Category: Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud’s contribution to science is immense. His psychoanalytic theories of personality, unconscious mind, and child development forever changed the way we see human behavior. This essay will focus on Sigmund Freud theory of psychosexual development.

Sigmund Freud Theory: Introduction

Sigmund Freud, in the Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality explored the concept of sexual development from psychological point of view arguing that sexual development intricately links the behaviour, beliefs and psychology of an individual. Freud changed the perception of sex when he proposed that sexuality forms an integral part of childhood development as sex mediates between the body and the mind (Perron 5). He noted that sexual instincts are major driving forces in personality development.

Sigmund Freud has redefined the ordinary physical perspective of sexual development by incorporating psychological aspect of psyche. In his psychoanalysis theory, Freud proposed that the psyche has three components, namely, the ego, the super-ego and the id. Super-ego is the conscious component of the psyche that imposes and regulates cultural sexual constraints while the id is the unconscious component that determines the sexual instincts of pleasure and is important in socialization.

The ego is the component of the psyche that interfaces and coordinates the super-ego and the id in the harmonization of the conflicting sexual instincts and cultural sexual constraints in the process of psychosexual development (Dhanyasree Para. 1). To study sexual development, Freud divided the development process into five phases, namely the oral phase, anal phase, phallic phase, latency phase and genital phase basing on the source of the sexual drive.

Oral phase

Oral phase is the first phase of psychosexual development that begins from birth and continues up to about two years. In this phase, the primary source of sexual instinct or the erogenous zone is the mouth because the baby finds the pleasure in sucking her mother’s breast, sucking the fingers, or even putting any objects into the mouth (Stevenson Para. 3).

Critically, at this stage the baby is actively putting things into the mouth in order to satisfy the stimulating sexual instinct in the mouth. The psychological explanation is that, since the baby is still very young, super-ego and ego components of the psyche are immature thus the baby is under unconscious control of the id and cannot coordinate components of the psyche.

Therefore, the dominant component of the psyche is the id, which makes the baby be under the unconscious control of the id hence the baby focuses on the sexual instincts to derive pleasure (Perron 8). As the ego develops, the baby differentiates the environment and the body by the senses and can start demanding her mother’s breast or anything to suck.

Poor nursing or early weaning deprives the baby the pleasure of parental care and this forms part of the early challenges the baby experiences. During these challenges, fixation can occur, the baby will have problems in future such as aggression, dependency, nails biting, smoking, drinking or eating (Cherry Para 2).

Persistence of fixation characteristics into the live of an adult is an indication of the effects of the early sexual instincts in the development and modification of personal character. This implies that one can modify human behavior as early as the beginning of sexual instincts and proper childcare can help prevent fixation, which is the residual consequences of due to the unsatisfied motherly pleasure on the kid at an early stages of sexual development.

Anal phase

This is the second phase of psychosexual development and it involves a shift of sexual instinct from the mouth into the anus. This phase occurs between the ages of about 2 years and 3 years when a child trains on how to use a toilet. The source of sexual drive is the anus and the child finds pleasure in the “repulsion or retention of feces” (Stevenson Para. 4).Since the ego and super-ego have developed, they child psyche now have conflicting components of the psyche.

While the dominant id component unconsciously seeks pleasure in expulsion of feces, the super-ego component is the pressure seeking to instill proper toilet training to the child by the parent. The ego then tries to harmonize the conflicting demands from the parent, which is the super-ego and child’s desires, the id.

In the anal phase, the child has two options to choose: the child can either follow the desires of the id or comply with the demands of the super-ego. If the child opts for the desires of the id, it means the child is going to have pleasure in expulsion of feces at any time and place as they please and if the parents do not correct this habit, the child will continue with it into the future affecting the character.

The future character of the child will be an “anal expulsive character” that is careless, messy, reckless, disorganized, and defiant personality (Stevenson Para. 4).

On contrary, if the child opts for the demands of the super-ego, it means that the child either followed the demands of the parent in toilet training or has the pleasure of retaining the feces. If the child finds pleasure in the retention of the feces and continue enjoying without the notice of the parent, the child will overindulge this habit and develop an “anal retentive character” that is obstinate, clean, precise, orderly, meticulous, careful, stingy and passively-aggressive personality (Stevenson Para. 4).

The two characters, the anal repulsive and the anal-retentive characters result from the autonomy of the ego and not compulsion from the super-ego or the id. The ego choice of character and proper toilet training in the anal phase will significantly affect individual inclinations and attitudes towards authorities on how one can comply or disobey.

If the parent imposes toilet training to the child, physically the child will seem to comply but the ego of the child did not harmoniously sort out the conflict between the super-ego and the id resulting into perpetual conflict that affect the personality of the child. The resulting effect of dictating the ego of the child will lower the self-esteem and decision-making ability since the autonomy of the ego is interfered.

Phallic Phase

This stage occurs between the ages of 3-6 years and it is the most critical stage in sexual development. Here there is shift in the erogenous zone from anus into genitals as the child explore own genitals and genitals of the friends as an adventure to understand sexuality. Although the source of the sexual instinct originates from the genitals, the genitals are not mature as adults but boys experiences occasional erection in their sleep and they find pleasure (Cherry Para. 2).

The major conflicts at this stage are the Oedipus and Electra complexes for boys and girls respectively, which are the “unconscious desire to possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate the same-sexed one” (Stevenson Para. 5).

Oedipus complex is the unconscious selfish interests the boy experiences as he competes with the father for the love and attention of the mother. The unconscious desire and natural love for his mother is due to the sexual instincts experienced at the oral and anal stages and it is transforming into real sexual desire (Dhanyasree Para. 5). As a boy mature, he begins to identify his sexual identity and associate with his the mother more than the father.

The boy feels that his father threatens his love towards the mother and he begins to envious as he tries to compete with his father for the attention and affection of the mother The boy develop fears when he realizes that her mother do not have penis like him because the father has castrated her. Freud describes this fear as “castration anxiety” (Cherry Para 5). This fear is due to the super-ego that tends to dominate the id as the boy mature and become more conscious about the choices he makes.

The term Electra complex describes the unconscious envy that the girl child experiences at the phallic stage. When the girl identify her sexuality and realizes the difference between mother and father or boy and girl sexuality, Electra complex ensues. After realization that she do not have penis and perceiving that her mother castrated her, she become envious for the penis of her father.

Freud describes this envy for the penis as “penis envy” (Stevenson Para. 5). The envious demands for the penis by the id outweighs super-ego cultural demands leaving the girl fixated, still envying men into the marriage. Since the girl has no option, she begins to identify with her mother and start to learn her sexual role.

The phallic phase is the most crucial stage where children learn their sexual roles after they experience the battle in their psyche. At this stage, there is a shift in the psyche as the id that is dominant in the childhood gradually dominates the super-ego. The ego then harmonizes the conflicting forces in the psyche making the child to accept reality and love both parents without fear of castration or envy of the penis.

If the conflicting super-ego and the id demands remain unsolved, fixation will occur. In women, it results into extreme characters such as hunger for superiority over men, seductive or low self-esteem, and while in boys, fixation may result into immorality, narcissistic, over ambition or careless behavior.

Freud further proposes that fixation can be the root of cause of homosexuality and other sexual anomalies (Stevenson Para. 6). The aberrant sexual behaviors that occur in an adult life originate from the phallic stage of psychological and sexual development, thus, phallic stage is very critical in the development of sexual characters as well as personality.

Latent Phase

Latent phase occurs at the age when the child start schooling up to the age when adolescence begins. This stage is latent because the sexual instinct or libido drives are dormant and the erogenous energy of the genitals is directed into other areas of thinking process such as intellectual pursuits, games, and social interactions (Cherry Para. 6). Although sexual drives are dormant in this stage, the habits formed at earlier stages of psychosexual development are processed into concrete behaviors.

Essentially, what really happens at this stage is that the ego is taking control of the id because at the phallic stage, the Oedipal and Electra complexes causes repression of the id, hence the child is do not longer operates under the unconscious demands of the id but is under the conscious control of the super-ego and ego coordination.

In the conscious state the child begin exploring and discovering the environment as a way of exercising the ego in making decision and choices. This stage determines the personality in terms of communication, socialization, and self-esteem.

Latent phase critical depend on the resolution of the Oedipus and Electra conflicts that occur at the phallic phase because the conflict between super-ago and ego can be resolved or it may remain unsolved.

The importance of conflict resolution in the preceding stages of psychosexual development is that it forms basis for the development of subsequent psychosexual development stages. Thus, any anomaly in conflict resolution in the psyche will result into the aberrant behaviors such as poor communication skills, anti-social character, and low self-esteem.

Genital Phase

This is the last stage of the psychosexual development and it occurs at the age of about 12 years when puberty begins until the end of puberty where major secondary sexual characteristics occur (Perron 12). At this stage, the dormant erogenous energy drive at latent stage is activated resulting into strong sexual urge to the opposite sex. Here there is the shift of interest from selfish needs to the consideration of the needs of others (Cherry Para. 7).

The shift in the needs is due to the maturity of the ego that allows proper coordination of the conflicts in the psyche making the child to transition well from the childhood into the adulthood. The child at this stage experience sexual maturity and get interested in doing responsibilities of the adults like doing work, love relationships or can even marry.

If there are conflicts that are unresolved from the preceding stages, now the child starts to feel their impacts at this stage. It is at this stage where there is a manifestation of the psychosexual development experiences, since secondary sexual characteristics are more pronounced. Proper development of ego and genitals at this stage results into a balanced individual with a normal personality.

Sigmund Freud Psychosexual Theory: Conclusion

Sigmund Freud has greatly changed the perception of sex by incorporating the psychological aspect into the sexuality. The earlier perception that sexual development is just a physical and only occurs during puberty is quite unsatisfactory in explaining the causes of aberrant sexual behaviors and diverse personalities. Psychosexual development theory elucidates what really constitutes sexually right from when the child is born up to the puberty point of maturity.

The psychological components of psyche, the super-ego, the ego, and the id clearly demonstrate psychological perspective of sexuality and character development of an individual. From Freud perspective, sexuality and character development are more of psychological rather than physical appearances that only depend on the biological dictation.

Psychosexual development theory gives five sequential phases that a human being undergoes in the course of sexual development. These phases are closely linked and dependent on one another in the cumulative building up of the sexual and psychological development and eventually the overall character of an individual. Psychosexual theory has significantly changed the perception and the definition of sexuality in the modern world.

Works Cited

Dhanyasree, Munnar. “Psychosexual Analysis” Oneindia Living. 2008. Web.

Cherry, Kendra. “Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development.” Psychology. 2010. Web.

Perron, Roger. “Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.” International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. 2010. Web

Stevenson, David. “Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development.” The Victorian Web 2001. Web.

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the approaches of two of the most significant personalities in the field of psychology: Sigmund Freud and B.F Skinner. These psychologists have contributed immensely to the growth of psychology as a credible science, and in the process adopted diverse perspectives. But their goals were the same: to be able to explain and understand the complexities of human behavior and to determine why humans behave the way they do.

Of the different approaches taken up, five can be said to be the major perspectives used by these psychologists – Biological, Psychodynamic, Cognitive, Behavioral, and Humanistic. Sigmund Freud was the main proponent of the psychodynamic perspective while B.F Skinner belonged to the behavioral school of psychology.

Main body

First, let us consider the psychodynamic approach of Freud. An Austrian psychologist of the early 1900s, Freud’s name is readily recognized as a psychologist by most people, even though they may be totally unacquainted with psychology. The psychodynamic approach advocated by Freud is based on the premise that “behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control.” (Feldman, 2002). Freud believed that most behavior is prompted by the unconscious part of an individual’s personality. He further suggested that a human being’s personality had three separate but interacting components: the id, ego, and superego. The id is the basic and primitive part of the personality that operates according to the pleasure principle, seeking constant gratification of natural instincts like hunger, sex, and aggression. The second component of personality, the ego, functions according to the reality principle, balancing the desires of the id with the limitations of the real world in which the person exists. The last and final component, the superego, could be stated as shaped by the ideas of right and wrong that society has laid down and as shown by significant individuals like parents, teachers, or other role models who influence a person. The superego, driven by the conscience and ego-ideals, helps a human being to control the wild impulses of the id. Thus it can be said that the ego acts as a buffer between the id and superego. An unrestrained id would result in reckless selfish individuals who care nothing for values or morals and act at the impulse of their id to satisfy their basic and primitive needs and thereby becoming a threat to society. On the other hand, an unrestrained superego would result in impractical perfectionism and low self-image.

Now we consider the behavioral perspective of B.F Skinner, an American psychologist of the 20^th century. His theory states that observable behavior should be the focus of the study of psychology. Proponents of the behavioral school argue that it is possible to elicit any sort of desired behavior by controlling the environment. Much of our present knowledge of how people learn new behavior is based on the behavioral perspective of psychology promulgated by Skinner. According to this school, “operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.” (Feldman, 2002). Skinner was interested in understanding how behavior would be modified by changes in the environment. He used the famous ‘Skinner box’, a chamber with highly controlled conditions to study operant conditioning involving laboratory animals. Skinner defined the process in which a stimulus increased the probability of preceding behavior being repeated. Thus Skinner theorized that personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns (Skinner, 1975).

When we compare the two different approaches of Freud and Skinner, we find that Freud’s theory concentrates on the inner person while Skinner chooses to focus on the outer person. The psychodynamic approach looks inside the person, delving into his wishes and his unconscious urges to determine the causes of his behavior. The behavioral perspective rejects this emphasis on the inner workings of the mind and lays focus on observable behavior which can also be measured objectively, making it more of scientific pursuit.

Freud had suggested that all humans pass through five stages of personality development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He held that unpleasant experiences or difficulties during any of the childhood stages may lead to particular fixations in adulthood. Over or under gratification of the child’s desires can also lead to maladjustment in adulthood. He also proposed that people tend to use unconscious strategies called defense mechanisms to deal with anxiety. Defense mechanisms include repression, regression, rationalization, sublimation, etc. On the other hand, Skinner believed that desired behavior could be elicited by a process called reinforcement. This is a process by which a stimulus increases the probability of a particular behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be positive or negative. An example of a positive reinforcer is praise or reward which when given after a particular response will increase the chance of repetition of the response. Negative reinforcers increase the likelihood of repeating a response by removing an unpleasant stimulus from the environment following the particular response. For example, taking an aspirin relieves headaches. Here, the response of taking a medication removes the unpleasant stimulus of headache. Thus chances of a person who suffers a headache, taking aspirin to remove the headache is more than a person who doesn’t have a headache taking it. Skinner was of the opinion that childhood problems and maladjustments could be overcome by using suitable conditioning and reinforcement, i.e. new behavior could be learned.

Freud’s theories were later found to have their own limitations. Most of his theories were built on rather abstract concepts and lack the support of scientific data. They are mostly based on individual case studies. Also, Freud derived his theories from the study of a very limited population so it is not possible to generalize his theories across all cultures and societies or even an eider group of people. “His theory of problems in early childhood stages resulting in adult fixations offers no way to predict which way the difficulty will be exhibited.” (Crews, 1996). He also put too much emphasis on sexual urges and his belief that infants and children are driven to behave in particular ways for sexual gratification has come in for much criticism. At the same time, though Freud’s psychodynamic approach has been criticized on many features, some of its key elements like psychotherapy have provided a key to the understanding and treatment of different mental disorders besides understanding unconsciously motivated behavior like aggression.

Though Skinner’s approach does not deny the concept of personality traits, it chooses to lay more significance on the features of the person’s environment. It thus puts forth an optimistic attitude that humans are changeable through the process of learning new behavior patterns and personal and social problems can be solved using effective learning strategies. One criticism of Skinner is that most of his laboratory work involved animals. The results of this work could not be simply extended to humans. Also, laboratory use of animals raises sensitive issues of ethics and animal rights. Skinner’s works were also alleged to be highly conducive to justifying or advancing the cause of totalitarianism (Chomsky,1972). At any rate, Skinner’s contributions to psychology remain awe-inspiring. It has helped make headway in helping treat disorders, coping with drug addiction, and resolving aggression. His ideas on reinforcement and learned behavior have influenced theories of learning and teaching. It has helped develop strategies to improve employee performance at the workplace. Skinner believed that it was possible to create ideal behavior patterns based on the principle of conditioning and behaviorism.

Conclusion

Thus it can be said that while both approaches may have their own limitations, they have served as solid foundations for the next generation of psychologists to work upon. The distinction between the two different approaches of Freud and Skinner will blur as current research involves an integration of relevant features of both schools of thought.

Works Cited

1. Feldman, Robert S. (2002). Understanding Psychology. (6^th edition). New York: Mc Graw Hill.
2. Skinner, B. F. (1975). The steep and thorny road to a science of behavior. American Psychologist, 30.
3. Crews, F. (1996). The verdict on Freud. Psychological Science, 7.
4. Chomsky, N.A. (1972). The Case Against B.F. Skinner.

Abstract

The name personality has several meanings that suit various situations. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is one of the theories describing the personality in human beings. According to Freud, the theory seeks to explain why people behave the way they do, studies human’s brain, and explains more about their personality.

This paper discusses the various elements of the theory, its history, development and research. In addition, it takes a detailed look at Sigmund Freud who came up the theory and seeks to explain the various elements of the theory, and reliability of the research.

Psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalytic theory was developed at the end of the 19th century in 1880’s. It was based on the discovery made by Breuer, who studied a person who had a trauma in childhood, consequently affecting him during his adult life. According to this research, it was discovered that someone’s personality is related to his/her childhood experiences.

Freud states that it is through mechanical terms that people’s mental energy is released. Through various stages of child’s development, a person changes his/her character and releases his/her mental energy.

Psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud is arguably the most famous amongst the personality theories. According to Freud, family life has a subconscious influence on a human’s sexual drive. Family also affects the individual’s nonsexual development. According to the psychoanalysis carried out by Freud, there are other effects that affect our thoughts (Carver and Scheier, 2011).

The thoughts and the motivation we have around us are such factors that affect the way we act, as well as the way we do things. According to Freud, the main drives or motivators of an individual’s personality are related to the sexual and aggressiveness. The theory further explains that the problems experienced during a person’s adult life are as a direct result of the conflicts during their childhood experiences.

As a result, the theory breaks down the process of childhood growth according to the psychosexual motivators as a child develops. These stages of growth seek to show that at various stages during growth, a person (child) has various motivators that shape their behavior, and keep changing as they move to the next stage of psychosexual growth. Any faulty growth or unsuccessful/unhealthy passage of any of the stages is said to result in the adult life conflicts, which eventually determines a person’s personality.

Just like any other theory, Psychoanalytic theory has its assumptions. One such assumption is the fact that humans have unconscious urges in their brain. The unconscious mind contains desires which the mind wish for, but the desires are usually limited by the world as they may not always be fulfilled.

The Psychic determination is the other assumption. It is assumed that everything that goes through people’s mind is as a resultant of an identifiable element. Through this assumption, things like accidents and miracles are eliminated. There is also the assumption that though the brain is an internal structure, it has several separate parts that are always competing amongst each other.

To learn about Freud’s theory, it is important to understand the basics the developer of the theory lays down first. One of the things he puts across is existence of a conscious and a non-conscious mind. The conscious portion of the mind is all about anything that we are knowledgeable about. Since this portion includes things we know of, it is usually easy to retrieve them whenever they are needed. Therefore, retrieving information from this part of the memory is usually very easy.

The section of the body that contains this information is referred to in Freud’s theory as the preconscious portion of the brain. The unconscious mind is like a reserve that contains thoughts, the feelings a person has as well as the memories that the human mind is not aware of. The main content of information of this portion is feelings of pain and anxiety. However, though we may be unaware of these feelings, it is evident that they are also involved in controlling our behavior (Beystehner, 2001).

Freud highlights three elements that are contained in a person’s personality; the super ego, the Ego, and the Id are the three elements that affect an individual’s personality. When a person is born, the id element of personality is in him/her. The id element is unconscious and contains primitive and instinct behavior of the person.

It is simply what would be considered as the primary component of a person’s personality. Notable about this element is the fact that it uses the pleasure principle (Carver and Scheier, 2011). The pleasure principle focuses on how the needs of a person are met. If for instance the needs are not met within the required time, anxiety and tension results. Id is important especially when it comes to children in their young age as it allows them to express their feelings through crying so that their demands are met.

However, satisfying the demands that we may have is not always possible. The pleasure principle is therefore not always applicable. However, according to Freud, a primary process results in a bid to ensure that the tension created by the pleasure principle is resolved. The second principle in this theory is the Ego. The ego component is all about the reality of life and it tends to express the Id element in the real world. Ego encompasses all the parts of the mind previously discussed.

The principle incorporated in this element is the reality principle, which aims at fulfilling the Id element in an appropriate way. Through using the reality principle, the Ego basically tries to fulfill the images created by the Id element. Fulfilling the Id element is done by finding the solution in the real world by looking for an object to fit the image at the primary process level. Super Ego is the other element that forms part of the personality (Pervin, 1996).

It comprises of all the aspects that a person gained from the society or the parents and people around them. It is through this that a person learns what is deemed right and what is wrong. Judgment is developed from guidelines. Super ego may further be broken down into two main parts; the ideal ego and the conscience.

The ideal ego is inclusive of what is considered good behavior by people in the society or the parents. When a person gets to follow the rules laid down in the society or by the authority, a feeling of accomplishment and pride is the resultant.

On the other hand, conscience is inclusive of engaging in actions that are considered not right by the society or the parents. When a person does these wrong acts, the resultant is a feeling of guilt.

Interaction between these elements is different amongst different individuals. For a person to live what would be considered healthy living there is need to ensure that a balance of the three elements is reached. One must have what Freud referred to as Ego strength so that he can fight the competition brought about by these three elements.

Individuals who have good ego strength are able to strike a balance between these forces, while those people with low ego strength may succumb to this pleasure. Research shows that there exists a balance between explorations of the child with their safety for the exploration to be there. According to International Journal of Psychoanalysis, psychoanalysis therapy may be in single consultation therapy and may as well take about one year or more to achieve success on a person.

Psychoanalytic theory uses free association as a way of measuring the personality in humans. Free association entails the patient speaking out on a certain subject and then an analysis carried out from what the he says. It is from this analysis that a conclusion is later derived. However, there have been issues of reliability of this tool of measuring someone’s personality.

For one, it is hard for the analyst to be sure that the memories that he accesses are representing the actual memories or what the patient is imagining. Sharp criticism was bestowed upon this method of inferring conclusions. Those opposing the theory argued that by having patients talk out their issues to a professional and having them draw conclusion based on the information, there were no precise guidelines and predetermined checklist or comparing and measuring the information given so as to make reliable conclusions.

Another criticism based its argument in the fact that different patients of mental illnesses talked to different professionals, and there being no guidelines to gauge the information, interpretations were likely to vary between different professionals. Though there have been issues of validity of measurement of people personality, success may only be achieved through having the analyst inspect the transcript closely (Beystehner, 2001).

Research onto this theory has brought out the fact that there certainly is a relationship between an individual’s behavior and the subconscious portion of the mind. The theory forms a base of the modern day psychopathology. Research has also shown that, as a method of treatment for mental illnesses, psychoanalytic theory attempts to change and work on the unconscious part of the brain. Ultimately, the theory proposes that a person’s personality is dependant on the three main components of personality.

The Id component is all about the person getting gratification for the needs that he requires. On the other hand, Ego tends to fulfill the desire of Id but in a realistic way, since at times Id may not always be realistic. Finally, super ego aims at adding morality in ensuring that the ego is fulfilled.

One of the great cornerstones of Freud’s work was interpretation of dreams. Through interpretation of dreams, the subconscious mind is brought out. It also made it easier for analysts to learn and understand people’s personality well. The way a person behaves is entirely dependant on their experiences as they grew up as well as the environment one is brought up in.

Freud clearly outlined in the psychoanalytic theory that the particular way in which humans behave is determined by psychic energies and their experiences during psychosexual development. A healthy adult life can thus be achieved by successfully going through the early childhood experiences or psychosexual stages. Such are some of the things the theory talks about.

The theory emphasizes on how learning of the subconscious bit of a person can lead to the analyst unraveling important information about the patient (Pervin, 1996). By way of analyzing and understanding both the conscious and the non-conscious mind of a person, it is possible to infer the individual’s behavior as well as why they result in that particular behavior. Though there are various elements of criticism of psychoanalytic theory, its contribution to modern day therapy is undeniable.

Progress has been achieved in treatment of mentally ill patients through the bases of Freud’s work outlined in his theory. It would therefore be unfair to discard it since it offers much contribution to modern day science. Though some people dismissed psychoanalytic theory as not belonging to the science field based on its lacking methodology, the theory brought about a new branch in the science field called experimental psychology.

References

Beystehner, K. M., (2001). Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Revolutionary Approach to Human Personality. Retrieved from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/beystehner.html

Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F., (2011). Perspectives on Personality (7th Edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Pervin, L. A., (1996). The Science of Personality. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

A number of theories have been advanced to try and explain how an individual’s personality develops. Some of the prominent psychologists who have developed theories that have widely been accepted include; Eric Erikson, Sigmund Freud, and Kohler (Allen, 2003). Moreover, research findings reveal that a significant number of American population experience different types of psychiatric disorders. The essay will discuss Freud’s theory of personality development and then focus on the nature of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) as one of the common disorders affecting up to 2% of America’s adult population.

Among the various theories put forward to explain personality development, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory can be considered as one of the most comprehensive in explaining the development of human personality. Virtually all the dozen theories of personality development universally agree that personality starts at childhood and develops as the child grows to adulthood. This theory provides a clear and a stage by stage development of personality which I strongly agree with.

Freud’s theory argues that personality is shaped by inner tensions and struggles that an individual experiences and must be met sooner or later. He identified three major mental processes that are in constant conflict with each other; the Id, Ego, and the superego (Allen, 2003).

The Id involves the inherent biological instincts which are present at birth. It is irrational, impulsive, self-serving, and totally operates unconsciously. The Id is controlled by the pleasure principle but the urges are expressed uncontrollably. The ego, on the other hand, is in the middle and manages both the desires of the Id and those of the superego. The superego is like a censor for actions and thoughts of the ego.

Freud, in his theory, points out that an individual’s personality is formed before one is 6 years old by a series of psychosexual stages. He argues that infancy urges for erotic pleasure play a central role in personality development. Four erogenous zones were identified as having the potential of being the source of pleasure, frustration, and self-expression. Unresolved conflicts or emotional hang-ups would manifest themselves later in life as fixations (Allen, 2003).

The first is the oral stage. This occurs during the first year of life and the infant derives pleasure from mouth stimulation. Oral traits may be created at this stage if they are overfed or suppressed. Such traits include, gum chewing, smoking, kissing, alcoholism, and nail biting in adulthood. Fixation of oral stage later creates oral-aggressive mature person who argues always.

Anal stage occurs between ages 1 and 3. At this stage, the child attention moves to elimination process. When the child is trained on toileting, he may react by approval or express aggression and rebellion. In turn, he “withholds” or “let go.” The type of such training may instill such responses into personality. Traits at adulthood due to this stage include; compulsive cleanliness, orderliness, or disorderliness, destructiveness, or cruelty, for the case of “let go.”

When the child is aged 3 and 6, the phallic traits are develops. As a result of enhanced sexual interest, the child is physically attached to the parent of opposite sex albeit causing conflicts which must be dealt with. Phallic personality at adulthood is characterized by exhibitionism, sensitive pride, self-love, and egotism. After age 6, a period of latency ensues. This stage lasts until puberty.

At puberty, the adolescent experiences changes in sexual energies which unravel all the unresolved conflicts of childhood. This may result in emotional swings and turmoil. It is resolved by a heterosexual relationship and later leads to adult sexuality. All these characteristics can be clearly seen in day to day life and this theory can provide some guidelines (Corey, 2008).

Having discussed one of the theories of personality development, we shall now consider one of the major psychological disorders in the United States of America. Psychological disorders can really interfere with a person’s personality at any given age. Of the many psychological disorders listed, we shall focus on Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD).

OCD is a psychiatric disorder that is characterized by obsessions and compulsions of exaggerated magnitudes (NIMH, 2009). This disorder has very clear symptoms since they are not what can be expected of a normal person. The person reports having obsessions which include; persistent thoughts, impulses or images which come uncontrollably into the sufferer’s mind. This results in extreme anxiety and distress.

To counter these experiences, the sufferer resorts to compulsive or repetitive actions or thoughts like praying, counting, word repetition, or such behaviors as redoing actions, ordering, cleaning, checking, and or washing hands severally to avoid “contamination.” All these behaviors are such that they are not expected of a normal person. It consumes a lot of time and the sufferer knows that the obsessions and compulsions are senseless and inappropriate only that they find it too difficult to do without.

Unfortunately, this disorder has no cure yet apart from some prescribed treatment approaches. The most effective, according to psychiatrists, is the use of the cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) through the use of Exposure Response Prevention (EPR) (NIMH, 2009).

This is purely non-medical and it involves exposure/conditioning to sources of anxiety. The second treatment alternative is through recommended medication like Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI). The drugs used regulate the flow of Serotonin in the mind.

The essay has discussed in brief Sigmund Freud’s personality development theory. It has described how personality develops from infancy to maturity. The paper has also discussed briefly the OCD and the available treatment approaches.

References

Allen, B. P. (2003). Theories of personality: development, growth, and diversity. Allyn and Bacon.

Corey, G. (2008). Personality: theory and practice of counseling psychotherapy (8^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

National Institute of Mental Health-NIMH (2009). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Government of the United States of America.

The Approach

The main principles of Freud’s approach explained in An Outline of Psychoanalysis are focused on the “three forces of the psychical apparatus”: the id, the ego, and the superego (Freud, “Stages of Psychosexual Development” 13). Let us talk about each one of them individually. The id is a set of inherited, basic things that are present in our minds since birth. These things respond directly to the instincts.

When we are born, our personalities consist of pure id. It does not contact with the outside world and remains unchanged throughout our lives sitting deep in the unconscious part of our minds. The id is responsible for most basic thinking processes, the most primitive, illogical, irrational ones. It is spontaneous and unreasonable. The ego (or I) is conscious. It controls the id and links it to the external world. The ego constitutes the decision-making component of personality. It is operated by reason and logic.

Both id and ego are directed at seeking tension reduction (i.e. pleasure) and avoiding pain. The difference is that the id needs immediate satisfaction, whereas the ego is more patient and concentrated on planning out the most realistic and plausible scheme to get pleasure. The superego (or above I) limits the satisfaction and represents the morals and values of society taught to its members by parents, teachers, traditions, etc. The superego controls the id’s impulses, especially the forbidden ones like sex and aggression. It includes two concepts: the conscience and the ideal self.

The conscience has the ability to bring out the feeling of guilt in the ego, especially if the ego gives in to the id too much. Every time we feel ashamed of our own thoughts and actions, it is the superego forcing us to feel this way. “If a person’s ideal self is too high a standard, then whatever the person does will represent failure” (McLeod, “Id, Ego and Superego” par. 3). The ideal self and conscience are heavily influenced by parental values during one’s childhood.

According to Freud, the instincts control all of our behavior, the two basic ones being life or sex (Eros) and death or aggression (Thanatos). Eros’s purpose is to set and preserve unity via relationships. Thanatos cancels the connections and unity though destruction (Freud 18). This instinct is also referred to as the Nirvana Principle. Both Eros and Thanatos may either go against each other (repulsion) or unite and function together (attraction). The concepts of the Life Drive and the Death Drive were recognized in Freud’s later years (Colby 47).

Freud claims that sexual life begins soon after birth. The main stages of sexual development are the oral stage (birth to 18 months), the anal stage (18 months to three years), the phallic stage (three to six), latency stage (six to puberty), and the genital stage (from puberty on) (Freud, “Stages of Psychosexual Development” 24). “During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality, which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities” (Heffner par. 2).

People who have oral personality tend to smoke, drink alcohol, eat more than necessary, or bite their nails. They usually have very gullible and naïve personalities and can become overly dependent on others and are generally content with following someone. If they fight these character traits, they might become quite pessimistic and aggressive towards others. During the anal stage, the child’s focus of pleasure is “on eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation” (Heffner par. 2).

Personality-wise, people with anal fixation tend to be perfectionists and control freaks (anal retentive). They also often have an obsession with cleanliness and tidiness. The opposite effect is also known when people with anal fixation become disorganized and sloppy (anal expulsive). During the phallic stage boys develop “unconscious sexual desires for their mother” (Heffner par. 4). The rivalry with the father develops; boys become afraid of being punished for their affections. This condition is called Oedipus Complex (Silhol par. 6).

The opposite version of it, when a girl develops feelings for her father and competes for his attention with her mother is called Electra Complex (“Electra Complex” par. 1). The latency stage is characterized by repression of sexual urges. During this time, children usually communicate with the peers of the same sex. The final stage – the genital stage – starts with puberty and the awakening of sexual urges. These urges are directed at the peers of opposite sex. During this stage, an individual implements everything he or she has learned from the previous stages so far.

Psychical process in Freud’s system is always either conscious, preconscious, or unconscious (Rand and Torok 30). We are aware of the conscious ideas, we might become aware of preconscious ideas, and we cannot recognize or explain unconscious ideas.

Freud also had many hypotheses about dreams and their role in the interpretation of human psyche. The process of dreaming, according to him, is simply the id trying to break through into consciousness (Freud, “Stages of Psychosexual Development” 38). To interpret a dream, we must look deeper into what the images that constitute said dream represent.

The sources of dreams “are completely enumerated they fall into the following four categories, which have also been employed in the classification of dreams: (1) external (objective) sensory stimuli; (2) internal (subjective) sensory stimuli; (3) internal (organic) physical stimuli; (4) Purely psychical sources of excitation” (Freud, “Interpretation of Dreams” 9). Dreams can bring up forgotten memories and impressions that “have never yet been offered to us by the real world” (Freud, “Interpretation of Dreams” 22).

Personal and Professional Assessment

Adolf Grünbaum, a German Philosopher and a critic of psychoanalysis, criticized a lot of Freud’s work and approaches, particularly the dream theory and the “free association” method. The latter, implemented quite often by Freud, was deemed ineffective by Grünbaum who said it was “unwarranted to use free association to validate causal inferences” (Grünbaum 224).

He stated that “free association” presented no way for the analyst to determine whether the patients speaks the truth or simply imagine it during sessions. Psychoanalysts like Donald Spence also agreed the “question and answer” format of the sessions did not always warrant an adequate estimation of the patient’s state of mind. The analysts “are particularly sensitized (in the course of their training) to the dangers of suggestion, and schooled in a tradition which places an emphasis on minimal comment and redundant examples” (Spence 259).

Many other critics of Freud’s methods motivated their arguments by the notion that dealing with the unconscious we cannot rely on our common sense and therefore cannot properly draw any proper conclusions. Many psychoanalysts and other professionals working inside of this field think the importance of common sense in psychoanalysis is unquestionable. “Only a few fundamentalist psychoanalysts of an old-fashioned kind think that Freud was a scientist or that psychoanalysis was or could be a scientific enterprise” (Storr 260).

Eventually, this brings us to the debate about the legitimacy of psychoanalysis as a form of science. Professor Karl Popper, for example, never considered psychoanalysis a science in the first place. He claimed that if psychoanalysis supported the idea that every individual having neurotic issues, it was impossible for one neurotic individual to estimate the other’s mental state.

Since the theory cannot be falsified, it is unscientific. Similarly, many scientists concluded that the lack of consistency in the interpretations of patients’ behavior was one of the basic shortcomings of the approach as it stalled the whole system. If one psychoanalyst explains a certain phenomenon one way, and the other one interprets the same phenomenon in a completely different way, it only shows that there is no solid approach to speak of. If analysts cannot say whether a certain result contradicts or confirms a certain theory, the laws of psychoanalysis are faulty and inapplicable.

On the other hand, Hans J. Eysenck called Freud’s theory scientific and claimed that it could be falsified: “I have always taken it for granted that the obvious failure of Freudian therapy to significantly improve on spontaneous remission or placebo treatment is the clearest proof we have of the inadequacy of Freudian theory, closely followed by the success of alternative methods of treatment, such as behavior therapy” (236).

My own personal assessment of the matter is similar to the mentioned above. I do think that Freud’s charisma is much more pivotal to his approach than any of his actual theories. I think the biggest flaw of these theories is the fact that we cannot use psychoanalysis to predict outcomes. Sciences estimate the possibilities and offer predictions while psychoanalysis interprets what has already happened.

It searches for reasons in the past, but it cannot be practical in the prevention of the same reasons in the future. Freud’s methods and interpretations work well for meditation on the nature of the human mind, but they do not fully dig into it. According to Colby, digging deeper means to observe patients in a neurotic state and being able to say right away what kind of past experience has unleashed it (Colby 55). Unfortunately, we cannot do it with absolute precision based on Freud’s approach.

The Overall Effectiveness of the Treatment

The effectiveness of Freud’s treatment mechanics was rather questionable and remains such until this day. Philosophers, medical scientists, and psychoanalysis critics still have varying opinions on the way the approach have influenced the field of psychoanalysis, what methods could be considered operational and be used in psychiatry, etc. The objective of psychoanalysis is to eradicate neuroses and smooth out psychological traumas, or so it is stated in An Outline of Psychoanalysis.

Analysis can take several years during which analysts find out what patients feel and what they consider important enough to discuss. Through discussions, patients get acquainted with their analysts and form a certain bond with them. They put their trust in people they are telling their secrets and subsequently develop feelings of fondness towards them which sometimes get in the way of their judgment. According to Freud himself, when patients treat analysts as friends, mentors, or role models, they try to leave a good impression on them and lose focus on their treatment (Freud, “An Outline of Psychoanalysis” 52).

Collecting the data from patients’ “free association” sessions including dream interpretation leads to hypnotizing about patients’ past and linking these experiences to what is going on with patients in their current daily life. The point of such analysis is to confirm the analyst’s conclusions via allowing the patient to come to the same conclusions on his or her own. The analyst should not reveal the results of his or her observations before this happens, or else the patient falls into a reclusive state and the progress will be impossible.

According to Freud’s theories, overcoming this complication should become the last step towards curing the patient. The effectiveness of this approach is still questioned. Given that psychoanalysis is rarely considered a science, the fact of importance and functional quality of the information Freud gathered during his studies begs confirmation. The effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment itself depends on whether Freud’s theories can be considered a legitimate medical approach or just a set of curiously looking ideas to muse upon.

The positive sides of Freud’s theory lie in its comprehensiveness and the attractiveness of the idea to comprehend a mental illness using already existing means, i.e. the patient’s past experiences. With Freud’s practices, it has become easy to view everyday phenomena like religion, works of art, and fashion through the prism of psychological concepts. At the time, the theory of psychoanalysis was revolutionary; it set new standards in understanding the human psyche in general. The fact that it is still debated is proof enough that scientists and therapists find some of its notions worthy of attention.

This theory helps analysts and psychologists recognize small nuances that they otherwise would have missed. The fact that psychological treatment is practiced and considered commonplace and usual in the modern society right now is also Freud’s achievement. Psychoanalysis was the first theory to pique interest in human psychological and emotional development and the way childhood memories and traumas, social environment, and individual qualities encoded in the psyche during upbringing affect it.

On the opposite side of the spectrum is the conviction that “Only a few fundamentalist psychoanalysts of an old-fashioned kind think that Freud was a scientist or that psychoanalysis was or could be a scientific enterprise” (Storr 260). Indeed, Freud’s theory is not fully confirmed yet despite being widely used and becoming a noticeable part of our lives. This is the biggest drawback that practically puts the theory in the same row with astrology and mystic studies making it look like an attractively looking concept that people practice for the sake of its esthetic. Naturally, such order of events cannot inspire any serious treatment in the scientific community and is often given a skeptical glance. Time and time again, this theory does not receive due respect because of its implied insufficient scientific value.

Overview of Freud’s Major Theories

1. The unconscious mind. Freud developed a layered model of human mind, which includes the following:

• The conscious. It includes the thoughts that occupy a person’s attention right now.
• The preconscious. It includes everything that a person can retrieve from their memory.
• The unconscious. This is “a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area” (McLeod, “Unconscious Mind” par. 16).

The unconscious was considered the most significant region of the human mind, as well as the cause of most human behavior. Memories and wishes that are too uncomfortable to acknowledge are stored in the unconscious. Repression is a process through which uncomfortable thoughts are kept from becoming conscious and remain tucked into the unconscious to avoid anxiety.

2. The psyche model. According to this model, the human mind consists of three parts. “These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions” (McLeod, “Unconscious Mind” par. 18). Id is the part of the mind that operates on the pleasure principle, i.e. satisfaction of basic needs.

Id itself consists of two instincts of drives: Eros, known as life instinct, which is responsible for breathing, eating and sex; and Thanatos, the destructive instinct that results in violence and aggression when released. According to Freud, Eros is stronger than Thanatos, which allows humans to survive. Ego is responsible for satisfying the needs of id in a socially acceptable way; it functions on both conscious and unconscious levels and operates on the reality principle. Superego ensures that a human behaves in a way that conforms to society’s moral standards. Superego operates on the morality principle.

3. Psychosexual stages. A child is born with a libido, i.e. the desire to receive sexual pleasure. During various childhood stages, the child looks for pleasure from different ‘objects’, which signifies corresponding stages of development:

• Oral. The mouth plays the central role; pleasure includes sucking and swallowing. This is the stage at which ego develops.
• Anal. The anus plays the main role; pleasures include withholding and expelling feces.
• Phallic. Penis or clitoris take the center stage; masturbation becomes the source of pleasure. At this stage, superego develops.
• Latent. Sexual motivation is weak or absent.
• Genital. Penis or vagina plays the central role; sexual intercourse is the source of pleasure.

To be psychologically healthy, a person must finish each stage. If, however, a stage is not completed, a person becomes ‘fixated’ at this stage, which results in mental abnormalities later on:

Oral fixation. Results from forceful feeding/deprivation/early weaning. Effects in adult life include oral activities such as smoking; dependency; aggression.

• Anal fixation. Results from toilet training being either too harsh or too lax. Effects include obsessiveness; meanness; untidiness; generosity.
• Phallic fixation. Results from abnormal family, which leads to an unusual relationship with a person’s mother or father. Effects include vanity, feeling of inadequacy, inferiority issues, envy, sexual anxiety, and self-obsession.

Personal Position

Freud insists that “reality will always remain unknowable” and it is virtually impossible to determine what is normal and what is abnormal (Freud “An outline of psychoanalysis” p. 83). If the author of the theory himself doubts it can be universally correct, this poses a lot of questions. Personally, I think that, despite all the inconsistencies, Freud’s approach has a myriad of positive sides; it is a unique experience that helps us better understand the workings of our own minds even if a little suspension of disbelief is in order for the theory to work.

Freud’s ideas are open to interpretation and serve as a starting point for many other analytical approaches. They function well as an inspiration and an engine that drives other sections of the studies of human mind and suggest various directions they might follow. It is no more than a figurehead that implies a vast range of concepts but does not necessarily elaborates on them, leaving it to analysts to assess and utilize the tools it offers.

Works Cited

Colby, Kenneth. An Introduction to Psychoanalytic Research. New York, New York: Basic Books, 1960. Print.

Electra Complex Definition n.d.

Eysenck, Hans J. “Failure of Treatment – Failure of Theory?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9.2 (1986): 236. Print.

Freud, Sigmund. An Outline of Psychoanalysis, New York, New York: Norton, 1989. Print.

—. The Interpretation Of Dreams. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.

Grünbaum, Adolf. Précis of the Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9.2 (1986): 217-284. Print.

Heffner, Christopher. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development.

McLeod, Saul. Id, Ego and Superego.

—. Unconscious Mind.

Popper, Karl. “Predicting Overt Behavior Versus Predicting Hidden States.”

Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9.2 (1986): 254-255. Print.

Rand, Nicholas, and Maria Torok. Questions for Freud: The Secret History of Psychoanalysis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997. Print

Silhol, Robert. “Structure and subject: what do we know of Oedipus’ desire?”

PSYART: A Hyperlink Journal for the Psychological Study of the Arts, 19 (2015): n.p.

Spence, Donald. “Are Free Associations Necessarily Contaminated?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9.2 (1986): 259. Print.

Storr, Anthony. Freud: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2001. Print.

Introduction

Neurotic anxiety is one of the numerous disorders that are rather easy to detect yet require a complex set of measures to be vanquished. Freud (Hunt, 2007) made an assumption that fearing to face their demons, people create a mental block that prevents them from returning to the memories that trouble them. Calling the phenomenon under analysis a defense mechanism (Hunt, 2007), Freud identified a verity of strategies that are typically used subconsciously as the means of escaping reality and avoiding recalling the painful memories. Although the similarities between the strategies of denial, rationalization, and displacement are quite minor, teach of the approaches serves a very specific purpose.

Denial

By far the most common and just as primitive, denial as a defense mechanism implies that one should ignore the evidence of a specific fact and refuse to acknowledge the existence thereof (Cohen, 2013). Thus, the anxiety-producing reality is substituted with the environment, in which one feels most comfortable. For instance, a person abusing substances and having developed drug dependence may convince themselves that they do not have a problem and that they can quit at any time, while, in reality, they are incapable of even reducing the amount of substance consumed.

Rationalization

Although rationalization is often viewed as a form of denial, it is, nevertheless, much more intricate and complex than the approach described above. Instead of ignoring the obvious evidence of the necessity to change the situation, one seeks rational explanations for ignoring it. In other words, the person using rationalization as a shield from taking active measures to address the problem focuses on searching for the positive aspects thereof. As a result, the one adopting rationalization convinces themselves that the problem does not exist. For example, a woman married to a man who abuses her might convince herself that she needs to stay married since her children need a father figure.

Displacement

Another approach used to oust unpleasant information from one’s mind and focus on the one that seems less distressing, the strategy of displacement permits one to redirect strong feelings from one object to another in case the former is no longer in existence. Thus, the person carrying out the process of replacement no longer feels lonely or abandoned, therefore, building the relationships with the substitute that is identical to the ones with the original. Evidently flawed, the specified approach prevents one from experiencing new relationships and avoiding the mistakes made in the past (Koffmann & Walters, 2014).

For instance, the situation, in which a woman loses a child, gives birth to another one, and attempts to restore the environment, in which she communicated with her first son or daughter can be deemed as displacement. The gender of the child may be different, yet the mother will still foist specific behavioral patterns on the new one, therefore, creating a potentially dangerous situation. Particularly, the current child may feel pressured into building specific relationships as opposed to the ones that they consider natural. As a result, the development of a psychological disorder becomes a possibility.

Conclusion

Although the adoption of the strategies known as denial, repression, and displacement may provide temporary relief for the person applying them, they still do not help address the problem. Quite on the contrary, they often aggravate the situation, creating the foil for the development of further psychological issues. Therefore, identifying the source of the defense mechanism activation is the first step toward improving the health status of the patient.

Reference List

Cohen, J. (2013). States of denial: Knowing about atrocities and suffering. New York City, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Hunt, M. (2007). The story of psychology (2nd ed.). New York City, NY: Anchor Books.

Koffmann, A., & Walters, M. G. (2014). Introduction to psychological theories and psychotherapy. Oxford: OUP.

Comparing Skinner’s theoretical perspective to that of Freud and Rogers

The main postulate of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of personality is that one’s behavior reflects the unconscious workings of his or her psyche, and that is it is specifically the early (psychosexual) phases of people’s development, which define the qualitative of their existential stance. Hence, Freud’s model of psychopathology – an individual begins to experience some mental angst when the functioning of the structural elements of his or her psychic apparatus (id, ego, and superego) ceases to help the concerned person to release his unconscious anxieties in the socially appropriate manner.

In its turn, this explains Freud’s approach to conceptualizing the purpose of psychoanalytic therapy. According to the founder of psychoanalysis, to be able to help a patient to restore its mental health, a psychologist must be capable of coming up with the proper interpretation of the actual significance of this patient’s consciously suppressed unconscious anxieties.

Burrhus Skinner’s ‘behaviorist’ theory of personality stands in striking opposition to the methodology of psychoanalysis. The reason for this is that, unlike Freud, Skinner used to believe that it is specifically the externally applied stimuli (environmental circumstances) that determine one’s ‘operant behavior’ – something that implied the full appropriateness of subjecting people’s behavioral patterns to a positivist scientific inquiry. In essence, Skinner’s theory proclaims that there is nothing phenomenological about how people act and that for psychologists to be able to prove their high professional value, they must know how to assess even the most complex psychopathological cases within the methodological framework of the behaviorist ‘cause-effect’ paradigm.

Carl Rogers’s theoretical perspective differs rather dramatically from those of Freud and Skinner. According to the founder of a ‘person-centered’ (or Rogerian) psychotherapy, the proponents of psychoanalysis and behaviorism overlook the importance of helping patients attain the state of self-actualization, as the actual aim of psychotherapeutic interventions. In its turn, this presupposes that the best strategy for such interventions is establishing a close and personal relationship between psychotherapists and their clients.

The above-mentioned emphasizes the strongly defined phenomenological sounding of Rogers’s approach to addressing the formation of one’s personality/behavior. After all, the very notion of ‘self-actualization’, which lies at the foundation of Rogers’s theory, is utterly idiosyncratic (Schustack & Friedman, 2007).

The main difference between Skinner and Freud is that, unlike the latter, the former considered the motivational force behind one’s tendency to act in one way or another, to be intrinsic. This simply could not be otherwise – the very concept of the unconscious, prominently featured within the theory of psychoanalysis, presupposes the innate essence of people’s mental anxieties. Skinner, on the other hand, never ceased promoting the idea that it is not only that the psychoanalytical perspective is not only methodologically fallacious (because of the ‘metaphysical’ sounding on many of its core-concepts), but also that it makes psychology a pseudo-science to an extent – all because psychoanalysis is inconsistent with the method of a positivist inquiry.

There are nevertheless some similarities between the theoretical stances, on the part of Skinner and Freud. The foremost of them is that, just as it used to be the case with Skinner, Freud favored the analytical method of reductionism, as the instrument of gaining in-depth insights into the workings of a person’s psyche (Overskeid, 2007). Another major similarity between psychoanalysis (Freud) and behaviorism (Skinner) is that the founders of these two approaches to psychotherapy considered one’s behavior/personality to be ‘instrumental’ and therefore – predetermined to undergo a continual transformation, as time goes on.

The most notable difference that sets the theory of Skinner from that of Rogers is essentially the same with the above-outlined main incompatibility between the former and Freud – unlike Rogers, Skinner used to contest the idea that there are many innate (phenomenological) subtleties to people’s behavior. Rogers, on the other hand, did not only endorse this idea, but he also strived to encourage psychologists to adopt a humanist/holistic outlook on one’s individuality, as the behavioral extrapolation of his or her ‘true self’.

Even though Rogers did recognize the fact that the external circumstances do affect people’s behavior rather substantially, he nevertheless remained a firm believer in the ‘wholesomeness’ of one’s sense of self-identity – something that adds even further to the incompatibility between the ‘behaviorist’ and ‘person-centered’ psychotherapies. Unlike Skinner, Rogers adhered to the idea that humans possess ‘free will’ – the condition that is inherent to being human.

Nevertheless, even though the views of Skinner and Rogers hardly correlate, there is one important similarity between them – both psychologists were highly critical of the Freudian idea that the roots of one’s behavior should be traced deep into the realm of his or her unconscious longings. This simply could not be otherwise – whereas, Skinner denied the very existence of such a realm as a ‘thing in itself’, Rogers used to point out to the fact that, due to people’s endowment with ‘free will’, they are in the position to exercise conscious control over their irrational urges. In this respect, the theoretical perspectives of Skinner and Rogers are indeed comparable – whatever improbable it may sound.

References

Overskeid, G. (2007). Looking for Skinner and finding Freud. American Psychologist, 62(6), 590-595.

Schustack, M. & Friedman, H. (2007). The personality reader (2^nd ed.). London: Pearson.

Introduction

Sigmund Freud is one of the earliest pioneers of psychology. He is among a team of people whose discoveries have led to the development of psychology from one level to another. Currently, this subject is considered to be the broadest of all scientific subjects. This is not a small achievement considering the fact that psychology was just a miniature subject a few centuries ago.

This essay will discuss the major theories of Sigmund Freud as far as the psychodynamic approach to human behaviour is concerned. The essay will also look at the strong points in support of and against the theories. Finally, the essay will describe the cognitive approach to psychology as an alternative to Freud’s theories.

Background Of Psychodynamics

Psychodynamics is a type of study that focuses on the relationship between parts of the brain which coordinate to yield a certain human behaviour. The main components of psychodynamics are the human psyche, the personality of an individual and the mind. The organization of these three elements gives way to an effect on a person’s mental activity, emotional control and motivational forces.

This study also holds that the power of the mind which influences the states of the mind can be divided into emotional forces and inner forces that affect human behaviour. The following are theories that Sigmund Freud developed in his course of study of psychodynamics.

The Psyche

Sigmund Freud suggests that the unconscious state of the human mind is the major cause of the way individuals behave (Ahles 2004). Freud explains that the exact character of a person can only be determined through the knowledge of such a person’s unconscious state of mind. He explains that no action or deed is ever done without the preconception of the mind and the coordination of the elements of the mind. A surprising discovery that Freud made states that people rarely if ever know what goes on in their mind.

Freud holds that most of the actions of people are beyond their control. The decisions made are actually determined by their psyche. Unlike the personality of an individual, this component of the human mind consists of various parts which are in constant conflict with each other. These components include the ego, the id and the superego. According to Freud, these are the elements which are believed to be in control of the human behaviour.

The disagreement among the superego, the ego and the id usually leads to a decision that is favourable to all of them. The disagreement among these three goes on in the unconscious and so the person cannot really tell what is going on in his or her mind. However, this person may be in a position to feel the repercussions of the conflict. For instance, he or she may experience excitement, depression or even a headache as a result of what is going on in the unconscious state of mind.

The superego, the ego and the id each have different roles to play in the whole process of decision making and influence of human behaviour in the mind. Their roles can be summarised into three forces which are the instinctual drive, the moral constraint and the consideration of realistic possibilities at the time of decision making.

The id is controlled by instinctual drives such as an obsession for food, sex, drink and other wants. The id is only concerned about the acquisition of these desires and does not pause to consider the possibility or impossibilities of accessing them. In some cases, it might even get frustrated if it fails to achieve its desires.

On the other hand, the superego works on the basis of moral constraints. It advocates for only what is right and acceptable in the eyes of the society. The superego is the component that takes into consideration the advice and wise counsel that a person receives and prompts him to act according to them. The superego can go as far as punishing the individual if he acts contrary to the moral virtues he is supposed to adhere to. It does this by instilling a remorse feeling of guilt and anxiety.

Finally, the ego is the voice of reason behind the decision making process. As much as the id and the superego have a say in the entire process, it is the ego that finally decides what is to be done. It does this by considering the possibilities of both actions suggested by the id and the superego and then balancing between the needs of the id and the moral constraints imposed by the superego.

The Unconscious

As pointed out earlier in this essay, Freud’s psychodynamic theory suggests that a majority of the thinking that goes on in the human mind happens without the knowledge of a person. According to Freud, the human mind can be divided into three main parts: the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious.

The conscious part of the mind contains a small portion of mental activity that we are aware of and is majorly made up of thoughts and perceptions. The preconscious state of mind is deeper than the conscious but shallower than the unconscious. In this state of mind, the person is in a position to know hidden things but only if he or she tries to do it. It majorly comprises of stored information and memories.

In the unconscious state of mind, an individual does not know and cannot know things that go on in his or her mind (Mcleod 2007). There is a lot of information that falls under this state. These include shameful experiences, violent motives, fears, unacceptable sexual desires and traumatic experiences.

Most of these things are kept in the subconscious state of mind because the person refuses to think about them either because they threaten him or her or that they are totally unacceptable. The superego plays a big role in forcing these things from the conscious to the subconscious because of the guilt they evoke.

However, the repression of these thoughts into the unconscious state has the potential of doing a person more harm than good. This is because of the accumulating effect that the thoughts discussed above have on the mind. The locking up of these thoughts is one of the causes that lead to madness caused by depression or stress. This happens after the individual is unable to bear the weight of the locked up thoughts and becomes a victim of the same.

In some cases though, the ego may try to get rid of the pressure in the unconscious state of mind by finding alternative outlets. For instance, the ego can develop defence mechanisms that work by changing the form of one impulse into another form or type. A good example is that of individuals who refuse to accept shameful things about themselves and instead see the fault in others.

Childhood Influences

Sigmund Freud points out that the way people are brought up has a great impact on their later lives. This has a lot to do with the virtues they were taught by their parents and people around them. It also depends with the cultural background of the society in which the people are brought up in. The structure of a person’s psyche and personality is greatly influenced by the way he or she is treated by other people during childhood.

Strengths Of Freud’s Theories

Sigmund Freud’s theories would not have been wildly accepted and used had they not been sure and convincing. His theories are currently used in a number of medical practices such as psychoanalysis.

This is the most significant strength of Freud’s theories. Through his psychodynamic approach to psychology, it has been possible to identify causes of mental disorders and even try to restore the mental stability of mentally disorderly persons. The dream therapy which is based on the theories has also been helpful in the treatment of mentally disturbed patients.

In addition to that, the theories can be used to describe and explain any phenomena in life. This is because they provide an insight to the main factor that propels life in the universe; human behaviour. It is therefore possible that the theories of Sigmund Freud can be incorporated in almost each and every aspect of daily life and used to unravel hidden meanings.

The last strength of these theories is that they are among the few psychodynamic theories that used experimental methods to arrive at conclusions. The practical experimentation of the theories by Freud lends credence to their effectiveness. The documentation of the experiments can also serve as guidelines to medical practitioners who use the theories in treatment.

Weaknesses Of Freud’s Theories

First and foremost, Sigmund Freud’s theories are not in a position to be scientifically proved. This is because they can neither be measured nor quantified. The theories are therefore closed to constructive scrutiny. Had they provided room for scientific testing and proving, chances are that the theories could even have been improved and made into a better form than they are now.

Secondly, Freud’s theories are marginalised and present a possibility of bias. This is because the theories were developed from a small localised sample population in Vienna. Moreover, the majority of the people were middle-aged women and therefore the results cannot be used to provide a general worldwide view. They were based on mere clinical observations that cannot be a representation of the entire world population.

The last weakness of Sigmund Freud’s theories is that they did not take into account variations in culture. The experiments were solely done on white middleclass patients who represent only a fraction of the world population. The theories then generalise the conclusions and similarly apply them to other people from other cultures. This leads to misleading and in accurate information.

The Cognitive Approach

Cognitive psychology is the study of how people understand, recall, talk, think and evaluate problems (Neisser 1967). Unlike psychodynamics, cognitive psychology is a purely scientific approach to psychology. This is because it can be tested in the laboratory and proved.

Cognitive psychology deals mostly with the mental activity of an individual as opposed to psychodynamics which basically deals with behavioural characteristics. Cognitive psychology is also based on the acknowledgement of states of mind that are internal such as obsessions, notions, motivations and courage.

The cognitive approach is based on a number of assumptions. First and foremost, the approach suggests that a combination of scientific processes influences the behaviour of human beings. The second assumption is that this human behaviour only comes about as a response to external factors or stimuli. Finally, the cognitive approach also holds the view that genetic factors and other physical features have no influence on human behaviour. It suggests that people act the way they do because of their own thoughts.

Although the cognitive approach is among the latest sub disciplines of psychology, it has been successfully incorporated in many subjects such as personality psychology and abnormal psychology. The development of computers and increased artificial intelligence has also led to the widespread use of the cognitive approach.

Conclusion

From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that Sigmund Freud was a prominent psychologist whose psychodynamic theories revolutionized the entire discipline of psychology. His psychodynamic theories, namely the psyche, the unconscious state and childhood influences have provided meaningful explanations to some of the phenomena in life. The theories are also widely in use today because of their strengths and credibility.

However, they also have weaknesses which led to the establishment of the cognitive approach. This approach focuses on the mental activities and thought processes as major factors which influence human behaviour. The approach has grown due to the recent developments in psychology as a discipline. Finally, the cognitive approach has benefited from increased use of technology in the discipline of psychology.

Reference List

Ahles, S. (2004) Our inner world: A guide to psychodynamics and psychotherapy. New York, Johns Hopkins University Press.

Mcleod, S. (2007) Psychodynamic approach. Web.

Neisser, U. (1967) Cognitive psychology. New York, Meredith.

Psychoanalysis developed by Sigmund Freud is traditionally discussed as the most popular personality theory. Freud’s theory was based on his observation and case study approaches according to which the patients’ experiences help in understanding the human personality. In his theory, Freud focuses on the role of unconscious motives, instincts, and drives in determining the human personality.

The Driving Force behind Personality according to Freud

Freud discusses instincts as the main driving forces to motivate people and affect their behaviors. People usually do not understand what instincts drive their life because instincts are the part of the human unconscious. Sex and aggression are two instincts which motivate the human behaviors (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 29). Sex is associated with the life instinct, and aggression is associated with the death instinct.

Drives and instincts are connected with the human personal experiences, and the id associated with the human unconscious nature is oriented to pleasure and satisfying the sex instinct and to satisfying the aggression instinct (Schultz & Schultz, 2012, p. 61). As a result, the individual’s main goal is to address these instincts during the life and to reduce tensions associated with personal experiences and anxiety.

Elements of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s psychoanalysis is based on the idea that all individuals can be analyzed according to the levels of mental life, provinces of the mind, and instincts or personality dynamics. According to Freud, all individuals have three levels of mental life which are unconscious, preconscious, and conscious (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 34). At the unconscious level, Freud determines such common personality dynamics as instincts and anxiety.

These forces are not identified by the individual, and they are the part of the person’s id. Following the concept about the provinces of the mind, all individuals have the id, the ego, and the superego as the parts of their mind (Hall, Lindzey, & Campbell, 1998, p. 38).

If the id is based on the human instincts and anxiety as the main force to motivate the people’s life, the ego is associated with the individual’s reality vision and control principle, and the superego is associated with the person’s ideal vision and expectations.

The Role of Society and Developmental Stages

Freud states that the society forms the personal experiences at different stages of life, and these experiences are the fundament for developing the person’s painful complexes. Freud determines such personal development stages as Infantile Period (0-5 years) divided into oral phase, anal phase, and phallic phase; Latency Period (5-12 years); and Genital Period (12-adulthood) (Hall et al., 1998, p. 52).

The role of experiences is most significant during the Infantile Period, when the individual’s personality forms most actively. Freud’s stages are based on the idea of the individual’s psychosexual development as the core to determine the aspects of the person’s behaviors.

Individual Differences in Personality

To accentuate the individual differences, Freud utilizes the concepts of the id, the ego, and the superego with references to individual experiences which can cause the developing of these parts of the mind.

According to Freud, all people have commonly structured the id, the ego, and the superego, but experiences, fears, complexes, and drives which cause their development influence persons differently, depending on those individual events experienced during the childhood (Feist & Feist, 2009, p. 38).

Furthermore, all individuals choose different defense mechanisms to protect them from pain. Such defense mechanisms as repression, displacement, fixation, sublimation, regression, and projection can be combined by an individual differently, according to the personal needs and inclinations.

Conclusion

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis is based on the idea that all individuals are motivated by such instincts as sex and aggression, and they try to cope with such a drive as anxiety. All individuals have three levels and three parts of mind such as the id, the ego, and the superego, but the combination of forces to motivate the persons’ behaviors and the used defense mechanisms can be different.

References

Feist, J., & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of personality. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.

Hall, C., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J. (1998). Theories of personality. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. (2012). Theories of personality. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

Commencing with an overview of the material conditions of society, The Future of an Illusion proclaims that these conditions result from two processes: the technological processes that control the forces of nature and extract its wealth and the social processes that regulate the distribution of the [resulting] available wealth. Freud argues that, in all hitherto known civilizations, this second process, the distribution of social wealth, has always been out of kilter with the first, the production of wealth; the goods of society have always been inequitably distributed, resulting in the major inequalities of class society.

When one considers the history of various civilizations, one discovers that civilization is something that was imposed on a resisting majority by a minority that understood how to obtain possession of the means to power and coercion. This inequitable outcome continues in the case of all present-day cultures, and thus one finds that t is understandable that the suppressed people should develop an intense hostility towards a culture whose existence they make possible by their work, but in whose wealth they have too small a share.

Contemporary civilization provides the social elite with the leisure and education to enjoy the fruit of civilization, including the artistic output, while it remains inaccessible to the masses, who are engaged in exhausting work and have not enjoyed any personal education. Freud’s judgment of these class-based inequities is definitive: It goes without saying that a civilization that leaves so large a number of its participants unsatisfied and drives them into revolt neither has nor deserves the prospect of a lasting existence.

Main text

Here, more than elsewhere in Freud’s writings on civilization, explicit sociological categories—class, status, power, labor, the extraction and distribution of material wealth—are the constituent elements of the surface layer of his thought. But right under this surface lie ideas of the psyche. Consider this question: in what consists of this wealth that is so inequitably distributed, the deprivation of which makes the masses discontent and in potential rebellion against civilization? The external materiality of goods and services, it soon becomes clear, is not the principal referent of Freud’s conception of societal wealth. At each crucial turn in his argument, Freud collapses wealth’s measure into purely instinctual terms.

For instance, privation, Freud states, is to be understood in his text as referring to the condition which is produced by the prohibition of instinctual gratification, the fact that an instinct cannot be satisfied. Hence, when he soon thereafter characterizes the underprivileged classes as suffering from a surplus of privation, the immediate referent of this comment is this concept of instinctual deprivation, not the material deprivation that is its external sign.

And when he then adds that civilization has not got beyond a point at which the satisfaction of one portion of its participants depends upon the suppression of another, and perhaps larger portion, we begin to understand that the words “satisfaction” and “suppression” refer more to instinctual suppression and satisfaction than to their material or social variants. The terms of material economy, we discover, operate here as the outward tokens of psychic economy; structured as class exploitation, estrangement occurs as the extraction and transfer of instinctual energies and pleasures from laborers to the leisured.

Thus the inequitable distribution of the material goods of civilization turns into an inequitable distribution of instinctual gratification. Such a reduction of a social category to instinctual category presumes a translational correspondence between inner and outer, the

mechanisms of which are never fully spelled out. At one point, however, Freud suggests an awareness of mundane mediations: the mutual relations of men are profoundly influenced by the amount of instinctual satisfaction which the existing wealth makes possible. At other times, the correspondence of social economy and instinctual economy is treated as a matter of unproblematic equivalence. For example, in Freud’s opening characterization of the production and distribution of social wealth, he explains that these two processes overlap, since wealth is derived from both the social relations of production and those of distribution: an individual man can himself come to function as wealth in relation to another, in so far as the other person makes use of his work capacity, or chooses him as a sexual object.

A person can gain wealth through the exploitation of the labor of another: this maintains the level of an explicit material and social characterization of wealth. Or a person can gain wealth through taking pleasure in another as a sexual object: this, by contrast, is clearly an instinctual and psychical characterization of wealth. The frame of social reference (exploited labor) is equated with the frame of instinctual reference (erotic pleasure).

The transformational logic of the outward-to-inward, social-to-psyche movement which dominates Freud’s thought in The Future of an Illusion is not limited, however, to translations of social economy into psychic economy. This logic structures conceptualization in a multidimensional manner, infusing, in addition, Freud’s view of the historical development of society and the individual. Thus while on a synchronic conceptual plane the outward inequities of the material rewards of civilization translate into the inequitable inward distribution of instinctual gratification, on a diachronic (or historical) plane the achievement of civilization itself is portrayed as the developmental transformation of outward impingements into inward precipitates and, specifically, as the translation of the dictates of societal coercion into the instinctual renunciations of the superego.

Although all societies are held together by arrangements that balance outward coercion and inward consent, the advancement of civilization consists of the progressive shift of this balance from the first toward the second. Freud writes, it is in keeping with the course of human development that external coercion gradually becomes internalized; for a special mental agency, man’s superego, takes it over and includes it among its commandments. Each child is meant to reproduce in its own development this historical achievement of the internalization of coercion, and only by this means does the person become a moral and social being.

For Freud, civilization on both a macro and a micro-level is epitomized by the introjection of authority, a historical achievement of the human race recapitulated as a developmental achievement of the individual, a transformation from being opponent of civilization into being its vehicle Thus, the achievement of civilization can be characterized, in part, as an internalization of social domination, a process by which social coercion becomes voluntary consent. And the measure of a civilization is the degree to which its social order is maintained voluntarily by the superegos of its citizens.

Summary

But if, in this formulation, ‘superego’ itself becomes another name for ‘civilization’ it is important to realize that to the degree that Freud equates the two, this equation carries explicit sociological and historical content. For in his text Freud portrays the superego as a historical product, a psychical entity embodied with social and class characteristics. As a development that makes manifest the mental advances that the human mind has undergone. since the earliest times, the superego reflects aspects of the social unevenness of the coercion that structured its formation.