Category: Silk Road

Summary

The historic silk route or the Silk Road is one of the finest examples of the quest that the people even in those days used to display in order to carry out trade and business. In fact, the policies of globalization date back to the later part of the 20^th century, but if we minutely analyze the trade along the Silk Road, we find that the barter trade of goods and commodities en route the Silk Road is an example of the globalization practices of those times.

Modern-day globalization has opened up newer vistas of trade and business all around the globe. It is said that the opening up of economies has now tilted the balance in favor of market forces, which is helping the consumer by way of providing quality at reasonable prices.

During the 2^nd Century BC, the traders used to have an influence on the respective governments, while now the MNCs are effectively dictating the policies to the governments. MNCs have now begun to explore the markets outside their domestic grounds. Therefore, studying the historic Silk Road, its inception, its emergence as a reliable trading route, and its role in transforming the social relations and economies will help in understanding the relevance of prevailing ‘globalization practices’ during the period.

Silk Road – Network of Trade Routes

The historic Silk Road is in fact not a single highway or road, but it is a network of interconnected routers. Some of these routes became famous as the Silk route, as silk was an important commodity being traded along the routes which had a connection with China and the Chinese silk. In their urge to explore the business prospects, Western travelers took the route across the Torugart Pass from Chinese Turkestan through to the Central Asian countries, including the fabled caravan cities of Samarkand, Burkaha, Merv, and Mashad. Other routes across Pakistan and Afghanistan, and on through Iran and/or Turkey to the Mediterranean.

Though it is not a single road, yet the formal opening of the Silk Road is stated to have taken place in the late second century BC, when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, started expanding his empire into Central Asia, where his imperial routes and agents connected with the existing routes to India, the Middle East, and Rome¹. Historians have roughly divided the Silk Road into three regions:

• Northern Silk Route: It goes through Turkey, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, and Mongolia.
• Central Silk Route: Passing through the Caspian Sea, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Xi’an in China, and also extends into China’s Xinjiang Province, the Tian Shan Mountains, and the Karakoram Highway.
• Southern Silk Route: includes Egypt, Israel, Syria; also extending further south to Iran, Pakistan, and through the Khyber Pass to Afghanistan.

The German geographer, Baron von Richthofen termed² the trade route as “seidenstrasse” or Silk Road in the 1870s, for its overwhelming use in trading Silk. Some of the countries which were on the Silk Road, like China, the Central Asian countries Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and the Caucasian states of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia as part of attracting tourists and providing a boost to the tourism industry. Silk Road or silk route is commonly known as a road of prosperity, business and trade ties. This is the road connecting different regions/ countries in the Asian subcontinent and parts of the Mediterranean.

India, China Persia, Rome, ancient Egypt, and Mesopotamia are some of the regions through which this route passes. During the early days, silk was also used as a writing material, and manuscripts were written on silk cloth using it as paper. China was at the forefront of the silk trade and exported silk to many countries around the world. In fact, silk was invented in China around 3000 BC. And it was during 200 BC that Han rulers took control of the Tarim region. The Silk Road was subsequently opened under China’s control and the route to the Western part of the world started working.

Chinese traders used Silk Road for trade, which resulted in establishing of the Silk Road. Subsequently, other countries also started using the road for carrying out their trade-related activities thus strengthening the mutual relationship. In fact, the ‘silk road’ is not a road as such, but a long stretch of trade route taken by the trading community. The trail spread mainly across Central Asia, resulted in prosperity not only along the route but in nearby regions as well, as branches from the main route emerged out of the Silk Road towards newer destinations in the interiors of the region. During those early days, the Roman, Parthian, Kushan, and Chinese worked towards providing stability to the Silk Road.

In fact, history is replete with examples indicating military ambitions being turned into trade relations or vice-versa. The spread of the Silk Road is also stated to have emanated from the desire for military and political purpose in 2^nd century BC. To fight against Xiongnu’s repeated invasion a court official was sent by the then ruler Han Wudi to the Western Regions³. But the court official Zhang Qian was captured by Xiongnu and detained for 10 years. When Zhang Qian escaped from prison, he started off his journey towards Central Asia and gathered a lot of information about the potential available for trade along the way. Gradually this information started translating into trade along the route with Silk being the prime commodity.

Though the ‘route’ as such was named as Silk route, it was used for trading many other items including some precious commodities. Team of traders heading towards china used to carry gold and other precious metals, ivory, precious stones, and glass, which was not manufactured in China until the fifth century. On their return, these teams used to carry items like furs, ceramics, jade, bronze objects, lacquer, and iron⁴.

While returning home these traders used to sell these items along the route, or sometimes used to barter these items for some other stuff, from the local markets in other countries/ regions. Different countries had on offer different types of merchandise for China while the Chinese started off with silk and then added more items on the trade. For example, India traded with China in gems & jewelry, semiprecious stones, and glass which are the forte of India for many centuries.

Buddhism also spread from India to China through the silk route. The famous Chinese philosopher Fa-Hsien was one of the first known Chinese travelers who took the Silk Road for traveling towards India around 300 AD. Marco Polo, the famous traveler took 24 years while traveling through Asia. He also chose the Silk Road for his adventurous journey. His travels ignited the urge for industrialization in the Asian subcontinent.

It is a well-known fact that business and trade result in the amalgamation of different societies and cultures. The Silk Road also had a big influence in taking Buddhism from India to China. Today, besides Daoism and Confucianism, Buddhism happens to be one of China’s three main religions. Research studies have come out with the fact that Buddhism became so prevalent in China within five years of opening trade along the Silk Road that as many as 90% of the population converted to Buddhism⁵ during those times. Buddhism prospered during the first half of the Tang dynasty, but during the second half, the widespread acceptance of a foreign religion started generating counter-reactions, thus diminishing its effect to some extent.

Today we can very well boast of the ICT era that led to a technological boom in the industrial world, but historians credit Marco Polo’s travelogue for bringing about the technological changes. In fact, the silk route led to industrialization in this part of the world proved to be a turning point for technological advancements. Marco Polo with his entourage did a lot of purchasing from one region and sold it in another region along the silk route, which strengthened the trade practices along the Silk Road. The products sold by him were appreciated by the people because till then people did not have much idea about the products being made by neighboring countries and regions.

Though Osterhammel and Petersson identify the period from 1750 to 1880 as an era that gave rise to the phenomenon of free trade development and as an important step towards globalization but Marco Polo’s trade along the silk route, during the first half of the 14^th century could very well be termed as the beginning of globalization. Trade along the Silk Road prospered during the times when China was ruled by a succession of non-Chinese dynasties belonging to different ethnic groups, as these groups depended to a great extent on outsiders for trade.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) launched a ten-year project⁶ entitled ‘Integral Study of the Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue’ in 1988, to highlight the complexities of cultural interactions arising from the encounters between East and West, and help in shaping the multiple identities and the rich common heritage of the Eurasian peoples. Many expeditions were undertaken as part of the project to retrace, by land and by sea, some of the Silk routes.

This involved the active participation of many experts from all the related countries. The objective of the study was also to explore the possibility of stimulating researches along with the international and national levels for promoting the concepts of multiple identities and common heritage by undertaking field studies of scientific, technological, and cultural exchanges taking place between the East and West.

Trade activities along the Silk Road suffered a decline owing to change in political equations in China and neighboring India. When power passed on to the Song dynasty, it proved to be weak in retaining control over the strategically important central and northern part of China, which resulted in the loss of control over Central Asian trade, thus diminishing the role of the Silk Road. Subsequently, Chinese rulers started paying more attention to the sea route for carrying out trade. Thereafter when Mongols came to power during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth century, the Silk Road was once again revived for trade.

It is indeed an irony that China is termed as the pioneer of globalization because of the silk route, but today, when many countries around the world have opened up their economies to globalization, China is rather slow in picking up the threads, with much more caution. During the 14^th century, Silk Road proved to be the lifeline of business and trade with different parts of the world, not only along the silk route but in areas like Korea and Japan as well. Goods used to be traded from one end of the Silk Road to another, along the Eurasian region, via the route itself, from where these goods used to be traded across to other regions using maritime trade.

Port cities were the most crucial components of carrying out businesses. This way trading activities acquired a global proposition, benefiting many parts of the world. This was the form of globalization that China helped in spreading throughout the world.

In fact, the free trade regimes like NAFTA, SAFTA, etc. which have started appearing on the scene nowadays in the name of free trade also have their roots in the Silk Road. During those times, there were many types of rules and regulations prevalent in different parts of the world, but when Marco Polo went out on tour along the Silk Road to many places around the world, he helped in communicating some of the business practices being carried out in one part of the world to other regions. This was a definite boost to the practice of free trade.

By the 19^th century, when economic interests became supreme to all other interests, the Asian subcontinent became a hotbed of activities, with colonial powers from the west taking control of many parts of the region. Silk Road too became a part of this struggle for supremacy.

When British traders landed in India, they were there for trade, but subsequently, these traders became rulers of almost the entire India. Subsequently, in order to strengthen its control over India, England started taking control of the Silk Road. Rivaled by Russian forces, England was largely successful in taking control of some parts of Afghanistan Tibet, which helped in strengthening its control over India. Having strengthened themselves in the neighborhood of China, these rulers started extracting concessions from Chinese rulers. At the same time, Russia took control of many parts of central Asia. These developments led to the closure of the all-important Silk Road.

The curiosity about knowing more about this aspect of globalization of earlier times has forced even WTO (World Tourism Organisation) to undertake a ‘Silk Road Project’. In one of its General Assembly meetings held in Indonesia in 1993, WTO decided to create a long-term tourism project for promoting a special ‘Silk Road Tourism Concept’. The ‘Samarkand Declaration on Silk Road Tourism was adopted in 1994 by 19 participating countries, which marked the formal launch of the project. It was and proclaimed that the development of sustainable tourism along the route would benefit both tourists as well as local populations.

There are, in fact, talks of reviving the Silk Road between India and China nowadays, as these two big economies are busy talking about cooperation in different fields. Once bitter rivals, now India and China are trying to come closer so that both nations can realize the fullest potential of globalization. Let us wait for another revival of the Silk Road.

References

1. Imperial Tours (2008). The Silk Road. Web.
2. Sairam (2007).WTO Silk Road Project. Web.
3. Travel China Guide (2008). History of the Silk Road. Web.
4. UNESCO (2002). The Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue. Web.
5. UNESCO (2001). The Silk Roads. Web.
6. Wild, Oliver (1992). The Silk Road. Web.

Introduction

The Silk Road, which has also been referred to as the Silk Route, was a trade path. Xu and Li explain that the road was functional from the second century B.C to the fourteenth century A.C. One of the reasons why the road is of interest is the fact that it stretched from Asia all the way to the Mediterranean. This means that the route cut across India, China, Arabia, Italy, Greece, and Persia. It is prudent to point out that the road got its name due to the fact that the communities that traded were mainly interested in silk and its product. It can be argued that silk was used as a common currency during that time. However, traders could also get other elements such as grains, other types of fabric, and also wood and metal works. It is prudent to mention that different cultures would meet on the Silk Road. This meant that a majority could not understand each other due to the different languages they spoke. This essay analyzes the languages that were used on the Silk Road. However, in order to understand these languages and how the traders communicated, it is critical to understand the cultures that were represented on the Silk Road.

Cultures on the Silk Road

One of the reasons it is important to understand the cultures on the Silk Road is their impact on language. As mentioned previously, the different communities that were trading on the Silk Route had differing languages. One of the common cultures was Chinese. This was due to the fact that the most valuable commodity for trade (initially) was Chinese Silk. Van Der Wende confirms that once the material became common, other communities started making it. It is important to note that due to the initial interaction with the Chinese in order to get Silk, several cultures borrowed from the Chinese culture. Additionally, it is also possible to find that the Chinese culture also borrowed from the other cultures that were represented on the road. Critically, due to the differences in languages, these cultures had to use a shared language in order to understand one another.

Another culture that was represented in the Silk Road was European. This community was well known for gems and pearls, which became more common as more people were able to get silk from their communities. Therefore, the culture became important on the road as more people wanted to get the desired commodities. It can be argued that one of the ways in which the European culture affected other people on the Silk Road is by offering them items that were already deemed important in the European nations. For example, medicine was traded, not only by the Europeans but also by other cultures. One can argue that medicine was a highly cultural commodity, therefore, trading the item would also mean giving out some parts of one’s culture. This led to the integration of different cultures and further ensured that all the cultures on the road were intertwined.

Critically, Persians were also part of the communities that were found on the Silk Road. McCannon notes that one of the most spread cultural aspects is food preparation. This can be attributed to the Persians and other communities that were found on the Silk Road. It is important to note that one of the key trading commodities of the Persians was spices. They were well known for the different spices that were used both for food preparation and medicine. It should be noted that in order to properly trade this commodity, the Persians had to communicate what the individual spices were for. This goes to prove that there is an element of language exchange that happened on the road. It should be noted that the exchange of culture, or rather some cultural elements, also led to the exchange of language.

Last but not least, the Arabs were also part of the Silk Road. Indeed, one can argue that the growth of the trade led to different cultures visiting different nations. For instance, Arabs got to travel to India while the Chinese got to travel to Iran and so forth. These exchanges not only affected the people’s views of the different cultures but also their languages. Further, it should be noted that these exchanges also led to the distribution and further understanding of different religions. It can, thus, be argued that the road also affected culture by spreading the different religions such as Buddhism and Islam. Other cultural elements that were also shared include martial arts and even calligraphy.

Languages in the Silk Road

As stated, due to the numerous cultures that were represented on the Silk Road, the communities had to use common phrases in order to understand each other. One of the common languages that were used on the road was Sogdian. It can be argued that the Sogdian was based on the Iranian language. Therefore, it can be argued that it was more common near Iran. It can be argued that this was a common language due to the fact that its vocabulary was also found in other parts of the world. It should be noted that specifically, the language was spoken mainly in present-day Uzbekistan, which was referred to as Samarkand at the time. It also extended to Bukhara and Tashkent, which was known as Chach back then. The language, however, spread far and wide from its original point and other traders used it in different parts of the Silk Road as well.

A second language that was used in the Silk Road was Khotanese. It should be noted that this was also a part of the larger Saka language and was borrowed from the Brāhmī script. Critically, the language was often used in the Taklamakan Desert, which is a part of modern-day China. The spread of this language goes to prove how different cultures integrated with one another and how they influenced each other on the Silk Road. The communities that subscribed to this language also read materials in this or the Brāhmī language. It is important to note that the language also led to the spread of Buddhism among communities that traded on the Silk Road. As mentioned previously, the cultures traded more than commodities and language, they also traded cultural aspects such as religion.

Interestingly, there was more than one language that was used in the Taklamakan Desert and the Tarim Basin. Indeed, another common language that was used in the region was Tocharian. This language was also based on the Iranian language and culture although it was spoken more in what is now a part of China. This Indo-European language offered traders a second option that they could use in the event that they did not understand Khotanese. It is important to note that these two languages were also spread far and wide and traders would often use the same languages in other parts of the road. Critically, the fact that this, and the Khotanese language were both used in what is modern-day China indicates the importance of China on the road. As explained previously, China was important due to the silk, which they were the first to produce.

Last but not least is the Chinese language. In order to understand the importance of the Chinese language along the road, one also has to understand the importance of Chinese culture. Critically, all traders started trading for silk and other Chinese products on the road. This meant that they had to learn how to communicate with the Chinese in order to get the products that they needed. Those who could not communicate would miss out on the important trades. The Chinese language, therefore, was more widespread than the other languages due to the initial impact of their silk. This also ensured that the Chinese culture was spread throughout the road.

The Silk Road and Globalization

It can be argued that the element of globalization was based on the activities and trades that occurred on the silk road. This argument stems from the concept of leaving one’s home and going to a different region to either work or get something that is needed. One can debate that the initial silk road was mired with challenges that have been avoided in modern-day globalization. For instance, the traders used more time to travel to the silk road for trading. Today, the issue of travel has been solved due to the advancement of the transportation systems around the globe. Debatably, the silk road shaped and can be used to shape, the topic of globalization today due to the impact of increased and more efficient transport options.

On the issue of language, the silk road also helped shape trade and globalization today due to the spread of language. Currently, the most common language used in the trade is English or French. It can be argued that the two languages have opened up regions and even led to the spread of other cultures to other regions. For instance, English led to the spread of Christianity all over the world. It can be argued that the use of a common language for trade allows for efficient trading and also the growth of the industry. This has also made globalization easier and more effective in regards to the growth of industries and even cultures.

Conclusion

In conclusion, there were numerous languages that were used on the silk road. The most common, arguably, was Chinese. This is due to the fact that when the road started, the most precious commodity was silk, which was a Chinese commodity. Therefore, other cultures had to learn an aspect of their language in order to conduct trade effectively. Other languages that were used include Sogdian, Khotanese, and Tocharian. These languages were often used in different regions but it was also common to find traders using them on different parts of the road. It should be noted that the spread of language also led to the spread of other cultural elements such as religion and even food preparation.

Bibliography

Akgul, A. et al. “An Ethnobotanical Study in Midyat (Turkey): A City on the Silk Road Where Cultures Meet”. Journal of Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine, 14, no. 12 (2018): 6-12.

Fierke KM and Antonio-Alfonso, Francisco. “Language, Entanglement and the New Silk Roads”. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 3, no. 3, (2019): 194-206.

Hansen, Valerie. “Silk Roads: Peoples, Cultures, Landscapes”. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 51, no. 2 (2020): 344-348.

Kim, Tschung-Sun. “The Development of the Silk Road: The Postal Relay Route of Mongol and Goryeo.” Acta Via Serica Inaugural, 1, no. 105 (2016): 117.

McCannon, John. AP World History: Modern Premium: With 5 Practice Tests. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 2020.

Van Der Wende, Marijk et al. China and Europe on the New Silk Road: Connecting Universities Across Eurasia. London: Oxford University Press, 2020.

Xu, Dan and Li, Hui. Languages and Genes in Northwestern China and Adjacent Regions. New York, NY: Springer, 2017.

Introduction

The origin of silkworms’ products such as silk is believed to have emanated from China as this was the first established niche for silkworms by way of introduction of the mulberry tree. Silk is a natural fibre that is generated by silkworms in their quest to build a cocoon. It occurs in single long strands that are released by the worms and can measure up to several hundred metres.

After the discovery of silk in china, this product was endemic to the Chinese communities but later it received global acceptance and thus the increasing demand for the silk products. Particular, the Asian market was very fond of silk garments thus, leading to the emergence of a trend that saw the popularization of silk products as trendy and luxurious because of silk’s high quality natural fibre.

Further, the increasing interest in silk made garments and the luxury attached to the silk products made the silk products popular than gold thus leading to the emergence of silk trade. This particular trade involved the exchange of products such as silver and gold for the luxuries silk fibre. This trade was majorly between the Westward and the East leading to the emergence of what was referred to as the silk route.

Hangzhou is China’s hometown of silk and silk industry and quite famous for its long history. It has long established itself as the home of silk production. It has approximately 300 silk production enterprises at present, leading the country in terms of the number of factories.

In the long course of historical development, it created a brilliant performance, and there were the golden era of prosperity；It produced a wealth of material products as well as valuable experience in production technology derived from a large number of spiritual wealth as well as cultural content.

Industry Background

The background of the silk industry can be traced back to the Romans who discovered the relevance of this fabric from their colonies. After the Romans discovered silk, the market and demand for silk made products in Rome escalated thus contributing to a scarce in silk.

Due to the value attached to the silk products, the Romans were adamant in trying to find out the source of silk or how it was produced thus necessitating the need to track down the silk traders in all the towns and the villages.

Unfortunately, the traders were not aware of the silk source as they were majorly merchants rather than the producers. Therefore, the traders were in no position to disclose details as it appertains to the production of silk.

Due to the Romans dire quest to find the source of the silk, Roman soldiers were sent for a mission of tracking down the silk sources and the people involved in the production of the same by following the silk route.

However, this mission was faced by a few setbacks as, some of the soldiers did not see through the completion of the task and those who managed to sail through the mission did not find a route through the desert that would direct them. Thus they did not find any relevant information with regards to the silk source or the people involved in the production of the fibre.

The Silk Road took caravans to the farthest extent of the Han Empire. To ensure the security and the continuation of the trade, it was relevant to secure the silk route. This led to the construction of a wall along the Gansu corridor thus propelling the silk trade and brings in some sense of habitation along the route. These saw the emergence of urbanization and construction of religious sites such as temples.

Further the urbanization led to the emergence of roads leading to and from the silk sources though with a greater extent of rugged terrain thus proving difficult to access the silk production areas.

Though the importance and value placed on silk and silk related products is still high, the demand of the product has consistently deteriorated until recently when the product use improved significantly thus necessitating the need to implement reforms in the silk industry.

Macro Economics

Of particular interest to this subject is Hangzhou which is the epitome of Zhejiang province by virtue that it’s a capital. Hangzhou is a commercial capital with a high number of industries and sceneries that are of interest to investors and tourists. A major investment industry that is highly regarded and ranked in Hangzhou is the light industry. Hangzhou is also home to a well renowned large flax textile industry.

Due to the fact that silk was first discovered in china, consequently, China is home to some of the largest produced quantities and most sophisticated quality silk products.

In recent years, Hangzhou silk in brand building, product quality, enterprise transformation, the profession competitive power, has been in a leading position in the country: the national 17 companies which won the Chinese silk association awarded high-end silk marks the first, among which five enterprises in Hangzhou were selected.

The first batch of Chinese famous brand product won the title five silk enterprises, Hangzhou accounted for two. In the 2008 Beijing Olympic licensed merchandise franchise, Hangzhou silk enterprises accounted for about three companies. The need to come up with a system that can stabilize the market price of silk and silk products is among the major concern among the major players in the silk production industry.

The improvement of silk and silk related demand is also key though the stake holders are adamant in believing that stabilization of the prices through a system is key in determining the demand of silk and silk products. Therefore, necessitating on the need to implement the reform policy that seeks to stabilize the markets and thus consequently the demand of the silk products both locally and globally.

However, the changing environmental conductions especially with reference to the changes in the climatic regimes and the mean temperatures have also been classified as one of the major impediments towards the production of cocoons by the silkworms.

However with the importance that most global leaders have placed on the need to deal and adapt to the changing climate, it is only a matter of time before a solution to this issue is arrived at.

National competitiveness

Hangzhou represents an economy that is flourishing and the success of its trade endeavours has been greatly attributed to globalization through opening up of new trade ventures and the actualization of reforms in the industry.

In recent years, Hangzhou government takes “To promote the silk product and develop women’s wear” as an important content in building the city of outstanding quality life and harmonious society and has made remarkable achievements.

Last year, the output of the silk and women’s wear industry reached 178.2 billion Yuan. Silk products’ development is valued by the municipal government and it has very good prospects. While not many consumers of modern time are familiar with silk products and even less take silk products as their choices.

Hangzhou infrastructure is highly developed especially the energy and water sectors which can adequately meet the needs of the people. Another sophisticated form of infrastructure that has immensely grown includes the transport sector.

Further, the media and communications industry has also grown over time adding to some of the major facets of the capital that have generated a lot of interest especially from tourists who are keen on visiting some of the rebranded tourism sites.

Comparison to sector in other countries-Italy and France

Given China’s history with the silk industry, it consequently follows that this is the hub of the silk industry and as such the largest in the world. For instance, throughout the 90s, China has been the major producer and supplier of silk and silk related products.

China silk supply to the world amounts to more than 71%. In comparison with a country like France which has also been a major contributor to the production of silk on a global scale China still dominates the production of silk. France though not a major producer in bulk is able to meet up to 70% of the domestic demand of the silk thus leading expanding markets for France made silk garments and fabrics.

Again while comparing China and Italy which is also a major player in the global silk industry, Italy still has a lot to invest in the silk industry in order to much the quantities produced in china. However, Italy has been able to capture the European silk market by meeting the customer demands thus strategically taking over more than 80 % of the European Silk market.

Hypotheses

1. If china continues with the trend of improving their silk industry, they are likely to increase their GDP and eventually their economy will grow tremendously in years to come.
2. If China improves on its silk production capacity, then China will remain the major supplier of silk and silk related products globally.

Conclusion

Local governments should continue with their effort to introduce new facilities that will bring in latest high-end silk manufacturing machinery that will elevate both the quality and the quantity of the silk being produced in China. The new facilities are likely to render significant revenue increases as a result of improved production and distribution capabilities.

In addition, the response to economic trends, e-commerce will be a help to expedite the development of traditional trades. Hangzhou has become a modern development and production base for communication products, making it a key destination for foreign investors in the IT field.

Many businesses already in the Hangzhou Silk City on Alibaba and Taobao, have set up their own e-shop, while the market is more in need for an overall unified online trading platform.

Silk City is in the planning of this web-based platform for all commodities to be traded through the network considering that the platform will enable the Industries which are not only the main contributor to Hangzhou’s GDP, but also the main source of its financial income, to make efficient sales for their commodities. The sector provides employment opportunities and a better income for Hangzhou residents as well.

Introduction

Historians agree that cultures in China changed drastically during the Silk Road era, especially in terms of religion, arts, and architecture. Although the connection between India and China is the most established in historical literature, it is worth noting that the Silk Road system involved several societies interacting with each other. Also, despite the use of the term ‘silk road,’ the system involved various routes rather than a single road¹. Therefore, there was substantial contact between the Chinese and the people living along these routes. All these cultures experienced a significant impact on the interactions. While the Europeans, Indians and other Asians obtained materials commodities such as silk, utensils, and medicine, the Chinese obtain both material and immaterial objects from the trade².

Nevertheless, the most important impact of the Silk Road system experienced in China is the art culture. Arguably, the Chinese art and architecture borrow a lot from the other cultures involved in the Silk Road system. This information provides evidence that Chinese culture and societies were the major beneficiaries of the system.

A brief history of the Silk Road network

Historians agree that the origins of the Silk Road trade network can be traced back to the Han dynasty. According to historians, after replacing the Qin dynasty, the Han rulers allowed a significant degree of democracy and freedom in their territories³. For instance, they allowed new territories into their kingdoms, encouraging them to retain their traditions and cultures. Also, Han rulers encouraged trade and commerce between territories. Historians argue that this system aimed to ensure that the new territories find comfort and desire to remain as part of the kingdom. With this technique, the Han rulers wanted to build a strong empire to outdo their strong neighbors.

The desire to achieve strong allies led to the establishment of the Silk Road system. Around 119 BC, Wudi, the Han Emperor, sent Zhang Qian to the west in search of a strong ally⁴. The king had heard of a strong empire in the west and hoped to establish a strong treaty. However, Qian and his entourage were captured by the Hun tribe and held captives for about a decade. Nevertheless, he escaped and continued to the west. Historians still debate about the possibility of Qian proceeding with the expedition even after losing contact with Wud’s office for a decade. However, it is clear that the power of the emperors in ancient Chinese societies was absolute. It was necessary for the task or face extradition. Also, historians doubt why Wud did not send a second envoy in pursuit of Qian, even after losing him for ten years⁵.

However, history indicates that Qian and his men reached India. Qian found a kingdom and thought that he had reached the empire he had been pursuing⁶. However, the Indian ruler did not find it necessary to form a defensive alliance with Wud due to the distance involved. On his return to China, Qian was sent again with a larger delegation and trade objects, especially silk and art pieces⁷. He came back to China with ideas on religion, culture, architecture, food crops, and animals. This marked the beginning of the Silk Road system.

Impact of the Silk Road system on the Chinese art and art culture

After Qian’s expeditions, the trade routes between China and western societies advanced in the subsequent centuries. They passed through India and the Middle East and eventually reached Italy, North Africa and the east coast of Africa. The interaction between the Chinese and their partners in Indian, Persia, Arabia, and other Asian regions had a profound impact on the Chinese culture. Art and architecture are some of the most significant products of the Silk Road interaction⁸.

Gold was one of the artistic materials introduced to China from Asia. It was introduced from central Asia, where it was mainly used as a means of trade and measure of value or wealth. However, it was not used in its natural form. Rather, it was used for carving artistic products, which were used as money or utensils⁹. Scythian art is well represented in China by the advancement and introduction of gold. Jade carvers started using gold in their work. The made various products depicting “animal militaries locked in combat” on utensils and ornaments. History argues that the Scythian, a nomadic group located along the Silk Road, was the origin of the idea of depicting animal art of steppes. Quite evidently, the Chinese culture had little regard to animals because the people mainly depended on food crops¹⁰.

Secondly, the Silk Road system introduced the Hellenistic art culture in China. The Greek empire, supported by the Bactrian kingdoms in central Asia, had advanced deep into the central Asian regions¹¹. Like the Asians and Indians, the Greeks found Chinese items, especially silk, very attractive, and valuable. They consolidated both direct and indirect trade with the Chinese groups. In return, the Greco-Bactrian had a major influence on Chinese culture. For instance, the Chinese, especially the Han society, adopted the idea of designing art with rosette flowers, glass inlays as well as geometric shapes, which were aspects of European and Asian arts. These aspects were inherited from early Egypt. Hellenistic art culture in China is found in bronze mirrors developed during the Han dynasty.

Also, Buddhist culture and religion brought several new ideas that changed Chinese art. The image of Buddha is an important example of the influence that Greco-Buddhist cultures left in Chinese art. Buddha’s first images were established through sculptures in the 1^st century in areas such as Gandhara and Mathura, Northern India¹². Through trade and interaction between communities, the image was progressively adopted in the interior parts of central Asia. With the coming of the Silk Road system, the Chinese envoys and traders eventually introduced the religion in China alongside the image of Buddha. Eventually, the Buddhist religion and artwork reached Japan through China.

Conclusion

Although the initial aim of the Han dynasty to establish defensive allies with the western kingdoms in Asia, the results of the expeditions from the Han Empire led to the establishment of the Silk Road. The Silk Road system connected communities between the west and the east, allowing them to exchange ideas, goods, and cultures. This analysis indicates that Chinese art experienced the largest impact of the system. The coming of gold and bronze from Europe and Asia brought new arts cultures such as Scythian, Hellenistic, and Buddhist.

Bibliography

Bentley, Jerry. Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times. London: Oxford University Press, 1993

Boardman, John. The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.

Foltz, Richard. Religions of the Silk Road. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Footnotes

1. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times (London: Oxford University Press, 1993), 57.
2. Bentley, 69
3. Bentley, 187
4. Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 42.
5. Bentley, 251
6. Foltz, 58
7. Foltz, 97
8. John Boardman, The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 73.
9. Foltz, 213
10. Bentley, 393
11. Boardman, 172
12. Boardman, 349