A study has demonstrated that self-oriented behavior in the mirror, after being surreptitiously marked on the face, which is representing an explicit index of self-concept, the objectified and identified sense of the embodied self (Amsterdam et al., 1972, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1018). As a benchmark of self-concept, numerous studies suggest that children reach this milestone by 18-24 months of age (Amsterdam et al., 1972, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1018) The rationale behind the mark test is that when a child is marked surreptitiously and attempts to touch the mark, as opposed to doing nothing or trying to reach for it on the mirror surface, the specular image stands for the child’s image. Taking self-oriented gestures as the behavioral index of self-recognition, it indicates that the embodied self is the referent of what is seen in the mirror (Rochat,2003, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1019). Generally, passing the mark test indicates that children recognize their image and that those who fail the test do not. Signs of behavioral inhabitation in terms of freezing behavior stand for the absence of any body movement or vocalization.
In general, the mirror self-recognition test reported a majority of Western children from Canada, and American demonstrated spontaneous self-oriented behaviors while fewer non-Western children from Fiji, Saint Lucia, Grenada, and Peru demonstrated such behaviors. Boesch et al, (2011) indicate that Kenyan participants understood that it was themselves in the mirror. However, they were unsure of an acceptable response and dared not to touch or remove it. It suggests that rather than, expressing a lack of self-concept, their own identity might be about the adults that surround them which implies different parenting styles across cultures (Broesch et al,2011). In small-scale rural areas, young children tend to learn primarily via observation and imitation( Odden, Rochat, 2004, Rogoff, 1995, as cited. In Broesch et al.,2011,p.1027). They show respect for adults and silent obedience in child rearing as opposed to the Western model of learning in which children are encouraged to be active and take participatory roles. As a result, the non-western children showed to have higher compliance and were not willing to touch or remove the mark, assuming that it was surreptitiously placed for them on purpose.
Furthermore, the variation of cultural values across countries might also affect parenting style. Chen et al.(1998) investigated child-rearing attitudes and behavioral inhibition and found that there were higher levels level of behavioral inhibition in children from Asia compared to those from Western countries. It suggested that child-rearing beliefs and practices are important factors that may mediate cultural influences on child development. (Super & Hark-ness,1986; Whiting & Edwards,1998, as cited in Chen et al., 1998). Parental behaviors and beliefs were guided by cultural norms and values. The research examined the relationship between child inhibition and child-rearing attitudes based on maternal acceptance, encouragement of achievement, and encouragement of independence, and between maternal rejection and punishment orientation (Chen et al,1998).
Taken together, the existing research suggests that the relation between self-oriented behavior is due to differences in parenting styles and cultural values across countries. To date, however, researchers have yet to directly investigate the reason why non-Western children fail the mirror mark test and how the self-concept develops across cultures. The reason why non-western child responds with inhibition by freezing is that they may be expressing social compliance rather than lack of self-recognition (Broesch et al,2011). Also, aging is a factor that can explain the reason why non-western child fails the test. The self-concept develops across cultures by the differences in parenting styles.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to investigate whether non-Western children would pass the mirror self-recognition test at a similar age to Western children if they were encouraged and permitted by their parents to touch the sticker. In particular, we tested 15,18,21and 24 months age infants and western (American) and non-western (Kenyan) infants. They were tested with a mirror mark test with verbal prompting to ‘’get it’’ when the child placed it in front of the mirror. (Nielsen, Suddendorf, & Slaughter, 2006, as cited in Broesch et al., 2011, p. 1022). In addition, we observed the different child-rearing attitudes between two cultures and the effect of different ages on self-recognition performance. The passing or failing on the mirror mark test measures self-oriented behavior like touching or removing the sticker.
Based on the previous studies on children’s self-recognition performance in the MSR test, we predicted that both western (American) and non-western (Kenya) children at 15 months of age will fail the test. However, for children at the age of 24 months or above, we predicted that the self-oriented behavior is related to the children’s parent-rearing attitude and culture, and by giving verbal prompting/ permission, the majority of the children will pass the test regardless of their cultural background.
Over the course of the first ten weeks of my study of education, I have developed a wide knowledge of the key aspect of Teacher Identity. This simple aspect permeates the entire study of education and plays an important role in many other aspects of the study. Through my study of education, it has become apparent that Teacher Identity is based solely on the individual and their values as well as emotions. Professional identity is defined as “one’s professional self-concept based on attributes, beliefs, values, motives and experiences” (Ibarra, 1999; Schein, 1978). Professional Identity is “shifting, unstable and multiple” (Beijaard et al., 2004: 108). Therefore it is not fixed for any individuals, instead it is formed through many past experiences. Teacher Identity is formed through experiences at school, at home, through family, culture, religion and many other factors. Thus, it is evident that Teacher Identity is unfixed.
In addition, I have developed the knowledge and understanding that over the course of one’s teaching career that your Identity as a teacher will undoubtedly change and develop as you progress from a student teacher to a teacher. There are many challenges associated with the endeavor of developing your Professional Identity. There are questions which must be asked in order for you to fully understand your approach to teaching which will form your Teacher Identity. These questions include why you want to be a teacher, what you will need to do as a teacher and ultimately who are you as a person?
One of the most challenging aspects of developing your Teacher Professional Identity is forming your identity as a student teacher. This may prove difficult when considering your role within the workplace. More often than not, the endeavor of developing your Teacher Identity as a student teacher may be overpowered by the idea that you are not a member of staff or that you are not fully in charge of your class. Other significant obstacles include tutors and host teachers as these factors may affect how you develop your Teacher Identity. It is said that as a student teacher you enter into an “interim world” whereby you journey to find your teacher Identity.
Following this, Rollett claims that teachers should be “optimistic, outreach, loving personalities interested in children and concerned about their needs, able and happy in relating with them and willing to put in any amount of time and effort necessary to make a success of this”. Thus, Rollett’s ideals about the key aspect of Teacher identity is one of care, compassion and love. These values should be instilled in each teacher through the study of education and should form their Professional Identity. Rollett also places emphasis on emotions, reinforcing the intention of teaching as an emotive profession which in turn illustrates the idea of teacher identity forming through emotions. Likewise, it is apparent that in order to develop a Professional Identity, teachers must constantly engage in self-reflection, questioning and evaluation.
Furthermore, in order to develop your Teacher Professional Identity, an overwhelming factor is confidence. It is essential to develop your confidence through various different strategies. These strategies include: reading, thinking, working, immersing yourself and seeking advice. Firstly, reading helps to further your beliefs and understanding of education and thus forms what is known as your Teacher Identity. Additionally, thinking is another strategy whereby your Teacher Identity is formed. The thought process of teaching and education implements core values and beliefs which indeed furthers your knowledge and understanding of education, in turn forming your Teacher Identity. Teacher identity is also developed through immersing yourself in the practice of teaching. Through immersion, experience is gained which heightens and manipulates your Professional Identity. Continuing on from this, it is necessary to seek advice from individuals in the profession of teaching to contribute to your own Professional “persona”. Following this, this advice must be implemented and acted upon.
The ‘General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland’ refers to Teacher Identity on many different occasions. This publication outlines that teaching is an ethical and value based profession, therefore these attributes must stand at the core of your Teacher Identity. These values help to form and create a Professional Identity which has deep roots in religion and personal experiences. With reference to the ‘General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland’ there are many competences that teachers should employ which will help to shape their Teacher Identity. These competences have been set out under three broad headings. The first heading is considered to be “Professional Values and Practice” which states that teachers should “uphold the core values and commitments” as outlined in the Council’s “Code of Values and Professional Practice”. Furthermore, the second competence headline is “Professional Knowledge and Understanding” which focuses on the development of teachers. Teachers should present a knowledge and understanding of the learning areas that they teach. As an Irish medium student, it is also expected that I should develop bilingual contexts, sufficient linguistic and pedagogical knowledge to teach the curriculum. This forms another aspect of teacher identity which is enshrined with the Irish Language. The final competence is “Professional Skills and Application”. This competence concentrates on planning and leading, and teaching, and learning. As a result of these competences, teacher identity should be shaped with close reference to the codes outlined in the ‘General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland’.
With close reference to the idea that teaching is an ethical and value based profession, as outlined in the “General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland”. Another key aspect to Teacher Identity in Northern Ireland is Catholic Education. Any teacher who works within a Catholic maintained school, must have a Religious Education Certificate. As a teacher in a Catholic maintained school, each teacher must have an aspect of faith, morality and religion enshrined within their Teacher Identity. Sockett (1993) utilizes the charter and code to give the impression that “It is… impossible to talk extensively about teachers and teaching without a language of morality.” Thus, teacher identity should also be formed with the idea of morality, following with the key aspect of ethics. Catholic ethos plays a significant role in education across Northern Ireland. The ethos of a school lies at the heart of the educative process, initiated with the teacher’s professional identity. Catholic Education is often described as inclusive, person-centred and focuses on community, therefore, these values should be instilled within the Professional Identity of those who teach in these schools. Additionally, Teacher Identity is furthered developed by their own faith and ethos.
Moreover, Rodgers and Scott explore the view that “Contemporary conceptions of identity share four basic assumptions: (1) that identity is dependent upon and formed within multiple contexts which bring social, cultural, political, and historical forces to bear upon that formation; (2) that identity is formed in relationship with others and involves emotions; (3) that identity is shifting, unstable, and multiple; and, (4) that identity involves the construction and reconstruction of meaning through stories over time”. With close analysis to this extract, Rodgers and Scott portray the view that Professional Identity is different for every individual and is shaped through past experiences. The four assumptions as outlined above, certainly outline the nature of Professional Identity and “persona”. Kegan’s “Conception of self” is also outlined in Rodgers and Scott. Through the “Conception of self”, teachers reflect on their own personal experiences and the developmental stages of their Teacher Identity. Teachers may focus on their own teaching content such as their discipline and how they teach their area of study, they may reflect on their experiences throughout their teaching career or they may reflect on their identity.
However, despite Teacher Identity playing a prominent role in the educative process, it must coincide with the Northern Ireland Curriculum. Some of the key factors of the Northern Ireland Curriculum include: the idea that it focuses on the learning process and the outcomes of education, also, the curriculum is flexible in that schools and teachers can decide the topics and approaches that best suit their pupils, and it also gives equal emphasis to knowledge understanding and skills. With reference to these factors, the teacher must enshrine their Teacher Professional Identity with those factors outlined above. The flexible nature of the curriculum, as it does not outline mandatory topics, allows for the teacher to express their Teacher Identity in the classroom through their own approaches and experiences.
To conclude, Teacher Professional Identity is developed over the course of a teacher’s career. Professional Identity is also known as Professional “persona”. It cannot be fixed, nor can two individuals have the same Teacher Identity. Professional identity is formed through past experiences, values, beliefs and emotions. Although there are many challenges in the endeavour, Teacher Identity can be developed through reading, thinking, immersing and seeking advice. Overall, Teacher Identity plays one of the most prominent roles in the study of education. As a concluding statement, I have now developed a greater knowledge and understanding of the importance of Teacher Identity and what is required of me as a student in order to develop my Teacher Identity.
References:
Bartlett, S. and Burton , D. (Eds.) (2003), Education Studies: Essential Issues, London: Sage.
Council for the curriculum for examination and assessment (2007), CCEA: Bangor
General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland, (2006), Teaching: the Reflective Profession, Belfast: GTCNI
Pollard, A. (Ed) (2014), Reflective Teaching in Schools, London: Bloomsbury
Pollard, A. (Ed) (2014), Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools, London: Bloomsbury
Rogers, C. and Scott, K. (2008), The development of the personal self and professional identity in learning to teach, available at https://www.academia.edu/1879050/Rodgers_and_Scott_2008_The_development_of_the_personal_self_and_professional_identity_in_learning_to_teach (accessed 23rd November 2019)
A study has demonstrated that self-oriented behavior in the mirror, after being surreptitiously marked on the face, which is representing an explicit index of self-concept, the objectified and identified sense of the embodied self (Amsterdam et al., 1972, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1018). As a benchmark of self-concept, numerous studies suggest that children reach this milestone by 18-24 months of age (Amsterdam et al., 1972, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1018) The rationale behind the mark test is that when a child is marked surreptitiously and attempts to touch the mark, as opposed to doing nothing or trying to reach for it on the mirror surface, the specular image stands for the child’s image. Taking self-oriented gestures as the behavioral index of self-recognition, it indicates that the embodied self is the referent of what is seen in the mirror (Rochat,2003, as cited in Broesch et al.,2011,p.1019). Generally, passing the mark test indicates that children recognize their image and that those who fail the test do not. Signs of behavioral inhabitation in terms of freezing behavior stand for the absence of any body movement or vocalization.
In general, the mirror self-recognition test reported a majority of Western children from Canada, and American demonstrated spontaneous self-oriented behaviors while fewer non-Western children from Fiji, Saint Lucia, Grenada, and Peru demonstrated such behaviors. Boesch et al, (2011) indicate that Kenyan participants understood that it was themselves in the mirror. However, they were unsure of an acceptable response and dared not to touch or remove it. It suggests that rather than, expressing a lack of self-concept, their own identity might be about the adults that surround them which implies different parenting styles across cultures (Broesch et al,2011). In small-scale rural areas, young children tend to learn primarily via observation and imitation( Odden, Rochat, 2004, Rogoff, 1995, as cited. In Broesch et al.,2011,p.1027). They show respect for adults and silent obedience in child rearing as opposed to the Western model of learning in which children are encouraged to be active and take participatory roles. As a result, the non-western children showed to have higher compliance and were not willing to touch or remove the mark, assuming that it was surreptitiously placed for them on purpose.
Furthermore, the variation of cultural values across countries might also affect parenting style. Chen et al.(1998) investigated child-rearing attitudes and behavioral inhibition and found that there were higher levels level of behavioral inhibition in children from Asia compared to those from Western countries. It suggested that child-rearing beliefs and practices are important factors that may mediate cultural influences on child development. (Super & Hark-ness,1986; Whiting & Edwards,1998, as cited in Chen et al., 1998). Parental behaviors and beliefs were guided by cultural norms and values. The research examined the relationship between child inhibition and child-rearing attitudes based on maternal acceptance, encouragement of achievement, and encouragement of independence, and between maternal rejection and punishment orientation (Chen et al,1998).
Taken together, the existing research suggests that the relation between self-oriented behavior is due to differences in parenting styles and cultural values across countries. To date, however, researchers have yet to directly investigate the reason why non-Western children fail the mirror mark test and how the self-concept develops across cultures. The reason why non-western child responds with inhibition by freezing is that they may be expressing social compliance rather than lack of self-recognition (Broesch et al,2011). Also, aging is a factor that can explain the reason why non-western child fails the test. The self-concept develops across cultures by the differences in parenting styles.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to investigate whether non-Western children would pass the mirror self-recognition test at a similar age to Western children if they were encouraged and permitted by their parents to touch the sticker. In particular, we tested 15,18,21and 24 months age infants and western (American) and non-western (Kenyan) infants. They were tested with a mirror mark test with verbal prompting to ‘’get it’’ when the child placed it in front of the mirror. (Nielsen, Suddendorf, & Slaughter, 2006, as cited in Broesch et al., 2011, p. 1022). In addition, we observed the different child-rearing attitudes between two cultures and the effect of different ages on self-recognition performance. The passing or failing on the mirror mark test measures self-oriented behavior like touching or removing the sticker.
Based on the previous studies on children’s self-recognition performance in the MSR test, we predicted that both western (American) and non-western (Kenya) children at 15 months of age will fail the test. However, for children at the age of 24 months or above, we predicted that the self-oriented behavior is related to the children’s parent-rearing attitude and culture, and by giving verbal prompting/ permission, the majority of the children will pass the test regardless of their cultural background.
According to Cooley and Schubert (1998), the concept of ‘looking glass self’ holds that the ‘self’ bit of a person emanates from the individual’s social communications with others. How people view, themselves is derived from the observation of personal qualities and parodies in a manner that matches how other individuals perceive people. The concept explains further that how people recognize themselves does not indicate their real selves, but somewhat who they believe they are.
This discussion focuses on this concept. In line with Wood’s (2016) position, the paper shows how the ‘self’ is produced and shaped through people’s interaction with others. This goal will be achieved by explaining and giving examples of observations that prove this concept in real-life situations. Besides, the paper will explain how a young woman who cannot bear children might develop a sense of self. In addition, it discusses how different cultural rules and established patterns of interaction, for instance, the Arab world and the USA, may produce different kinds of ‘‘self’’ or identities. Furthermore, the paper will reflect on how this process is currently affected by various mass media.
How the ‘‘Self’’ is Produced and Shaped through Interaction with Others
A person’s self is shaped based on his or her understanding of how other people perceive him or her. The personal representation that people establish is a manifestation of their surroundings and reactions from others. For example, according to Wood (2016), during childhood, parents, relatives, and other people treated their kids in various ways. If this kid was viewed as well groomed, then individuals could bring him or her with particular prospects associating him with stylishness and success.
In line with Oishi’s (2006) speech act theory, the application of the ‘speech acts’ concept was evident where other people could address the child in a manner that could motivate him or her to maintain the status. As a result, the child could ultimately believe that he or she was a smart person, a process that the child demonstrated throughout his or her growth process. In a way, when people believe that their friends look at them as heroes, they get the self-image projected, regardless of whether what others say about is true or not.
On the other hand, if other friends see people as heroes, just like the other group, but also perceive individuals as kind and loving, the group to which the perception is directed will tend to harmonize the two traits by appearing as loving, kind, and heroic. In essence, the environment here acts as a mirror that reflects images of different people. The definitive result is that people adjust their behavior basing on the way others perceive them (Wood, 2016).
As a real-life personal example, while in our elementary classes, Ivy, one of my best friends, used to perform poorly in class, a situation that made her withdraw from normal interactions with other members of our class who had stereotyped her as ‘dunderhead’. The name depicted her poor performance. She used to stay in class most of the time while we were playing in the field. When I realized this matter, I decided to take my time to offer the company to her.
This move was in line with TRIPOD’s (2016) claim, “Civil societies can only thrive when damaging stereotypes are broken down” (Para. 4). She openly revealed to me what she thought about herself based on the scolding views of other classmates. I always encouraged her that she was destined to be a great person and that she could perform better than anyone else in our class. These words could cheer her up.
The concept of adjacency pair was applied here, where I could let Ivy speak her mind first before I followed by giving my positive view of her situation. When we did our end term exams, she performed poorly because of the negative sentiments she had received from her classmates. Our class teacher realized this poor performance and the reason behind Ivy’s low self-esteem. She developed a good relationship with her. Most of the time, she offered her private coaching in the evenings. While in class, the teacher advised us to respect each other, encourage each one of us, and work together. She advised us to form groups.
In our group, Ivy was the leader. Her behavior started changing gradually. After one year, she was not only position five overall, but also the class secretary and netball captain. In line with Cooley and Schubert’s (1998) views, the people in Ivy’s close environment served as a mirror to reflect her ‘self.’ When her performance was poor, she received the impression that she was a failure and less capable, especially when other students laughed at her. When the teacher and I intervened and changed the environment, she again mirrored herself through us and saw herself as a capable student who could perform well.
Another example involves a story that trended in social media in 2012 about President Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama when the pair decided to go for casual dinner at Michelle’s former boyfriend restaurant. After President Obama was granted a chance to speak to Michelle in private, President Obama asked her why he really wanted to speak to her. Upon learning about the man’s earlier quest to her have Michelle as his girlfriend, President Obama told her that now she would be the wife of the owner of that beautiful restaurant.
On the other hand, Michelle told President Obama that the man would be the president of the USA instead. In this story, Michelle creates the assumption that the environment that President Obama has to become the US President is the same that the restaurant owner. Hence, such an environment could have influenced the restaurant owner to become a president, just like President Obama.
How a Woman who has a Scar in her face might Develop her Sense of Self
Building a sense of self requires people to break away from what their immediate environment perceives of them. The concept of proxemics is applied here where one has to investigate people’s spatial demands and the impact that other elements have on their conduct, communication, and collective relations (Griffin, 2006). According to Edward Hall’s (1976) proxemic theory, building and nurturing a strong self-image starts in one’s mind, especially what he or she thinks not only about his or her inner environment but also about the outside settings. The woman with a scar on her face is facing several issues about her self-image.
First, she lacks confidence in herself. Secondly, she hates the fact that her face lacks evenness because of the scar. She has a feeling of rejection, especially when her female friends attract the company of their male peers who, in turn, scorned her because of the unpleasant mark on her face. She feels that the scar has denied her the privilege that others are enjoying. For her to create a strong self-image, she needs to know and appreciate her appearance.
She needs to acknowledge her real self and separate it from all the inconveniences outside her social world concerning her self-image. She has given room to the external world to determine what she already discerns from within about herself. Such a person should start by believing in herself. Because of the scar on her face, the woman has a low sense of worth. She feels uncertain about herself. Regardless of what other people think, believe, and/or say about her appearance, she needs to develop trust in herself. She should not question herself about what led to getting the scar or how she could have avoided the incident.
Instead, she should decide to trust and only deal with the best interests of heart that uphold her self-worth. To achieve a sense of self, she should spend quality time appreciating her appearance, including what she deems worthy concerning herself such as her job and psychological smartness. Second, she should take note of her assets, including what she does better than anyone else, her achievements, and/or what other people praise her for. Third, she should diversify her interests, her friends, and the environment in which she operates. This strategy will strengthen her self-worth, regardless of what other people say about her.
How Japan and the USA’s Different Cultural Rules produce Different Kinds of Self
Chapter 4 that is titled, ‘Cultural Patterns and Communication: Foundations’ in Lustig and Koester’s (2013) book addresses the need for appreciating cultural disparities that are evident among people and nations. Japan and the USA exhibit distinct cultural differences. In line with Hall’s (1976) presumption of low/high perspective cultures, individuals from different nations or interact in a manner that attracts misunderstanding and that the difference arises from the countries’ diverse communication patterns. The different cultural aspects include individualism and collectivism. A society that practices an individualistic culture emphasizes individual’s objectives.
On the other hand, societies that emphasize the in-group way of life are referred to as collective cultures since they prefer obtaining goals as a group than on an individual basis. Japan practices the collective form of culture while the USA practices individualistic culture. For example, in Japan, when people are working in groups, they communicate using direct verbal messages. On the other hand, in the USA, people use non-verbal and indirect verbal messages.
Self-construal dependence and self-construal interdependence also form an interesting cultural difference between Japan and the USA. With self-construal interdependence that is evident in the US, a person tends to exist and practice separately from others. He or she demonstrates discrete abilities, motives, values, and traits that define his or her sense of self. People seek sovereignty as witnessed in the case of many US candidates such as Donald Trump. On the contrary, in terms of self-construal interdependence that prevails in Japan, the concept of self is characterized by relatedness that is linked to other persons’ awareness and wellness. People feel complete when they are under unionized social units.
How the Sense of Identity is affected by Various Mass Media
When people are born, they do not manifest any distinctiveness since the aspect is shaped by societal features. According to Wood (2016), social media acts as a tool that transforms people’s sense of identity. For example, it is estimated that American adolescents take more than six hours interacting with different people around the globe via social media platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter among others.
Besides being entertaining, this form of engagement acts as an external force that leads people’s identity. Many users of social media concentrate on a particular aspect, which they follow up on a daily basis. For instance, one may decide to focus on sports updates or music. In line with Chandler’s transmission model of communication, he or she believes that whatever is posted on social media is meant to pass a particular message that is aimed at shaping one’s identity (Schröppel, 2009). Here, the person who watches the football first-hand acts as the source. The internet is the transmitter while the fanatic who downloads the contents is the receiver.
This habit becomes part of his or her life and hence self. He or she will end up becoming what he or she prefers in social media. A good illustration is evident where football fanatics are currently associating themselves with musicians or football clubs that are miles away from their geographical positions. This situation drives people’s identity as football or music fans. The identity makes many of them gather what is needed to develop a similar status.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is agreeable that the concept of ‘self’ bears a crucial role in shaping a person. The story of Ivy reveals that the environment can derail people from achieving their goals in life. The paper has shown how various concepts, including the looking glass self, proxemics, and the transmission model of communication influence the ‘self’ in a person. Furthermore, the paper has also shown how media influences people’s choice of self-identity.
Reference List
Cooley, H., & Schubert, H. (1998). On self and social organization. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Griffin, E. (2006). A first look at communication theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hall, E. (1976). Beyond Culture: High context and Low context Cultures. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
Lustig, M., & Koester, J. (2013). Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication across Cultures. San Francisco, SA: Peachpit Press.
Oishi, E. (2006). Austin’s Speech Act Theory and the Speech Situation. Web.
Schröppel, M. (2009). The Transmission Model of Communication. Web.
TRIPOD. (2016). Stereotypes: Definition and Vocabulary Glossary. Web.
The self is a concept of identity developed from the social setting. This means that an individual acquires identity from the mental reflection of the society (Mead, 2012). Julia Wood illustrates personal identity as a phenomenon developed from the interaction between an individual and the society (Wood, 2007).
As the individual interacts with the society, he or she develops a concept of self. Alternatively, self is an individual’s judgment of the society’s perception towards him or her. Identity is built progressively as one understands other people’s perceptions.
Since for one to create an identity, he or she has to imagine other people’s thoughts, imagination is part of self (Cooley, 2011). Other people’s thoughts as imagined by an individual include the society’s perception of one’s own thoughts.
One starts to build an identity by interacting with the initial family members or guardians, who are of immediate significant importance. At this point, a child learns that there are other entities with a perception, and is immediately conscious of their perceptions towards them. This is the first instance of creation of self (Mead, 2006).
It is notable that the first instance of creation of identity arises from outside the body of an individual. Furthermore, self-perception arises from interaction between the individual and the immediate members of the society. The first people an individual interacts with are identified as particular others. Wood says that even gender orientation is acquired from the perceived expectations of close family members.
People slowly assume roles in the society according to the perceived expectations of family members or immediate guardians. A definition of one as an individual is first made by particular others (Wood, 2007). Self-esteem is based on the nature of utterances by particular others concerning one’s personality.
As a child grows, she understands that other people have different perceptions and thoughts. One imagines what other people might be thinking of them and identity becomes a more complex concept. This imagination is known as reflection or self-appraisal. Woods illustrates this using Charles coolers concept of looking-glass reflection (Wood, 2007).
This means that the society is a glass mirror through which an individual sees a reflection of oneself. As one develops a more complex identity, a set of guidelines governing one’s life are created. These guidelines are known as identity scripts and they govern beliefs, which are often beyond our ability to influence.
When identity has been developed up to a certain level, one then learns how to form relationships with others. Every individual has a perception of how one should feel in a relationship with a particular person based on one’s experiences during identity development. The formed attachment with others may be secure or in secure or insecure depending on the past relationships with close family members or guardians (Cooley, 2011).
Finally, one develops a concept of self that depends on generalized others, which is a conception of what the society expects of an individual (Wood, 2007). This aspect is characterized by gender roles and responsibilities based on the status of an individual in the society.
Different societies lead to development of different self-perceptions, and thus varying nature of identities. In the societies of the west, racial background constitutes identity. Consequently, an individual in the western society is always conscious of his or her color. This perception has been passed on for generations since colonization and slavery began.
In the United States, it is common for people to be referred to by the color of their skin, although whites are generally not described by their color since they are often considered normal. Such observations create a perception of difference between races.
In almost all societies, gender plays a major role in formation of identity and self. Members of different genders will be treated differently, with males being favored for better opportunities and treatment. While women are expected to have laid back personalities, men are expected to be competition conscious (Wood, 2007).
These perceptions are prevalent in all societies with varying degrees of significance. Gender roles and perceptions are developed during growth of a person. Although gender is defined to a significant extent by biological factors, social responses to an individual govern development of certain gender traits.
Economic and social status can also be a powerful factor influencing the nature of self as created by an individual. For a person who earns minimum wage, it does not seem proper to patronize a five star restaurant or hotel. Such a person will seek the services of a restaurant that offers things that are usually affordable to him or her even when the services to be sought are relatively cheap in all restaurants (Wood, 2007).
Since the society has always expected the particular individual to seek the services of a hotel or restaurant offering services to people of a particular social standing, a rich person will feel odd and out of place if he or she seeks the services of a restaurant where most of the patrons are those who earn minimum wages. Moreover, people use comparisons of individuals to gauge their social-economic status (Wood, 2007).
An individual will consider oneself successful if his or her performance surpasses that of most people in the society. All the scripts are a result of the influence of generalized other, which is an inherent component of identity in adult life.
The mass media influences people’s perspective of self. Culture and expectation of an individual in the social and economic setting are reflected upon by mass media, which disseminates information based on societal expectations.
Most programs including movies and publications by dailies are tailored to reflect the society’s expectations by the manner in which the characters shown are depicted (James, 1994). For example, it is unusual for a television program meant to present a real life situation to show scenes of a family setting with members of the family in questions playing reversed roles.
Aired television programs will usually reflect the true perceptions and expectations of the society. Famous television personalities influence the manner in which an individual relates to people around him or her.
In conclusion, the society and the interaction between the society and the individual define self. Gradual learning of the society’s perception of an individual creates identity. Imagination is also a central aspect in creation of self, and an individual will have certain imagination regarding the society’s expectations of his or her person.
Thus, this contemporary view of oneself conflicts with classical theories such as Cartesian existentialism, which defines existence by beginning with the perception of self. For Cartesian philosophy, the society is perceived after self-identity has been created. Mirror glass self defines identity as a reflection, where the society acts as the mirror that reflects one’s identity.
References
Cooley, C. (2011, May 4). The Looking Glass Self. The Work. Retrieved from www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/INDEX.HTML#cooley
James, W. (1994). The Physical Basis of Emotion.. Psychological Review, 101(2), 205-10.
Mead, H. (2012, January 1). Geocities.The Self, the I, and the Me. Retrieved from www.geocities.com/tdeddins/Reader288-292pg293- 295.htm
Mead, G. G. (2006, February 1). The Self in Society. Pfeiffer. Retrieved from www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/INDEX.HTML#mead
Wood, J. T. (2007). Interpersonal communication: everyday encounters(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub..
The word identity is derived from the Latin “idem,” which translates to ‘the same’ but what if identities are ever-changing, and how does one discover and construct an identity? Notably, the dynamic nature of identity has been circulating in philosophical discourses, far longer in philosophy than psychology. Identity is never a priority or a completed product; it is only an ambiguous development of accessing an image of totality and belonging. The debate on identity is a complex subject that attracts divisions from different fragments of societies worldwide. Although some people assert that identities are static, it is ideal to explore the variables that define the dynamism of identity, including collectivism, learning, culture, and possible self-concept.
The opponents of these philosophical backgrounds may argue that identity does not rely on the entirety of culture but an individualistic approach to conscience. Some of the easy ways they postulate are to envisage thought experiments and perceptions about different organisms in an ecosystem. Indeed what the brain conceive becomes the epitome of one’s ideological foundation in any set of environment. Such a notion negates the value of stagnant attributes of personality in a system as narrated by Hofstede (10 minutes with, 2014). Some people will consider language as the defining variable, while others will consider cultural heritage, religion, nationality, or self as the key aspects. In essence, such dynamics would still prompt the question of plurality in cognitive competence among individuals. Therefore, it is important to understand the global differences in how people characterize themselves and align to a particular entity.
First, collectivism versus individualism is a primary determinant of identity approaches. By focusing on uniqueness of a society, we may define populations as either individualist or collectivist societies. Geert Hofstede in “10 minutes with Geert Hofstede on Individualism versus Collectivism” provides a comprehensive understanding of the principles of each type of identity. On the one hand, collectivist societies consider themselves as a group with common attributes and exclusive traits, also known as communities or clans. Here, the relationship or ties come as the first principle for the population. Hofstede further asserts that communal identities are binding and portray exclusionary values. These groups of people understand common values and treat members as families or units. These notions have been propelled by several races to advance their position in global space. The African Americans, for instance, identify themselves as the black community or people of color. Consequently, they collectively engage in fighting for human rights and equality in societies as a combined force. On the other hand, individualistic communities tend to be multi-cultured because the bonds between are loose; each personality considers their value as an individual at the expense of common good of the people. One of the outstanding attributes of this type of existence is the continued self-competition that often results in productivity.
Second, self-conceptualization or knowledge is pivotal in defining personality of an individual. According to Markus and Nurius (1986), selves manifest in different forms, including cognitive components and environmental responses. In essence, what defines a person can never remain static because of diversity in cognitive response. The possible selves may showcase in the way people design their ambitions, hopes, and how they react to fear and threats. Often, the categories may define the current and future behaviors of someone (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Nonetheless, the common judgment is that where one comes from, their physical appearances and routine ways of living matter enormously in the quest to validate their position in a population. Predominantly, self-reflection, community values, national values, and global principles each postulate varying contextual meaning in this argument. According to Zull (2004) personal identity is the internal reflection and attributable to developing evolution in space and time. Concurrently, folks’ cognitive capabilities in their places of work also help them identify their skills, talents, competence, and other key aspects of variance among human kind.
Moreover, learning proves shape the way people think and act in different environments. Education begins at the birth of a baby because whatever parents the parent does, the young ones will learn from these activities, which affect their cognitive capacities later in life. In essence, consciousness in experiences demanding one’s physical interpretation and the intuitive awareness variety is imperative in defining one’s identity. Although the environment plays a primary role in one’s life, the type of response is more important. The way folks internalize and utilize the knowledge derived from learning processes greatly; hence, the diversity in personality traits (Zull, 2004). Historical concepts such as race have been misinterpreted in various ways. In some cases, learning centers help individuals to know where they came from and how things have changed based on time. Today, social media is playing the foremost valuable position in liberating members from the yokes of traditional undoing. Together with access to technology and internet services, change of beliefs and mentality has become inevitable in almost all sectors.
Essentially, continuous learning seems to change the way the brain operates and shapes characteristics of people. Zull (2004) asserts that education has had great role in transforming individuality in different sectors and professions. Globally, racial discrimination is considered an injustice endured by the people of color as perpetuated by the whites. However, within the African continent, multiple tribes exist which fight racial wars amongst themselves. Some folks seem to abandon their physical appearance by bleaching their bodies to become white because they believe the white identity has elements of superiority in it. Thus, learners interpret colors differently, which in turn affects their interpersonal relations and self-actualization during their educational progress. Misconducts such as discrimination and prejudice emanate from beliefs about what constitutes a nation’s group: Hispanic, African Americans, Caucasian, White or Asian. Some whites consider themselves as the epitome of humanity, subjecting the former to slavery and inequity in all circles of existence. Such a set of collective learnt behavior defines a collocation of identity in different parts of the world. However, it keeps changing as people intermarry and give birth to children with cross-cultural attributes.
Cultural dynamics also play fundamental role in shaping identities, both collectively and individually. One of the notable aspects of culture is hybridity which manifests in mimicry and space. The spatial and temporal components define the social norms and traditions of people in different environments. Conceptually, the political behaviors portrayed by different countries are a collective illustration of their cultural heritage merged with intellectual competence in such region. Essentially, where one is born and brought up is what will shape one’s ideological beliefs and intellectual alongside the biological interplay with history (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Therefore, all political changes emanate from values attached to culture and social order. Globally, there are countless ethnic groups and indigenous groups that bear distinctive attributes. These characteristics are expressed in language, food, customs, clothing, and daily ways of living and interacting. Some have remained true to their heritage and historical backgrounds. In the 10 minutes with Geert Hofstede, he claims that the culture of politics and nationalism portrayed by different nations helps to illustrate the magnitude of common belief in a society. The Aboriginals, for example, depict a classic illustration of how staying true to local and traditional beliefs can be a rare sense of belonging. Oblivious of the predominant attributes of a multiplicity of people, nationalism delves into a single entity structure for different groups. Thus, one would always recognize their birth background or residential states as the places they belong. Thus, unity in a geographical region may also be used as a defining factor in population identity.
To conclude, the notion of identity is a very broad concept that requires exclusive research and understanding to make valid conclusions because it keeps changing based on collectivism, world education/ learning alongside self-conceptualization. In an ideal world, societies construct, deconstruct and reconstruct aspects of culture in pursuit of their identities. At the same time, educational curricula perceive this facet as a major contributor to career growth and development. One becomes what they love doing and continuously nurtures their personality. The mind, time, space, and environment play the most important role in shaping the argument on identity. Simultaneously, there are complexities around the debate about who we are and what we can do in life. Each proposition bears a fundamental impact on the social theoretical squabble.
The question that has persisted for a long time revolves around whether there is just one self in every person or do people consist of different “selves”. Scholars argue that the life situations that we encounter daily play a critical role in moulding our “self”. In simpler terms, every individual has multiple social “selves” and those who interact with him tend to carry a specific image of the person in their head. All through life, many people tend to understand themselves through others; their “selves” are shaped by their own standpoint and that of their significant others. Therefore, the concept of self derives its meaning from three domains, the ideal, aught and actual selves, which guides an individual’s behaviour based on experiences and situations.
The Ideal, Aught and Actual Domains
The ideal self domain is the created version of self which manifest through life-long learning and experiences. Boyatzis and Udayan defined it as a “highly prized part and a motivator within a person’s concept of self” (135). It is imperative to note that this domain is often influenced by the demands of society and what people find interesting in their role models. For example, my parents have well-paying jobs, which explains why they are respected and admired in the community. As their first born child, my parents constantly remind me that the only way to find a higher-paying job is through hard work. In fact, my father always wishes that I follow in his footsteps. In essence, the ideal self, as evidenced from my experiences with my parents, is the person others want you to be.
The aught self domain comprises of all the attributes that you believe you should have. For example, this domain requires that I develop a sense of duty and responsibility, especially when my parents are not around. From a Christian perspective, the book of Romans 3: 23, explains clearly that as humans we may fail to measure up to our ideal selves, “for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” This verse reminds me of why I always feel shame and guilt whenever I fail to live up to my expectations and those of society, family, and friends. It is for this reason that Christians need a saviour as their role model – to rely on as they walk through life. As humans, we sometimes experience instances of guilt and shame because we tend to set high expectations than we can achieve.
The actual self domain can be described as the way in which an individual sees themselves now – what they really are. For example, my focus in life has always been to be the best version of myself. To achieve this requires an in-depth examination and scrutiny – “owning ourselves in all consequences”, especially those that results in what we did in the past and making a resolve to change (Legault 232). Once we accept all our consequences, either intentionally or unintentionally, we move a step closer towards being our true self. My aim all along has been to find a way of aligning the way I am and the way I want to be. For instance, my ideal self-image is to be smart and find a high-paying job. However, to achieve this requires that I comprise some elements of my actual self, such as my love for partying.
Integrating the Three Domains
Integrating these three domains of self helps one develop a clear understanding that although we sometimes find a sense of unity in who we are, it does not mean that we have one self. At some point in life, everyone tends to get surprised by how they acted or even feel conflicted about themselves depending on how they reacted in some situations. For example, one of my friends, who many thought of being a coward, surprised everyone when he stood up to a bully who had humiliated him for a long time. In fact, his actions saw him gain respect and admiration among his peers.
In line with the above, the life experiences play an important role in shaping how others perceive you. To illustrate what this statement means, I will rely on what happened to me sometime back while living with my parents. I received a call on our home phone from an individual who wanted to talk to my father. The caller had interacted with my father on several occasions and was calling to invite him to be the main speaker at an upcoming conference. He described my father as someone who is affable and socially engaging –he was the right candidate for the occasion. I later told my mother about how the caller characterized my father, and she just laughed. According to her, my father was rather reserved and more hesitant, especially in small conversations.
The overall point from the above example is that people have multiple self-states. This is what informed Redfearn’s book – the author was concerned with understanding some of the forces that influence humans to display multiple “selves”. For example, Redfearn observed that people “conceive self as a pattern of behaviour and experience through time” (37). The author further maintained that people tend to do different things across time, all of which contribute to their sense of self.
In a different study, Hayes et al. observed that our behaviour is influenced by the situation (31). This is true because I have, on several occasions, displayed my ideal self, especially during my best moments. It sometimes felt as if a conduit had opened and something was pushing me forward to take part in an oral contest which revolved around my favourite subjects. Deep down, I knew I could perform better and after the contest, everyone, including the judges, was surprised by my final scores. I occasionally look back to this moment and wonder how I managed to answer almost all the questions.
Self-Discrepancy Theory
Self-discrepancy theory holds that people have different beliefs and expectations about their actual and other “selves” that do not always align with what they experience. In other words, the actual, ideal and aught self can conflict with each other in some situations (Mason et al. 372). The dissimilarity between the actual and ideal/aught selves may, in some cases, “motivate an individual to act for self-improvement” (Mason et al. 375).
For example, if my ideal self chooses to take part in charitable work within my community, them my actual self may be compelled to do so. However, the divergence in the two selves can sometimes be stressful. This is the case especially to those professional women who also double as mothers. The aught self for these women is inclined towards achieving professional success and advancement. Their ideal self, on the other hand, revolves around a sense of duty and obligation to their family, a full-time mother. The actual self domain of these women may compel them to find a balance between their careers and as mothers. However, most of them fail to live up to the expectations of either. These differences may, in the end, lead to emotional and behavioural change.
My ideal self-image growing up has always been to tell the truth. For instance, my parents once asked me why I came home late. At first, I was tempted to lie but when I told them I did not want to leave the party because all of my friends were there, I felt some sense of relief. In fact, I did not care about the ramifications, I just felt good I told the truth. If I had decided to lie about my whereabouts then the conflict between my actual and ideal selves would have resulted in mental distress. As a matter of fact, I tend to experience negative feelings whenever I lie.
Conclusion
The concept of self, as described above, derive meaning from three domains, the ideal, aught and actual selves, which guide an individual’s behaviour based on experiences and situations. The actual self comprises of the attributes that you believe you actually possess while the ideal self consists of traits that someone else wants you to possess. The aught self, on the other hand, entails the attributes that you believe you should have. While some people find it easy to balance between the multiple selves, others struggle to find healthy relationship between them. In fact, some people experience these selves as competing versions which create conflict and distress.
Works Cited
Boyatzis, Richard, and Udayan Dhar. “Dynamics of the Ideal Self.” Journal of Management Development 5 (2021): 123-234.
Hayes, Steven C., et al. “The Centrality of Sense of Self in Psychological Flexibility Processes: What the Neurobiological and Psychological Correlates of Psychedelics Suggest.” Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science 15 (2020): 30-38.
Legault, Lisa. “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.” Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (2020): 230-241.
Mason, Tyler B., et al. “Self-Discrepancy Theory as a Trans-diagnostic Framework: A Meta-Analysis of Self-Discrepancy and Psychopathology.” Psychological Bulletin 145.4 (2019): 372-400.
Redfearn, Joseph WT. My Self, My Many Selves. Routledge, 2018.
Human development life span is a process that begins between conception and birth of a child and proceeds till old age. The process involves personal growth both mentally and physically, however, the rate of growth differs from one individual to the other such that some children or adolescents will be more physically developed (height and muscles) than others of the same age. Despite genetic and environmental factors having an influence on physical development, some concepts including cephalocaudal, proximodistal, and Orthogenetic principles explain the pattern of human growth and development. Indeed, the physical posture of an individual becomes more balanced as he/she develops from infancy to adulthood.
The physical body of an individual during infancy is largely disproportional. According to the cephalocaudal principle, the head occupies 50% of the body size of a two-month fetus but as physical development occurs, the body becomes more proportional with the head accounting for 12% of body length and 2% of body weight while the legs accounting for 50% of body length in an adult person (Siegleman and Rider, 2008, p.128). This concept views physical growth and development to progress from the head downwards, with the trunk growing fastest during the first year after birth and the legs growing fastest thereafter. Siegelman and Rider (2008, p. 128) also describe the physical growth in terms of proximodistal concept where the internal organs and chest are said to grow faster during the early period of infancy and then the growth spreads to the extremities (arms) thereafter. The third concept, Orthogenetic, provides a different view with the body being seen to initially grow universally with no differentiation and then thereafter the body organs become differentiated and organized as the developmental process progresses.
Given that physical growth is influenced by the brain and endocrine system, any interference of the neural system or secretion of body hormones will interfere with the physical developmental process. The reasons why different children will exhibit different physical developmental patterns will therefore not only be due to genetic and environmental factors but also to the different hormonal influences, for instance, where the pituitary glands are unable to secrete adequate growth and activating hormones, an individual may experience retarded growth, while where the adrenal androgens are insufficient, the bones and muscles may not develop effectively (Siegleman and Rider, 2008, p.125).
These concepts of human physical development are important since they give an understanding of human growth as an organized sequence that needs to be followed throughout the life of an individual. In addition to enhancing knowledge on developmental patterns from conception to adulthood, they give an important illustration of the reasons behind the unequal rate of physical development between individuals. For instance, an infant has the most rapid growth rate and highly sensitive reflexes (Siegleman and Rider, 2008, p.131); children of two and above years have steady growth and their physical behavior more or less controllable while their physical health may be enhanced not only by nutrition but also physical activity; the adolescents’ physical growth spurt due to increased hormonal secretion and setting in of maturation, where the body takes shape (for both girls and boys) and sexual maturation is reached.
With the understanding of these concepts, a psychologist will be in a better position to establish the causes of certain developmental deficiencies in some individuals and apply corrective measures early enough. Moreover, the psychologist will be able to provide convincing explanations and counseling to individuals who may be psychologically affected by their alleged physical difference, which may or may not necessarily be a developmental problem but a differing growth rate from others.
References
Sigelman, C. K. and Rider, E. A. (2008). Life-Span Human Development. Sixth Edition. NY: Cengage Learning.
In the social world, the classification of sociologist theories occurs in a close relation to the presentation of the social structures and actions. The social references relate to the self-concepts of the system or to the individualism.
First, the action and symbolic interactions theory indicates that the social actions cause the existence of a social relationship between the society and social systems. On the other hand, the functionalism and structuralism indicates the importance of the manipulative pressure of the social arrangement on the individual actions and thinking.
Concept of the self, in the social world
What is a self-concept? Self-concept is the definition of individual concept of existence for instance as a parent, tutor or college student. The self-concept assists people to come up with and utilize schema as mental templates for organizing the reasons for living and other aspects of the world.
According to Klandermans and Roggeband (2009), self-schema is the personage believes about an individual that assists in organizing and guiding the procedures of processing information that is relevant to an individual. Self-schema controls how individuals perceive, remember, and evaluate the personal traits and perception of others. Socially the concept of self-schema influences how people thing and relate.
For instance if one had a thought of self-intelligence, doe it affect the relationship to others? The thought alters the individual perception. Considering the existence of self intelligence makes one to notice the intelligence on others, have a better response to inquiries that triggers one’s knowledge base and assist one to welcome information that is consistent with individual’s schema. Schema assists one to have a self-reference (Schutt, 2006).
What is the effect of a self-reference? The concept of possessing a self-reference assists in forming a habit of processing information efficiently and remembering the information that relates well to one’s personality. The ability to have a self-reference influences the thinking process by assisting one to remember relevant information, which assists in focusing on oneself.
The individual trait is the main player displaying on a particular lifestyle. Self-reference also assist one to overestimate other’s views because of the assumptions that they are evaluating him/her. However, people forget quickly or fail to notice the social mistakes, emotions or mental slips that one may make. Others easily forget what one seems to agonize over for a while.
Self-esteem (SE) in the social world
In Line with Ballantine and Roberts (2008), Self-esteem is the estimate or consideration of self-worthiness. It is the sum of all self-schemas, which assists people in finding the individual perceptions, personalities, temperaments or traits. Are we interesting, boring, dull or fun filled? The personal roles, personal successes/failures, others views, social identity and comparisons are the main factors influencing the development of self-concepts.
People have different roles to play such as parenting or teaching. New roles feel alien, but with time, they become part of the self-concept for instance parenting roles. Success over challenging tasks improves self-concept. Unfair comparisons to others set the loopholes for disappointments over performances. In addition, people will often try to protect the wounded self-esteem by rationalizing the competitor as advantaged for better performance.
Self-identity defines the race, gender, and performance among other issues. Being aware of a social identity changes the self-concept because when one belongs to a minority group, the social identity changes. Social comparison involves relational evaluation of abilities or opinions. The comparisons alter the self-concepts and esteem.
Self-efficacy (SE) in the social world
Self-esteem and self-efficacy are completely difference because of the dissimilarity on the sense of competency and effectiveness. The tough achievements and fine manipulations improve the efficacy because one feels good about the abilities to set and meet challenging goals. Personal believes and feelings towards achievements determine the existence of self-efficacy.
References
Ballantine, J. H., & Roberts, K. A. (2008) Our Social World: Introduction to Sociology. London, UK: Sage Publishers. Print
Klandermans, B. & Roggeband, C. (2009), Handbook of Social Movements across Disciplines. New York, NY: Springer Publishers. Print
Schutt, R. K. (2006). Investigating the social world: the process and practice of Research: Part three. California, CA: Pine Forge Press Publishers. Print
The concept of self is defined as the characteristics which make an individual unique from other people. People behave differently because of the different characteristics each one possesses. The self is responsible for the actions that one takes as well as his/her thoughts. Philosophers have played a major role in the study of the concept of self. Identity is defined as a state in which an individual possess characteristics which make him/her unique in the sense that no other person holds the same characteristics.
These are the characteristics which make an individual to be recognized and separated from a particular group. According to me, the terms identity and self are closely related in meaning. Both terms refer to characteristics which make an individual different from other people in terms of behavior. In my discussion, I will combine these terms because they simply mean the same (Roach 89).
There are several ways through which the concept of self is formed. The characteristics which make an individual different from other people is what make individuals personality. People think and behave the way they do because of various reasons. An individual’s identity may be influenced by other people. Peoples behavior may be influenced by the way other people like us to be. For example students behave according to the rules and regulations of the school. Some may not be willing but they are forced to obey.
The Christian doctrine teaches its followers the expected behavior of a Christian. Individual’s behavior is therefore influenced by other people. There are many theories which explain the concept of identity. These theories provide foundation for the reasons behind an individual’s behavior. During the various stages of development, individuals acquire knowledge which influences their future behavior (Roach 98).
The biological theory asserts that nature is responsible for the behavior that an individual portrays. The results of philosopher’s research show that individuals identity is related to the individuals genetic make up. An individual’s identity is formed by genes. Our genes determine whether we will be good, bad, sad or even happy people.
Biological theorists believe that characteristics are passed down from the parents to the off springs a process known mutation. This is the process through which genes combine during the process of reproduction. It is assumed that children born of harsh parent will inherit that character.
As far as academics is concerned, biological theorists assume that children born of dull parents are usually poor in class work. The behavior that people exhibit is therefore acquired naturally from the parents through inheritance. These theorists have however been criticized because research has shown that this is not always true. Cases have been witnessed where for example tall parents have brought up short children. Also there are cases where rude children are born of polite parents (Engler 102).
Another theory put forward to explain identity is behavior theory. Behavior theorists assert that an individual’s identity is determined by the environment in which an individual is brought up. These theorists concentrate on the behaviors which can be observed. They assume that each person takes the responsibility of the actions which he takes and should be accountable for them.
The society is based on rules and regulations which an individual should follow failure to which strict actions should be taken. All institutions like schools, hospitals, working places have rules which help in maintaining order in the society. If children are brought up in a society with no established rules, they are likely to grow in to immoral members of the society who engage in crimes.
If an individual is brought up by religious parents, the child is likely to grow up into a reliable family member because he will follow the example portrayed by the parents. Many adolescents are influenced by peer pressure in schools. As they socialize and interact with people of their age, they borrow from each others behavior. A child who interacts with bad company finally becomes an immoral member in the society. Behavior theorists assert that that nurture is responsible for behavior portrayed by an individual (Engler 70).
Humanistic theorists assert that an individual identity is based on free will. This is acting according to individual’s desires. They assume that people’s behavior should not be controlled. People should be allowed to choose what they need from what they do not need. People are different in the sense that they have different desires and interests.
Since they are different, they should not be treated equally. Establishment of standard rules in a society may favor some people and at the same time be a threat to another group. Before establishment of rules, the society should ensure that the laws favor all the members of the society. Humanistic theorists assume that the behavior exhibited by an individual is based on his desires and interests. People engage in activities which fulfill the desires of their heart (Kun 190).
Sigmund feuds theory of psychodynamic also explains the concept of identity. According to him, there are three main components of personality. These are the idi, the ego and the super ego. These are the main determinants of an individual’s behavior. It is the responsibility of the id to cater for the needs and desires an individual. The ego controls the moral behaviors while the superego is the mediator of the id and the ego. According to him, an individual’s behavior is based on the three aspects (Kun 200).
The identity of an individual is not permanent. It is subjected to many changes. For instance, law and order in the society has enabled people’s change of personality. Strict measures are taken against wrong doors like thieves, rapists and other people who engage in immoral activities.
Such people are punished according to the law and taken to rehabilitation centers where they are trained on the expected behavior in the society. Many of them come out of rehabilitation centers as moral people and change their identity. Religion also shapes the behavior of society members. People are trained on what is right and wrong. Religions counts a lot for the conversion of immoral society members to respective and reliable members of the society (Bergen 80).
David Hume explained the concept of personal identity in the bundle theory of the self. According to Hume, human body is made up of different perceptions which, interacts with one another and change from time to time. He was determined to understand the problems arising between the mind and the body. He argued that people tend to think, that they are the same they used to be in some years back but in the real sense, many aspects of the body have already changed.
He was against the view that characteristics born by an individual are different from the person himself. According to Hume, the soul is composed of different related elements which are constantly changing. Plato identity theory of mind asserts that element and states of the mind and brain are identical. This however does not imply that the brain and mind are identical. According to the theory, experiences like pain and anger are processes of the brain (Bergen 106).
Social construct is the concept or practice followed by an individual or a particular group. Social construct depends on the contingent variables of an individual rather than the characteristics inherited from the parents. Social construct is basically determined by the choices made by people rather than natural laws or laws arising from the divine will.
Social construct involves the ways through which social activities are created, in institutions and made a tradition by human beings. For instance, societies are constructed in different ways. Each society has its own laws and cultural practices which they follow. Society members are supposed to follow the traditions of the society. The construction of a society is subjected to changes. In the modern societies, societies are embracing modern activities initially not allowed.
Other societies also eliminate some of the activities like female genital mutilation which endangers the society. Social construct like identity change from time to time in people’s life. The social construct of an individual can be influenced by other people through the process of socialization. An individual should however ensure that he is accountable for all actions which he takes (Bergen 156).
Works Cited
Bergen, John. Spanish in the United States: Sociolinguistic issues. New York: Cengage Learning, 2000.Print.
Engler, Barbara. Personality theories: An introduction. New York: Cengage Learning, 2008.Print.
Kun, Jos. Strangers among sounds: listening, difference, and the unmaking of Americans. London: University of California, Berkeley, 1998.
Roach, Mary. Dress and identity. New York: Fairchild Publications, 1995.Print.