongst many others too. And after the complete abolition of slavery at the end of the Civil War, former slaves were still unable to acquire decent employments due to racial prejudice and inadequate education. The same prejudice also prevented them from practicing activities whose rights they had already been given in the Civil Rights Act (Davis 1990).

It is quite clear from the preceding discussion that throughout the 200-year period of slavery, slaves were never for once considered equal to White people. They continuously faced discrimination not only because of their occupation, but also their race, color, creed, and culture. In brief words, they were never given an opportunity to excel in their lives; and whatever chances they had, were duly taken from them by law. The brutality with which they were treated clearly signified that slaves were not at all considered humans, let alone, be given human rights. Honestly speaking, they were considered the scum of the earth, at that time.

The pitiful state of the slaves can be conceived from the fact that they had started to look forward to the afterlife in search of a better living; such was the disregard of White people, for the slaves. At this point, it is safe to say that there can be found a no bigger example of discrimination among humans, in history, than the period of slavery in the United States.

Works Cited

1. Davis, David Brion. “Slavery.” The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc. 1990.
2. Feagin, Joe R. “Minority Group.” The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc. 1990.
3. “George David Aiken.” Encyclopedia. 2005. NationMaster. Web.
4. Henson, Josiah. “My Boyhood and Youth.” Uncle Tom’s Story of His Life. 1971. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. 22-27. 2008. Web.
5. Hornsby, Alton. “Black Americans.” The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc. 1990.

Introduction

Hundreds of years ago, a significant portion of the United States economy was highly dependent on slave labor. What is more interesting is the fact that these slaves were brought to this country via the slave trade. Natives from Africa were taken captive and then sold like cattle to plantation owners in the South. It is good thing that slavery was outlawed a long time ago. But in the 21^st century unscrupulous men and women are still into the slave trade but this time it is called human trafficking. Since the United States of America is the most powerful nation in the world it must spearhead the drive to eradicate this new form of slavery within the U.S. and even outside its borders. It is only by being involved in a domestic as well as international effort in eliminating human trafficking will American citizens be totally free and secure from the clutches of human trafficking syndicates.

Background

The history of the United States is filled with revolutions and movements that were the direct result of a people yearning to be free. More than three hundred years ago Americans who were under the rule of a despotic British government could no longer endure the oppression and their inability to choose their own destinies. A war for American independence was fought bitterly in these lands and the ill-equipped and ill-prepared American army defeated the much vaunted military force of their English masters. From that point onwards the American colonies experienced the joy and blessing of self-rule.

But in less than a century after gaining independence from Britain, the American people was confronted with a difficult question and that is what to do with the Negro slaves that were toiling in the fields and treated less than human beings. It was in conflict with what was written in the U.S. constitution and an affront to the core values of this nation which is freedom and equality. It did not take long before the Civil War settled the issue of the African-American slaves. They were now assimilated to the American society and given the rights and privileges as citizens of the United States.

The story should have ended there and every trace of slavery should have been eradicated after the Emancipation Proclamation. But unfortunately slavery is not yet dead in this country. It has simply taken a new form and in the 21^st century it is perpetuated through human trafficking or human smuggling. Since slavery is no longer allowed to exist in the U.S. and in the whole world the lucrative trade in human beings are being done underground and supported by various syndicates who make a profit at the expense of other people’s misery.

According to the Swiss Coordination Unit Against the Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants (KSMM) there was an estimated 600,000 to 2.4 million victims of human trafficking worldwide (KSMM, 2007). In the United States it was estimated that that, “…14,500 to 17,500 people primarily women and children, are trafficked to the U.S. annually” (Academy for Educational Attainment, 2006). This is not supposed to happen in America and yet the U.S. government acknowledged the persistence of such illegal practices even within the U.S. mainland meaning American citizens are being trafficked within the country.

Understanding Human Trafficking

According to the UN Protocol to Prohibit, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, trafficking of human beings is defined as:

The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat, or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation (Koser, 2007).

Even with the aforementioned generalized definition it is clear that it is merely scratching the surface in the attempt to fully understand human trafficking. Thus, it is important to consider at least five various conceptions of “trafficking/traffickers/trafficked” (Lee, 2007). These are listed as follows:

• Slavery;
• Prostitution;
• Organized Crime;
• Migration; and
• Human Rights.

The first thing that comes to mind when thinking about trafficking in persons is the idea of slavery. This is because people who are forced to do something against their will are nothing more than slaves. But the old forms of slavery no longer apply because this time slavery is no longer seen as the legal ownership of one human being or long term enslavement but by temporary ownership, debt bondage, forced labor and hyper-exploitative contractual agreements in the global economy (Lee, 2007). In some cultures children are forced to join armies and fight for the local warlord.

Aside from forcing people to do manual labor and other hazardous jobs, human trafficking is popularly understood in terms of prostitution. According to Lee, “The notion that trafficking is synonymous with the traffic of women for commercial exploitation can be traced back to public concerns about the ‘white slave trade’ of women and young girls into prostitution at the end of the nineteenth century” (2007).

In many parts of the world, it is difficult to understand human trafficking outside the context of organized crime. In the United Kingdom for instance, “…the government regards the problem of ‘illegal trade in people’ as primarily instigated by organized crime groups, to be dealt with under the rubric of its overall organized crime strategy…” (Lee, 2007). This is not hard to understand considering the complex planning required to move humans against their will, without the necessary travel documents, and the need to bypass checkpoints as well as evade law enforcement agencies. This type of operation will never succeed without the backing of organized crime.

Aside from slavery, prostitution and crime syndicates one way of understanding trafficking persons is through the perspective of migration. According to sociologists and criminologists that are working on migration research, irregular or forced migratory movements is the byproduct of “…economic crises, lack of sustainable livelihoods, political conflict, civil war, ethnic persecution, social inequalities, gender blind macroeconomics policies and wider processes of global social transformation (Lee, 2007). As a result people who are desperate to get out of their dire situation are forced to use irregular channels of smuggling and trafficking as it is their only means of escape (Lee, 2007). This is where unscrupulous men and women come in to exploit them.

Finally, trafficking can be understood from another perspective, the human rights perspective. This is something that can be easily understood by freedom loving people all over the world who are fortunate enough to live under democratic governments. But for those who are victims of human rights violations they are resigned to their fate and have no means to pursue their right to “…be free from slavery or servitude; right to freedom of movement; right to life, liberty, and security, right to health; and right to free choice of employment” (Lee, 2007). For those who are unaware of their rights or have no power to change their circumstances, they are easy prey for human traffickers.

From Where to Where?

According to KSMM, “Trafficking victims are usually women from Eastern and Sothern-Eastern Europe, the Baltic States, Brazil and Thailand who are exploited as prostitutes” (KSMM, 2007). But this is only limited to prostitution and mostly in Europe. In the case of the United States authorities pointed out that it is a source and destination country for trafficked men and women for the purpose of sexual and labor exploitation (U.S. Department of State, 2008). This is a serious social problem but the trafficking of persons coming from East Asia, and Eastern Europe is just the tip of the iceberg.

A significant number comes from Mexico and Central America where it is relatively easier to enter the U.S. mainland considering the distance between the U.S. and the aforementioned territories. In other countries human trafficking can be done using force or coercion but in the case of those coming from Mexico, the trafficking of persons can be done voluntarily” (Koser, 2007). Still it is considered as human trafficking because these people are being exploited by others. Aside from foreigners lured into fraudulent offers of employment only to end up as sex workers or involuntary servitude, there are also American citizens that are trafficked within the country for prostitution and to a lesser extent forced labor” (U.S. Department of State, 2008). If this can happen in American then one can only imagine how young men and women from Third World countries are under constant threat of being taken from homes only to end up as somebody else’s property.

The Process

Traffickers use force, fraud, and coercion to secure their victims. In poor countries parents are made to believe that they are sending their sons and daughters to work in a prosperous family or that their children are being employed in a prosperous business only to find out later on that they were victims of traffickers. In Latin America poor families will send their children to work on a plantation but then forced to stay for an indefinite period of time (USAID, 2008). In war torn countries human trafficking is the means to increase the strength of a weak military faction (USAID, 2008). In the United States the situation is not as desperate as those in Asia, Africa, and Latin America but it can still astound many to find out that human trafficking is a thriving business in America.

One of the most disturbing aspects of human trafficking in the U.S. involves school-age children. Children belonging to this age group are prime targets because of, “…their vulnerability and gullibility, as well as the market demand for young victims … the average age of entry into prostitution is 12 to 14 years old…” (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Trafficking of school-age children is possible in a country like the United States because of the use of the following methods: 1) kidnapping; 2) solicitation by other women or girls recruiting on behalf of the sex trafficker; and 3) the “loverboy” approach of appearing genuinely interested in a romantic relationship while gradually coercing the victim into prostitution (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Once children are lured into the sex trade they will never be able to get out of it without outside help.

Prevention

It is obvious that the primary responsibility of the U.S. government is to create a system that will prevent criminal organizations as well as corrupt individuals from trafficking persons. It is the government’s primary goal to stop the trafficking of U.S. citizens especially the school-age children that are abducted or coerced by traffickers for the purpose of working as prostitutes or as laborers. One way of doing it is to support a victim-centered approach that includes a national public awareness campaign and funding nongovernmental organizations that assist victims (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). A step into the right direction is the creation of the Trafficking in Persons and Worker Exploitation Task Force Complaint Line where interpreters can talk to the victims in their own language (USDOJ, 2008). But aside from raising awareness and providing help for victims, prevention can only be achieved if perpetrators of this type of crime are prosecuted and placed behind bars.

The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 is an important piece of legislation in the fight against trafficking. Through this law traffickers are not only punished if they are caught in the U.S. but their countries of origin will also feel the impact of punitive action when the U.S. government flexes its muscles. In the said legislation the U.S. government is determined to exert pressure against foreign countries unable to meet minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and this can be achieved by not providing nonhumanitarian, nontrade-related foreign assistance to those countries (U.S. Department of State, 2008).

Aside from punitive actions it is also important to create an environment where people are less vulnerable to the predatory tactics of traffickers. In this regard agencies such as the USAID are making great strides for the purpose of prevention and their programs do not only include awareness raising but also education, employment, and income generation. Based on the preceding discussion poverty is the common denominator why men, women and children are forced into this modern form of slavery. By addressing the root-cause of the problem one can expect to stem the tide against the human trafficking.

Conclusion

There is no need to elaborate with regards to the impact of human trafficking. A parent could never bear the thought of losing children in this manner. But the sad fact is human trafficking is a lucrative business and criminal organizations all over the world are exploiting the weaknesses inherent in some societies where people are vulnerable to force, coercion and violence. In war torn countries the rule of law is no longer in effect and therefore traffickers can move with impunity, kidnapping, coercing and forcing children and families to abide by their own rules.

The economic conditions in many Third World countries should be partially blamed for the upsurge of human trafficking and that if the United States will not do something to help these countries defeat the evils of poverty and illiteracy there is no way that the problem of human trafficking can be eradicated permanently. Helping victims of human trafficking is a noble approach but one can also say that rescuing men, women and children from the clutches of criminal organizations is just a step too late. The best way is prevention, that innocent lives will not be tainted by the painful memory of being forced to work in sweatshops or in the illegal sex trade.

What is more disgusting though is the realization that American citizens can be victims of trafficking. If the U.S. government is powerless to stop trafficking with America then it is useless to pursue violators outside the United States. It is imperative to stop trafficking in America but it can also be argued that the drive towards the eradication of trafficking should be done simultaneously. It is only through putting a stop to international trade in humans where the US government can effectively stop the flow of victims of human trafficking from entering America and deal a serous blow to organized crime.

References

1. Academy for Educational Development (2006). “Report on Activities to Combat Human Trafficking.”
2. Koser, K. (2007). International Immigration. New York: Oxford University Pres.
3. Lee, M. (2007). Human Trafficking. Portland, Oregon: Willan Publishing.
4. U.S. Department of Education. (2007). “Human Trafficking of Children in the United States: a Fact Sheet for Schools.
5. U.S. Department of Justice. (2008). “Fight Trafficking in Person.”
6. U.S. Department of State. (2008). “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000.

Introduction

In as much as slavery was used for the benefit of economies, it was dehumanizing, humiliating, and abhor able.

Slave

A slave refers to an individual who is taken to be the property of another and incorporated into forced labor usually against their will. This form of detention of persons for this purpose may take place from the time they are captured, bought, or at the time of their birth. Usually, they will not be allowed to disengage themselves from the responsibilities accorded to them; neither can they refuse to work nor demand wages. Depending on the society, slaves were to be killed at the will of the owner yet in other communities this was illegal.

According to the Antislavery organization (2010), there are currently over 27 million slaves in the whole globe. Slaves here are considered to include any persons engaged in forced labor by their owners. This figure does exceed the number of African slaves that were brought to America totaled. The International labor organization does not, however, view forced labor to be slavery. Most of slavery takes the form of debt slaves and children incorporated in the sex trade.

Captive

A captive is used to refer to a person who is usually held against their will. Such persons are normally confined and later incorporated to become slaves usually of war. At the time when the person has been taken and restrained before being given tasks to handle, he or she remains to be a captive. What is common is that most captives end up serving as slaves for their owners.

Slavery in Ancient Greece

In Greece, slavery did play a major role in the attainment of civilization. They were utilized in shops, mines, ships, factories, and homes. Not much difference was noted between the slaves and the poor people in Greece. People found themselves in slavery basically by being born into slavery as children of slaves. Equally, cities that Greece would attack and conquer would also form a harbor for slaves. Abandoned children were also taken as slaves. Alternatively, families would sell a member of their family into slavery just to stabilize themselves financially.

There was the differential treatment of slaves here, depending on the work they carried out. Household servants were treated best with many privileges following. Supervision for them was by the woman of the home, and she ensured all the slaves were busy. Wealthy persons held ten to twenty slaves in their homes. Limits were placed on what slaves could do. None of them was to enter a public assembly or gym and the names they used were assigned by their masters.

Slaves working as ship crewmembers and mineworkers faced a lot of danger with huge chunks of workload. Those used in these areas were mostly death row convicts since such conditions did not assure them long life either. Ancient Athens had their police force made basically of slaves. It was also the case at the treasury office. Appearance age and attitude of the slaves acted as the determinants to the wage that they were to be paid for their services.

Varied rights existed albeit little they produced a sense of identity for the slaves (Murray 241). The healthier, younger and, more submissive one was, the higher the wages up to 10 minae an equivalent of 180 dollars. The payment was mostly after winning the war. Women slaves were more disadvantaged with a lower status. They mostly carried out domestic chores like cooking and serving food, child care, and wool working. In households that were well to do, the women slaves were nurses, housekeepers, and cooks.

Female slaves faced much exploitation sexually and physically abuse. Children born from such abuse acts were disposed of since slaves were prohibited from raising children. Equally, they were not allowed to marry since marriage was to be a social privilege. Close relationships cropped up between the female slaves and their mistresses where the former acted as major confidantes. Finally, slave women were involved mostly in religious affairs like the Eleusinian mysteries meant to celebrate the myth of Persephone. Slave women mostly carried out some religious practices and could be introduced to the Eleusinian mysteries, which celebrated the myth of Persephone.

Slavery in Ancient Rome

The Romans, by far, held the highest number of slaves and depended on them tremendously. It was a well-established institution (Cornell, 280). The slaves did mostly hard and dirty work. The slaves were traded in the slave market yet some were those captured during the war. Slaves trying to escape were hit, burned with a heated iron, and even killed. It was accepted as a way of life, although it turned out to be beneficial and disastrous to Rome. They were used in farms, businesses, and buildings. The treatment of slaves in Rome is highly praised. Several privileges, comforts, and superb treatment were accorded to slaves. Some were treated like children of their masters. Some slaves were even given full charge and control over the money that the masters owned.

A ceremony called Saturnalia only depicts the fair treatment of slaves. Slaves would pick up the role of their masters and vice versa. They were thankful and celebrated peaceful moments together. Slavery equally contributed to the fall of Rome. It is because of the overdependence on slaves by the Romans, which got to a point where it stopped. Slaves would continually be captured, brought into the auction yards, and stripped naked thus, facing a lot of humiliation. Females would also be sold out into prostitution. Sexual abuse by the masters was also something common. Some schools trained slaves to be killed or to kill for entertainment purposes.

The slaves caused the fall of the Roman Empire. A wealthy man could own up to 400 slaves and, in other cases, 10000 slaves. The simplest of tasks like getting dressed would call for the services of a slave. The lower class Romans, therefore, lacked work and solely depended on the government to support them this strain on the government was one of the causes of the fall of this empire.

Slavery in Ancient Syria

Slaves were a common feature. They usually were obtained by way of war, and others were criminals turned slaves. Crimes like beating up a family member would earn one an opportunity to become a slave. Slavery contributed to a lot of the devastation that was experienced during those times (Gurowski 57). Equally, if one had debts, they would clear them by selling their children or wives for a specific duration of time. Simply by getting into debt, one would still become a slave. The slaves were important in temples and public buildings, although they also had roles to play in homes of private persons.

Royal slaves, for example, served vital roles in the construction of fortifications and buildings. Those owned by private individuals mostly carried out household chores. Slaves trying to escape or that manifesting disobedience faced very harsh laws. It extended to as far as having their ears cut off and other ruthless treatment. Still, the slaves had an opportunity to own wealth and participate in businesses. They could also marry free men or women, and eventually, they had an opportunity to purchase their freedom.

Slavery in Ancient India

Very little is known about the slavery that occurred in India. Slavery in India is, however, considered to have been used mainly in domestic than industrial production (Thapar 149). Differences between people in the lower caste and the slaves were not substantial as such, and in some circumstances, slaves received better treatment compared to persons in the lower caste. A lower caste person was mandated to work all the time before they could get food and other basics, while slaves were allowed time off work for a while. Laws were put in place as to the treatment that was to be accorded to slaves. An example is, slaves could receive a beating on the back but not on the head. Any woman slave made pregnant by her master would become free together with her child at the time of giving birth.

Many masters it has to be said did disregard these rules. Nevertheless, some structure of protection was accorded. Indian and Buddhist principles also did affect the behavior of some persons. Most of the slaves were got from Greece and the colony cities of Greece. There existed Ionians who were female slave armies that protected the King’s harem. They worked hard to maintain the tradition’s names and language of where they had been sourced from.

Still, though, other slaves came from the west, Africa as well as the European land. There were equal chances to have Indians who were born free to become slaves. It was on their commission of serious crimes, by way of trafficking, by gambling, among other ways. The enslavement did not have to be permanent in all these cases. At times, financial arrangements would be made to accord freedom to the slaves.

Status of early Africans and their rights

Jordan (26) insinuates that the English settlement in America brought along the influence of slavery, which was not there previously. The first African slaves in America are not known exactly which part of Africans they came from. However, speculation is that it was central Africa. They settled around present-day South Carolina in 1526. In the initial colony they were living, a war broke out, and the Africans fled to seek refuge amongst the Native Americans. The colony of St Augustine in 1565 took up many African slaves. English north amerce had its first African slaves in 1619. Converting to Christianity or fulfilling their work contract earned them freedom.

The dark skin color of Africans was a major sell out for them. They faced a lot of discrimination and segregation because of that. There was no equal protection that was accorded to blacks as it was to the whites.

Equally, the blacks were taken into slavery, did not have time for recreation, and had to suffer, including being whipped by their masters. Funny as it may seem, Africans were not allowed to sit at the front of a bus and, at times, would not be allowed to share the same bus with whites. Public functions that had whites attending meant that automatically Africans were excluded. They were not to receive any education, but rather, they were just to serve their white masters. Africans were also discouraged from voting.

Original American vs. Free Americans after Slavery

The original white Americans consisted of the high-class members and the lower class members. With this, the lower class Americans would mostly be employed by the higher class Americans. It would be in the farms, businesses, and industries. Upon the onslaught of slavery, many of the lower class Americans had to lose their jobs since the same work could be done cheaply and, in other cases, freely by the African slaves that had been bought. Einhorn (1) thinks that slavery was one of the major causes of poor democracy during that time since African Americans could not vote.

The lower class Americans would then find more technical jobs or supervision of the Africans. The higher class Americans, on the other hand, did a lot of traveling, partnering, and dealing trades to increase their wealth. In as much as there were free blacks at that time, they could not freely intermingle with the free whites. They were not to vote and faced a lot of abuses along the way. There were special places for free white Americans and free black Americans. With the work of many activists and of course the passing into law the bill against slavery, to some extent the segregation reduced. To date though, we still have problems of racism haunting us.

Work cited

Murray, O. Early Greece. New York: Harvard university press, 1978. Print.

Cornell, T. The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age. New York: Routledge, 1995. Print.

Gurowski, A. Slavery in history. California: University of Carlifornia Press, 2000. Print.

Thapar, R. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. California: university of California Press, 2002. Print.

Winthrop, D. The white man’s burden: historical origins of racism in the United States. New York: oxford University Press, 1974. Print.

Einhorn, R. American taxation, American slavery. Chicago: University of Chicago press, 2006. Print.

William Lloyd Garrison was a social reformer and a prominent American abolitionist, as well as a renowned journalist. He is renowned for his contribution in starting the New England and the American Anti-Slavery Societies. As a social reformer, he vehemently fought for the liberation of slaves in the United States and was a prominent voice for the Women’s suffrage movement (Henretta, Edwards & Self, 2011).

Garrison joined the Abolitionist movement when he was 25 and was, for a short time, a member of the American Colonization Society. The organization was accused of supporting slavery, and Garrison publicly apologized for his association with the group. According to William E. Cain, “Garrison rejected colonization, publicly apologized for his error, and then, as was typical of him, he censured all who were committed to it.”

In 1831, he founded an anti-slavery newspaper, The liberator, and on its first issue, he wrote:

I am aware that many objects to the severity of my language; but is there not cause for severity? I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice. On this subject, I do not wish to think or to speak, or write, with moderation. No! No! Tell a man whose house is on fire to give a moderate alarm; tell him to moderately rescue his wife from the hands of the ravisher; tell the mother to gradually extricate her baby from the fire into which it has fallen; – but urge me not to use moderation in a cause like the present. I am in earnest – I will not equivocate – I will not excuse – I will not retreat a single inch – AND I WILL BE HEARD. The apathy of the people is enough to make every statue leap from its pedestal and to hasten the resurrection of the dead (Cain, 1995).

The newspaper was published until the end of the civil war and the abolition of slavery by the enactment of the Thirteenth Amendment. The paper helped to end slavery by voicing the brutality and suffering the slave underwent. In the last issue of the Liberator, Garrison wrote.

The object for which the Liberator was commenced—the extermination of chattel slavery—having been gloriously consummated, it seems to be especially appropriate to let its existence cover the historical period of the great struggle; leaving what remains to be done to complete the work of emancipation to other instrumentalities, (of which I hope to avail myself,) under new auspices, with more abundant means, and with millions instead of hundreds for allies. (Sikkenga & Frost, 2003).

For a person trying to understand slavery in the south of America, they should be aware of various things. The first thing needed is understanding the beginning of slavery in South America, the Abolitionist movement, slaves uprising, and the compromise of 1850.

The first legally recognized slave was John Casor, who, in 1614 lost his freedom suit after the court declared his property for life since he people of African origin could not be considered under the English Common Laws. The slave code was first enacted in 1705 by the House of Burgesses. From its legislation, the South applied it and used slaves in their plantations and homes. The Abolitionist movement started after various people started to voice their discontent with slavery. One of the most notable of these people was Garrison. The south during the Abolition Movement still maintained slaves and were against the movement.

Another important thing to note about the South during this period is the the enactment of the compromise of 1850 and its effect on the region. According to the enactment the Southerners could used the Fugitive slave law to hunt down runaway slaves. The other significant thing to note about the South during this period is the effect of the Kansas-Nebraska Act that saw the Southerners and Northerners fight. The Northerners had abolished slavery while the Southerners still practiced it. War broke out between the two when they differed on whether the territory would be admitted as a slave state or a free state (Jordan, 2008).

References

Cain, W. E. (1995). William Lloyd Garrison and the fight against slavery: selections from The Liberator. Boston : Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press.

Henretta, A., Edwards, R., & Self, O. (2011). America’s History. New York: Bedford Martins.

Johnson, O. (2008). William Lloyd Garrison and his times: or, Sketches of the anti-slavery movement in America, and of the man who was its founder and moral leader. London: Searle & Rivington.

Jordan, W. D. (2008). Slavery and the American South. Jackson : Univ Pr Of Mississippi.

Sikkenga, J., & Frost, B. P. (2003). History of American political thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The institution of slavery and its effect on people and families

In many ways, enslaved African Americans families bore a resemblance to any other family living in different times. Men and women would love each other or failed to cope with each other. The children would abide or rebel against their parents, just like normal children. However, being literally owned by another human presented the families with agony, interference, and irritations. The slaves were not allowed to wed legally. They were regarded as commodities and properties. The slaves would enter into what they considered marriage but was not considered lawful by the authorities.

The tasks the slaves had to perform

The slaves were meant to provide labor for the masters and generate wealth. They would perform different chores from dawn to dusk. Mothers would resume work a few days after giving birth. During the day, they would sneak to breastfeed the newborns. In huge plantations, it was ordinary for children to be brought together, and one mother assigned to feed them while the others toiled. On reaching seven years, children would be allocated duties such as delivering food to the master’s kids at school.

Miscegenation, how is the reality represented, effects of the development

During the slavery era, people would cohabit or marry. However, relationships between black men and white women were not allowed. The white man’s supremacy over blacks hijacked the patriarchal role of black men. They were not allowed to get anywhere close to a white woman. This was aimed at ensuring the establishment of a solid disconnection between white women and black men. The effects were that black men were considered inferior to their white counterparts.

Why age was a determining factor during auctions and enslavement

Slave buyers aimed at forcing the slaves to toil in their farms to generate wealth. Inherently, the highest bidder would take the strongest slave. Children were rarely bought unless the buyer was not financially endowed. Old people did not have any value for the buyer. Younger men were mostly bought as they were energetic and would live longer to generate more wealth. They were hence preferred, especially those with a large physique.

What were the auctions, why was it a concern for enslaved workers

Slavery auction involved the sale of humans to those who required labor. The slaves would be captured and sold to traders in Africa. When they reached America, they would be auctioned to plantation owners. When the ‘owner’ did not need the service of such a slave anymore, they would auction them to another ‘owner.’ This caused family separations. The buyer may not have the resources to buy the whole family. In that case, only the strongest would be bought.

Psychological effects of auctions

Some slaves, especially men, came to hate themselves for lacking the capacity to rid themselves of the hurdle. Those who were left behind would not know whether those captured reached their destination or not. For those who reached the Americas, their attachment with culture and surroundings felt distanced. The fact that individuals would not choose their owners was devastating, leave alone the fact that they had no control over their own destiny.

The future of slavery in the USA during the era

The victory of Northern America after the civil war and the liberation of slaves interrupted the oppression by getting rid of slavery as a lawful status. The future of slavery was uncertain as slaves were released and settled in different locations. The laws that were consequently legislated saw the abolition of the practice.

Differences between abolition and emancipation

Emancipation refers to the releasing of slaves and granting them freedom. Abolition refers to the complete stopping of slavery through legislation.

Slavery in America was entrenched and protected by the Constitution. This made it hard for it to be ended. This is due to the fact that there had to be Constitutional changes to enable its coming to an end. This paper seeks to compare and contrast the role of Abraham Lincoln and the African Americans in bringing slavery to an end in the US. Abraham Lincoln publicly claimed that he was anti-slavery. Lincoln persuaded the Border States that were still in the union to slowly and voluntarily incorporate gradual emancipation of the slaves. In return, the slave owners would be compensated by the government. Through this, it would be possible to end the war that existed between the North and the South.

According to James, there were divisions within the government regarding the abolition of the slave trade. This is evident in that they did not want to support the gradual emancipation proposal by the president and they voted it out (p.41).

This made Abraham Lincoln be very demoralized. Despite his effort to end slavery in America, Lincoln was still a revolutionary conservatism. This is evident in his proclamation that his main objective in his struggle was to ensure the success of the Union and not bring to an end the slavery in America. His intention to bring slavery to a halt was driven by the belief that it was the only way that he could have saved the Union (James 41). On the other hand, the African Americans were not contented in slavery. Their role in ending slavery was more internally motivated.

The slaves were very optimistic. They did not entangle themselves with the federal government conflict between the conservatives who wanted the Constitution to remain and the progressives who were anti-slavery. The slaves realized that they were the central cause of dispute and even the civil war. The determination for freedom amongst the African Americans is evident in that despite their lack of public voice, weapons, and political standing they did lose their focus. They took advantage of opportunities that arose due to conflicts between the Americans.

According to Berlin et al., the African Americans demonstrated loyalty to the federal government in a time when there were wrangles in the government (p.417). This gradually brought to an end every policy by the Union that did not incorporate the principle of universal emancipation. The government was forced to adopt policies that compromised its sovereignty. This shows that it was the determination of the African Americans that resulted in their gaining of freedom from slavery. The conflicts within the government resulted in the incorporation of the proposal by Lincoln regarding gradual emancipation with the integration of African Americans within the army. The slaves were freed reluctantly from the North. This was mainly due to military necessity as a result of the civil war.

Despite the incorporation of African Americans in the army as the commander in chief of the armed forces did not fight for their positions. This resulted in discrimination with regard to posts. They were assigned lower military positions. For instance, there was no chance for them to be involved in combat which they greatly desired in order to confront their enemies. They still viewed these positions as opportunities towards attainment of freedom from slavery which made the fight for more enlistment within the army (Berlin et al 417).

In his effort to fight slavery within America, Lincoln incorporated diplomatic methods through the constitution. This was met with hostility due to differences between the Unionists and the Confederacy. In contrast, the African Americans were determined to fight for their freedom even if it mean civil war. Lincoln provided a platform for the accomplishment of the African Americans’ objective.

In conclusion, it is evident that Abraham Lincoln greatly contributed to the abolition of slavery in America by fighting for the incorporation of the principle of gradual emancipation. It was Lincoln’s administration that first endorsed the African Americans joining the army. This allowed them to fight their enemies who were initially the slave owners.

Despite this, his effort was motivated by the need to retain the cohesiveness of the Union. The African Americans took advantage of the wrangles between the north and the south.

It was their determination and effort that resulted in their freedom. This means that more credit goes to the African Americans. This is evident from the fact that they realized that they were the center of conflict in the government between the North and the South.

They realized that the differences amongst the whites were could be capitalized for their own gain. Their decision not to accept being reduced into doing menial jobs upon incorporation into the military resulted in an increased ability to fight for their freedom. It also provided them access to more legal freedom.

Works cited

James, M. The role of Abraham Lincoln in the abolition of slavery in America, Massachusetts : Massachusetts University Press.

Berlin, I, Fields B, Miller, F.S, Joseph, P.H, Rowland, L.S, The role of African Americans in the abolition of slavery, London: Cambridge University Press.

American history always symbolizes the controversy of viewpoints and diversity of religion movements. The brightest written argument is the book “American slavery, American freedom: The Ordeal of colonial Virginia” by Edmund S. Morgan. The book witnesses the close alliance between the establishment of freedom rights in Virginia and the rise of slavery movement which is considered to be the greatest contradiction in American history. That crucial statement was consistently grounded by Morgan’s numerous arguments.

In Morgan’s opinion, Virginia colony could be compared with Utopia place where slavery was considered to be a mere labor work of people that were addicted to “Protestant Ethics” of Max Webber. Consequently, the government refused to acknowledge the fact of suppression of human inherent rights and freedoms. Instead, they compare slavery with an honorable service to the welfare of the upper levels of the society. Moreover, people were consciously working since they considered it to be their duty to cultivate Virginia’s land. Further on, the inhabitants of the Brutish colony did not express a burning desire to change their ways of life and slaves were considered to be a profitable and beneficial property. Later, servitude was officially accepted.

Morgan’s argument concerning the existence of slavery is proved by the idea the acknowledgment of racism of Virginia of that time. In other words, racism was the trigger point that facilitated the official introduction of slavery. In addition, Morgan makes a tangible accent of an enormous interest of Virginia’s colonists to gain high profits by means of slaves. According to Morgan’s strong belief, the rise of liberty and freedom and the existence of slavery was “central paradox of American history” from seventeenth to nineteenth century. To support the idea, the author examines different levels of society and illustrates the inevitable union.

Viewing generally the book, it is hard to omit the fact that Morgan’s study of that paradox is mostly connected with the history of Virginia where he simply describes Virginia colonial experience. Here, he shows that the recognition of slavery did not necessarily have to be an inherent part of English colonization. Thus, the writer brightly portrays how American history was shaped relying on the event taken place in Virginia. More grave conflict arises in Morgan’s failure to explain the slave-base welfare of Jefferson and Washington defending freedom and owning slaves simultaneously (Kevin R. Hardwick & Warren R. Hofstra, 2003, p. 52). To my mind, the strong point in depicting the facts lies in its transparency where they are identified as rather persuasive and provoking but still too generalized and judgmental.

Considering arguments mentioned above, it is hard to distinguish the actual relations between these two incompatible phenomena. Nonetheless, Morgan’s attempt to assign the history of the British colony to American history was quite successful. It explains by the fact that slavery and oppression prevailed and considered to be the dominant features of American history. That perpetuated topic has grounded its traces in the history of Virginia. In general, Morgan’s interpretation of the history of the United States is rather provoking and disputable and has many points left for further discussion. A thorough examination needs the point that concerns the actual attitude of Americans to the slavery problem. However, the drawbacks of ideas are mostly focused on Morgan’s prejudiced attitude to the colonists and to the problem of slavery.

The use of slave labor is one of the most shameful pages of human history, which has not yet been completed since slavery still exists in the modern world. Seduced by the possibility of quick enrichment, the users of slave labor of both the past and the present, betrayed their humanity due to power and money. They did everything possible to protect themselves without thinking about the consequences for enslaved people. The devastating effects of this phenomenon are thought of by various philosophers, thinkers, economists, and other concerned people. In his book Middle Passage, Charles Johnson also raises the topic of slavery in its various aspects – debt, colonial, and internal. Despite the fact that slavery is not only morally unacceptable but also destructive for society, a lot of efforts are still required to eradicate it completely.

The protagonist of Middle Passage, a freed slave Rutherford Calhoun, gets on the ship Republic going to Africa for new slaves. It is his attempt to avoid a forced marriage and blackmailing of a criminal to whom he owes money. Moreover, after sailors discover an unwanted passenger, he is also forced to work without pay. In Africa, the team takes representatives of the Allmuseri tribe with them, as well as their sacred treasures. Dissatisfied with their position, black people revolt on the ship. After that, the captain, having lost control, commits suicide, and the other surviving members of the team cannot understand the vessel’s location. The situation is complicated by consequences after a storm and uprising – the Republic is badly damaged, and the personnel is not enough to manage it. Circumstances lead to a wreck, and only a few people survive thanks to another vessel Juno.

Middle Passage is interesting for readers not only by the richness of events but also by a variety of symbols, metaphors, and themes that fill it. Having recently received freedom, the protagonist is trying to avoid another coercion – an unwanted family life. At the same time, he is a financial prisoner, as he owes a considerable amount to the criminal. Slavery, in its various forms, manifests itself in unexpected places and haunts Calhoun. However, readers can see the devastating consequences of this phenomenon in the events on the vessel. It represents a powerful allegory – “A ship is a society, if you get my drift. A commonwealth, Mr. Calhoun “(Johnson 131). Moreover, the ship’s name and the indicated date of birth of its captain – July 4, 1776, leaves no doubt that the boat embodies the American state. Through this allegory, the author expressed his concern about the destructive influence of slavery not only on the oppressed but also on the oppressors.

The Allmusic prisoners are indifferent to the fate of the ship, which brought them so much misfortune, as well as slaves, cannot take care of the future of the country, which divided the families and captivated them. Both of them can destroy the shelters of their enslavers without worrying about harming themselves as well since this is better than no freedom. On the ship, as in society, power over someone else’s life poisoned the minds of people, there are also those who see injustice but are afraid to fight it. Disrespect for the values of the oppressed, pressure on them, and absence of protection gave rise to resistance and unrest. It seems that only Calhoun understands that everyone can only survive together – he is in the minority, like everybody who shares this opinion.

Thus, presenting the country’s model on the ship Republic, Charles Johnson demonstrated the detrimental effect of slavery on society. It gives too much power to wealthy people, awakening greed, a tendency to violence, and other negative qualities in them. Rapid enrichment of slave labor makes it necessary to hide the bad attitude towards these workers by any means. As a result, not only various ways of compelling to work appeared but also ways to hide and justify such actions. Slaveholders did not pay attention to the fact that these actions destroyed not only morality but also the state itself. Moreover, slavery gives captive peoples grounds for hatred and the struggle for their freedom at all costs, which ultimately also takes many lives and bring sufferings.

Works Cited

Czopp, Alexander M. “The Consequences of Confronting Prejudice.” Confronting Prejudice and Discrimination, edited by Robyn K. Mallet and Margo J. Monteith, Academic Press, 2019,pp. 201–221.

Johnson, Charles. Middle Passage. Scribner, 1990.

Thijs, Jochem, and DeaPiscoi. “Perceiving Discrimination in ‘Real life’: Distinguishing Negative Events from Discrimination Attributions.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, vol. 38, no.3,2016,pp. 166–172.

“Types of Discrimination.” CDC, 2017. Web.

Introduction

African slaves did not come to Latin America (New World) out of their own choice. Such decisions were made for them through a combined effort of African rulers and traders who bought, enslaved and then sold them to American and European ship owners and traders, who in turn transported and sold them to slave owners in the New World. In actual reality, no African would have chosen his or her destination in the coffee, cocoa, sugar, tobacco and cotton plantations of the Atlantic, Pacific and Caribbean coasts. During the 1490s and early 1500s, individual Afro-Spaniards and Africans had accompanied the first batch of Spanish explorers traveling to the Caribbean. In the early decades of the 16^th century, this number increased when Italian and Spanish entrepreneurs established sugar plantations in the New World, the first ones being on present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic which at that time was known as Hispaniola. The Spaniards then moved on to New Granada (Colombia), Mexico, Peru and Venezuela between the 1520s and 1530s where they introduced sugar plantations and Africans as well.¹

The first African Slaves to Brazil and the Caribbean

By 1600, Latin American plantation agriculture was very well established not in Spanish America but in the region of Brazil. This form of agriculture had been transplanted to Brazil by the Italian and Portuguese merchants and planters who had already established a substantial sugar industry on the Cape Verde, Madeira and Sao Tome Islands, off the Atlantic coast of Africa. At the beginning of the 17^th century, the Brazilian coastal regions of Pernambuco and Bahia produced more than half of the world’s sugar. When the plantations were established, the Brazilian planters initially obtained labor from the Native Indian tribes. But in the first half of the 16^th century, the Indian populations of Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico were drastically destroyed by excessive demands for labor, enslavement and worst of all, by the new European diseases towards which the Indians had no immunity.

Indian deaths due to disease led to massive depopulation. Due to a series of cultural, religious and political reasons, both Portuguese and Spanish governments also decided against permanent enslavement of American Indians. These Indian populations were inexperienced in systematic peasant labor and it was therefore not easy to exploit them and although the Indian labor was available, it proved a very expensive undertaking to maintain them. Portugal’s new empire in the New World was also growing very first and her population was too low to provide the necessary labor. This led to no other option than to experiment with African laborers who unlike the Indians who proved difficult to be removed from their land, were very mobile. Due to the need for continuous labor to maintain the plantations, the Portuguese merchants started bringing in African slaves to replace the Indian workforce that was now getting defaced.²

The vast growth of the sugar industry created a high demand for the new type of slave labor and Africans gradually increased in number to service this demand. By 1600, Africans had replaced Indians to become the dominant labor force on these plantations and over 500,000 African slaves were brought to this Portuguese colony during the 1600s; a number that was about ten times higher than in the previous century. By 1800, a total of 2.5 million slave laborers had been brought from Africa to Brazil, compared to less than 1 million slaves in the whole of Spanish America combined.³

During the 1700s, mining expanded in Brazil creating a new demand for African slave labor. In the period between the 16^th and 17^th centuries, Latin America’s major mining centers existed in the Peru and Mexican highland silver mines where African labor had not been significant. Gradually however, small but very significant gold deposits were discovered in Central America, Hispaniola, Colombia, Cuba and Venezuela and because of the shortage of labor form the Indian plantations as well as the familiarity of gold mining among many of the West African slaves; African slave labor became an important source of labor in the mines. Potosi silver production in Peru also created a demand for cheap labor making this place a rich market for African slaves. The unification of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns between 1580 and 1640 also created a conducive atmosphere for Portuguese merchants t supply the Spanish markets in America with slaves. Because the humid and hot rainforest conditions were intolerable for the Indian laborers and Europeans, mine owners relied on work gangs of slaves often under the management of mulatto or free black overseers.⁴

Slave labor also became predominant in many urban occupations ranging from the unskilled to the most highly skilled occupations. They were the prominent source of labor for any large enterprise that was in need of great numbers of laborers stationed in one place such as the manufacturing and construction sectors. Other production sectors such as bakeries and meat drying and salting factories in Brazil and Argentina also relied heavily on African labor. Slaves also worked in other smaller sectors such as furniture making, hat and comb factories, shipyards and glass working factories. For the primary products to be of any use they had to be transported and the African slaves found work as mule drivers in the countryside as well as stevedores and porters in the towns and major cities. They provided the much needed transport for moving people and goods through streets as well as unloading and loading of cargo from the ships that docked in the ports. Africans also worked as fishermen and sailors on Brazilian coastal vessels or as oarsmen in Colombia where they ferried cargo and passengers in large canoes along the Magdalena River. African slaves provided domestic services and slave servants are said to have outnumbered free servants in the major slave ports of Havana, Bahia, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro.⁵

Slaves were imported in large numbers because of the lack of an alternative means of sourcing labor and also because the slave populations’ inability to reproduce themselves. This is because throughout Portuguese and Spanish America, slave deaths exceeded births year after year especially in the plantations where conditions were often brutal and harsh, leading to high infant mortality. There was also a sexual imbalance among the African slaves whereby only about one third of the slaves brought to the New World were women. Most of the slave labor therefore consisted of men. The Atlantic slave traders had also become efficient in their dependability for African slave supply. Prices for slaves were also stable and this made African slave labor attractive to the settlers. The Spaniards also generated enormous wealth from their conquest of the American Heartland and this provided them with capital to import slaves.⁶

Between 1750 and 1780, about 16,000 – 17,000 Africans arrived in Brazil every year with the number rising to 18,000 every year in the 1780s, 23,000 in the 1790s and 24,000 each year in the first decade of the 19^th century. The Island of Cuba experienced even a greater increase with the number of slaves rising to 7,000 Africans per year between 1790 and 1810. In the French and British Caribbean colonies, slaves were also imported in great numbers and majority of the inhabitants were slaves. By the 1750s, slave imports to Jamaica surpassed those that went to all other British Caribbean colonies combined. It was followed by the French occupied Island of St. Dominique and by 1791; this Island rivaled Jamaica in the importation of slaves. Jamaica and St. Dominique combined imported approximately 1.6 million slaves in the period between 1701 and 1800. Other British and French Caribbean colonies imported about 1.1 million slaves.⁷

In North America, the situation was a bit different with most of the first slaves being imported from the Caribbean colonies rather than Africa. Another majority of the slaves were born in these New World. By the early 17^th century, slaves could be found although in small scale in the New York, New England, New Jersey and New Amsterdam. But the situation changed towards the end of the 17^th century when tobacco cultivation became widespread in the Chesapeake region especially Virginia. Planters soon turned to the transatlantic slave trade as a source of slaves. By the 1740s, slaves formed over 40% of the total population in the tobacco growing zones. The North American slave system exhibited some characteristics that were quite unique in that its slave population increased through reproduction while other societies relied entirely on the transatlantic slave trade for their supply of labor.⁸

Before the exportation of slaves to the USA was stopped in 1808, about 360,000 slaves had been imported to the USA, a figure that fell below 4% of all the slaves brought to the Americas. Before the outbreak of the American Civil war in 1860, America’s slave population was about 4 million slaves, over ten times the number of slaves imported from Africa. This contrasted with Brazil’s slave population which constituted approximately four million slaves imported from Africa before slave trade was stopped in the 1850s. This number represented about 40% of the total number of slaves who had crossed the Atlantic and over ten times those that were sent to the United States. Yet according to the Brazilian national census, the slave population had fallen from approximately 1.5 million to about 720,000 by the time slavery was abolished in 1888. By the time slavery was being abolished in the Americas, only the US slave population had expanded beyond the imported number.⁹

Conclusion

Most Africans brought to the New World therefore served as laborers in the production of tropical plantation crops or precious metals. The colonial economy was primarily based on large scale production of essential commodities that would be exported back to Europe. Gradually, these economies expanded and matured, creating a wide variety of productive activities in which African slaves provided the much needed labor alongside the free workers. Initially, African slaves were expensive to acquire but as the economies grew and capital became available, they soon became the most desired source of labor for the development of the new export industries established in the New World.¹⁰

Works Cited

Andrews, George R. Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. 12-20.

Bergad, Laird W. The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007. 96-97.

Klein, Herbert S. African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. 22-31.

Footnotes

1. George Reid Andrews, Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000 (New York: Oxford University Press) 12-13.
2. Herbert S. Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (New York: Oxford University Press) 22-25.
3. George 14.
4. Ibid; Herbert 28-29.
5. Ibid 15-16; Ibid 30-31.
6. George 16-17.
7. Laird W. Bergad, The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba and the United States (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press) 54-55; George 19.
8. Bergad 96-97.
9. Ibid; George 19-20.
10. Herbert 27; George 14.

The early nineteenth century was a time that was as significant for the south as it was for the north. As more southerners chose to step into the southwest and explore their prospects, the trade in the south began to grow just as steadily and the steadily developing trade served to position the south quite strongly in the US economy. However, as effective and advantageous as this development may have been for the south, it was still not as strong as that experienced by the north around the same time.

However, this phase of development had not been one that had either triggered unexpectedly or began out of the blue. In fact, the development process had begun to take root as early as 1800 when the plantation systems became the talk of the town and slave labor was still used. It was a time when the south began growing steadily. However, there was a certain element that was not present in this growth. There was no development of technology and no development of sophisticated techniques that showed the promise of long-term growth and development for the south.

“This second middle passage as the historian Ira Berlin has called it was a traumatic experience for perhaps a million dislocated African Americans”. (Brinkley 282)

If the south was to be divided into the upper south and the lower south, one could not help but notice that there was a certain shift of power in terms of the economical strength that the south held. This shift was basically caused by the eventual deterioration of the tobacco industry. The tobacco industry had been fueling the south for quite some time now but the industry had begun to dwindle as more producers chose to switch to cotton production. This trend was based upon a desire to grow a crop that could be more stable in the long run and could be relied upon to provide the producers a higher degree of profit at the same time. The focus began to shift from tobacco production to the production of sugar, rice, and cotton. This can be seen as a well-justified measure since the demand for cotton was also recorded to grow around the very same time.

“Much of the upper south continued to rely on the cultivation of tobacco”. (Brinkley 280)

This was observed as the cause for the decrease in the slave population of the south as well. This was so because of the fact that because of one reason or another, the slaves began to move to the cotton-producing parts of the south, and slave selling became one of the most active trade activities in the areas where the dominance of the agriculture sector was observed to be steadily decreasing.

“But this southern failure was also in part the result of a set of distinctive to the south”. (Brinkley 284)

The essence of this transition remained in the fact that the south was sliding into a position where it was now relying increasingly on the north and the fact that canals, roads, and other modes of transportation were in a treacherous condition did not help to help the south develop. Another area that was developing rapidly around the same time was that of textile. The south was undergoing considerable improvements in terms of the textile as well.

A question that may arise in this regard is the exact difference between the north and the south at this point in time. If a line was to be drawn between the north and the south to answer this question, we can conclude that it was in effect the boom in the agriculture industry in the south and its decline in the north at the same time.

Works Cited

Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation: A Concise History of the American People. McGraw-Hill, 2003.