Category: Self-Concept

The self is a concept of identity developed from the social setting. This means that an individual acquires identity from the mental reflection of the society (Mead, 2012). Julia Wood illustrates personal identity as a phenomenon developed from the interaction between an individual and the society (Wood, 2007).

As the individual interacts with the society, he or she develops a concept of self. Alternatively, self is an individuals judgment of the societys perception towards him or her. Identity is built progressively as one understands other peoples perceptions.

Since for one to create an identity, he or she has to imagine other peoples thoughts, imagination is part of self (Cooley, 2011). Other peoples thoughts as imagined by an individual include the societys perception of ones own thoughts.

One starts to build an identity by interacting with the initial family members or guardians, who are of immediate significant importance. At this point, a child learns that there are other entities with a perception, and is immediately conscious of their perceptions towards them. This is the first instance of creation of self (Mead, 2006).

It is notable that the first instance of creation of identity arises from outside the body of an individual. Furthermore, self-perception arises from interaction between the individual and the immediate members of the society. The first people an individual interacts with are identified as particular others. Wood says that even gender orientation is acquired from the perceived expectations of close family members.

People slowly assume roles in the society according to the perceived expectations of family members or immediate guardians. A definition of one as an individual is first made by particular others (Wood, 2007). Self-esteem is based on the nature of utterances by particular others concerning ones personality.

As a child grows, she understands that other people have different perceptions and thoughts. One imagines what other people might be thinking of them and identity becomes a more complex concept. This imagination is known as reflection or self-appraisal. Woods illustrates this using Charles coolers concept of looking-glass reflection (Wood, 2007).

This means that the society is a glass mirror through which an individual sees a reflection of oneself. As one develops a more complex identity, a set of guidelines governing ones life are created. These guidelines are known as identity scripts and they govern beliefs, which are often beyond our ability to influence.

When identity has been developed up to a certain level, one then learns how to form relationships with others. Every individual has a perception of how one should feel in a relationship with a particular person based on ones experiences during identity development. The formed attachment with others may be secure or in secure or insecure depending on the past relationships with close family members or guardians (Cooley, 2011).

Finally, one develops a concept of self that depends on generalized others, which is a conception of what the society expects of an individual (Wood, 2007). This aspect is characterized by gender roles and responsibilities based on the status of an individual in the society.

Different societies lead to development of different self-perceptions, and thus varying nature of identities. In the societies of the west, racial background constitutes identity. Consequently, an individual in the western society is always conscious of his or her color. This perception has been passed on for generations since colonization and slavery began.

In the United States, it is common for people to be referred to by the color of their skin, although whites are generally not described by their color since they are often considered normal. Such observations create a perception of difference between races.

In almost all societies, gender plays a major role in formation of identity and self. Members of different genders will be treated differently, with males being favored for better opportunities and treatment. While women are expected to have laid back personalities, men are expected to be competition conscious (Wood, 2007).

These perceptions are prevalent in all societies with varying degrees of significance. Gender roles and perceptions are developed during growth of a person. Although gender is defined to a significant extent by biological factors, social responses to an individual govern development of certain gender traits.

Economic and social status can also be a powerful factor influencing the nature of self as created by an individual. For a person who earns minimum wage, it does not seem proper to patronize a five star restaurant or hotel. Such a person will seek the services of a restaurant that offers things that are usually affordable to him or her even when the services to be sought are relatively cheap in all restaurants (Wood, 2007).

Since the society has always expected the particular individual to seek the services of a hotel or restaurant offering services to people of a particular social standing, a rich person will feel odd and out of place if he or she seeks the services of a restaurant where most of the patrons are those who earn minimum wages. Moreover, people use comparisons of individuals to gauge their social-economic status (Wood, 2007).

An individual will consider oneself successful if his or her performance surpasses that of most people in the society. All the scripts are a result of the influence of generalized other, which is an inherent component of identity in adult life.

The mass media influences peoples perspective of self. Culture and expectation of an individual in the social and economic setting are reflected upon by mass media, which disseminates information based on societal expectations.

Most programs including movies and publications by dailies are tailored to reflect the societys expectations by the manner in which the characters shown are depicted (James, 1994). For example, it is unusual for a television program meant to present a real life situation to show scenes of a family setting with members of the family in questions playing reversed roles.

Aired television programs will usually reflect the true perceptions and expectations of the society. Famous television personalities influence the manner in which an individual relates to people around him or her.

In conclusion, the society and the interaction between the society and the individual define self. Gradual learning of the societys perception of an individual creates identity. Imagination is also a central aspect in creation of self, and an individual will have certain imagination regarding the societys expectations of his or her person.

Thus, this contemporary view of oneself conflicts with classical theories such as Cartesian existentialism, which defines existence by beginning with the perception of self. For Cartesian philosophy, the society is perceived after self-identity has been created. Mirror glass self defines identity as a reflection, where the society acts as the mirror that reflects ones identity.

References

Cooley, C. (2011, May 4). The Looking Glass Self. The Work. Retrieved from www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/INDEX.HTML#cooley

James, W. (1994). The Physical Basis of Emotion.. Psychological Review, 101(2), 205-10.

Mead, H. (2012, January 1). Geocities.The Self, the I, and the Me. Retrieved from www.geocities.com/tdeddins/Reader288-292pg293- 295.htm

Mead, G. G. (2006, February 1). The Self in Society. Pfeiffer. Retrieved from www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/INDEX.HTML#mead

Wood, J. T. (2007). Interpersonal communication: everyday encounters(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub..

Introduction

The question that has persisted for a long time revolves around whether there is just one self in every person or do people consist of different selves. Scholars argue that the life situations that we encounter daily play a critical role in moulding our self. In simpler terms, every individual has multiple social selves and those who interact with him tend to carry a specific image of the person in their head. All through life, many people tend to understand themselves through others; their selves are shaped by their own standpoint and that of their significant others. Therefore, the concept of self derives its meaning from three domains, the ideal, aught and actual selves, which guides an individuals behaviour based on experiences and situations.

The Ideal, Aught and Actual Domains

The ideal self domain is the created version of self which manifest through life-long learning and experiences. Boyatzis and Udayan defined it as a highly prized part and a motivator within a persons concept of self (135). It is imperative to note that this domain is often influenced by the demands of society and what people find interesting in their role models. For example, my parents have well-paying jobs, which explains why they are respected and admired in the community. As their first born child, my parents constantly remind me that the only way to find a higher-paying job is through hard work. In fact, my father always wishes that I follow in his footsteps. In essence, the ideal self, as evidenced from my experiences with my parents, is the person others want you to be.

The aught self domain comprises of all the attributes that you believe you should have. For example, this domain requires that I develop a sense of duty and responsibility, especially when my parents are not around. From a Christian perspective, the book of Romans 3: 23, explains clearly that as humans we may fail to measure up to our ideal selves, for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God. This verse reminds me of why I always feel shame and guilt whenever I fail to live up to my expectations and those of society, family, and friends. It is for this reason that Christians need a saviour as their role model  to rely on as they walk through life. As humans, we sometimes experience instances of guilt and shame because we tend to set high expectations than we can achieve.

The actual self domain can be described as the way in which an individual sees themselves now  what they really are. For example, my focus in life has always been to be the best version of myself. To achieve this requires an in-depth examination and scrutiny  owning ourselves in all consequences, especially those that results in what we did in the past and making a resolve to change (Legault 232). Once we accept all our consequences, either intentionally or unintentionally, we move a step closer towards being our true self. My aim all along has been to find a way of aligning the way I am and the way I want to be. For instance, my ideal self-image is to be smart and find a high-paying job. However, to achieve this requires that I comprise some elements of my actual self, such as my love for partying.

Integrating the Three Domains

Integrating these three domains of self helps one develop a clear understanding that although we sometimes find a sense of unity in who we are, it does not mean that we have one self. At some point in life, everyone tends to get surprised by how they acted or even feel conflicted about themselves depending on how they reacted in some situations. For example, one of my friends, who many thought of being a coward, surprised everyone when he stood up to a bully who had humiliated him for a long time. In fact, his actions saw him gain respect and admiration among his peers.

In line with the above, the life experiences play an important role in shaping how others perceive you. To illustrate what this statement means, I will rely on what happened to me sometime back while living with my parents. I received a call on our home phone from an individual who wanted to talk to my father. The caller had interacted with my father on several occasions and was calling to invite him to be the main speaker at an upcoming conference. He described my father as someone who is affable and socially engaging he was the right candidate for the occasion. I later told my mother about how the caller characterized my father, and she just laughed. According to her, my father was rather reserved and more hesitant, especially in small conversations.

The overall point from the above example is that people have multiple self-states. This is what informed Redfearns book  the author was concerned with understanding some of the forces that influence humans to display multiple selves. For example, Redfearn observed that people conceive self as a pattern of behaviour and experience through time (37). The author further maintained that people tend to do different things across time, all of which contribute to their sense of self.

In a different study, Hayes et al. observed that our behaviour is influenced by the situation (31). This is true because I have, on several occasions, displayed my ideal self, especially during my best moments. It sometimes felt as if a conduit had opened and something was pushing me forward to take part in an oral contest which revolved around my favourite subjects. Deep down, I knew I could perform better and after the contest, everyone, including the judges, was surprised by my final scores. I occasionally look back to this moment and wonder how I managed to answer almost all the questions.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Self-discrepancy theory holds that people have different beliefs and expectations about their actual and other selves that do not always align with what they experience. In other words, the actual, ideal and aught self can conflict with each other in some situations (Mason et al. 372). The dissimilarity between the actual and ideal/aught selves may, in some cases, motivate an individual to act for self-improvement (Mason et al. 375).

For example, if my ideal self chooses to take part in charitable work within my community, them my actual self may be compelled to do so. However, the divergence in the two selves can sometimes be stressful. This is the case especially to those professional women who also double as mothers. The aught self for these women is inclined towards achieving professional success and advancement. Their ideal self, on the other hand, revolves around a sense of duty and obligation to their family, a full-time mother. The actual self domain of these women may compel them to find a balance between their careers and as mothers. However, most of them fail to live up to the expectations of either. These differences may, in the end, lead to emotional and behavioural change.

My ideal self-image growing up has always been to tell the truth. For instance, my parents once asked me why I came home late. At first, I was tempted to lie but when I told them I did not want to leave the party because all of my friends were there, I felt some sense of relief. In fact, I did not care about the ramifications, I just felt good I told the truth. If I had decided to lie about my whereabouts then the conflict between my actual and ideal selves would have resulted in mental distress. As a matter of fact, I tend to experience negative feelings whenever I lie.

Conclusion

The concept of self, as described above, derive meaning from three domains, the ideal, aught and actual selves, which guide an individuals behaviour based on experiences and situations. The actual self comprises of the attributes that you believe you actually possess while the ideal self consists of traits that someone else wants you to possess. The aught self, on the other hand, entails the attributes that you believe you should have. While some people find it easy to balance between the multiple selves, others struggle to find healthy relationship between them. In fact, some people experience these selves as competing versions which create conflict and distress.

Works Cited

Boyatzis, Richard, and Udayan Dhar. Dynamics of the Ideal Self. Journal of Management Development 5 (2021): 123-234.

Hayes, Steven C., et al. The Centrality of Sense of Self in Psychological Flexibility Processes: What the Neurobiological and Psychological Correlates of Psychedelics Suggest. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science 15 (2020): 30-38.

Legault, Lisa. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences (2020): 230-241.

Mason, Tyler B., et al. Self-Discrepancy Theory as a Trans-diagnostic Framework: A Meta-Analysis of Self-Discrepancy and Psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin 145.4 (2019): 372-400.

Redfearn, Joseph WT. My Self, My Many Selves. Routledge, 2018.

Rene Descartes Philosophy about Self: Essay Introduction

The proponent of this study attempts to understand Descartes construction of his concept of the self. A careful study of his masterpiece entitled, Meditations can lead one to conclude that his concept of the self was the byproduct of the combination of the use of his physical senses, common sense, and a spiritual assumption based on the idea of the existence of a good God. However, a philosopher like Buddha may find Descartes conception of the self, a contradiction to the Buddhists prescribed path that leads to wisdom and perfection. Be that as it may, it is easier to accept Descartes conception of the self, based on reason, evidence, and practicality.

Descartes Concept of Self

Descartes acknowledged that the development of the concept of the self finds its starting point in the use of the physical senses. In other words, a persons perception of the physical world enables him to make sense of his identity. Nevertheless, Descartes understands the frailty of this intellectual framework, one that was based on the perception of the human body through the use of the physical senses. He pointed out as an example, the dilemma created by insane creating contradictory statements regarding a particular physical phenomenon. However, he reasoned out that sane people arrive at the same conclusion and share the same observation as other human beings that are not afflicted with mental problems (Descartes 12).

After Descartes provided the rationale for using the senses, he strengthened the argument by using common sense. He said that it is impossible to refute the reality of the statement that he had in his hand a pen and paper. Thus, the philosopher discovered a way to corroborate his ideas, and as a result, he found a way to discover truth and meaning in life. He was able to accomplish all of that using his physical senses and common sense.

It is indeed a formidable combination. Once the ideas and realizations that came from the five senses were corroborated by other people, it is easier to engage in a deeper discussion of other complex ideas. However, Descartes realized that this is not enough to build something grand and useful. Therefore, he needed another intellectual pillar that can support his main assertion. Descartes said that for all these things to be true, people must believe in the existence of a good God.

It is interesting to point out that Descartes reached this conclusion, not through a haphazard method. He used his senses and common sense to figure out that the great things he saw and experienced in his life are all part of the testimony that God is good.

Buddha Disagrees with Descartes

It is good to know that someone documented Buddhas wise sayings. If there is a chance to facilitate a face-off between Buddha and Descartes, the philosopher from the East may have some interesting things to say about the latters work. For example, Buddha will comment on how Descartes exuded great confidence in his method of arriving at conclusions. In Buddhas sayings that were recorded in the Dhammapada, the philosopher asserted that no one can find certainty in this world. Buddha pointed out that wisdom is attainable through the disintegration of the self. Nevertheless, Buddha also pointed out that the self is perceived through wisdom (Buddha 279). In other words, the attainment of true identity is accomplished at the risk of obliterating the self.

It is difficult to appreciate Buddhas conception of the self. It seems as if he was overwhelmed by the idea so that he was unable to formulate a correct argument. On the other hand, it is easy to follow the development of Descartes concept of the self. Furthermore, there is no value in the pursuit of wisdom, because in Buddhas worldview the self is obliterated at the end.

Descartes Concept of Self: Essay Conclusion

Descartes made it clear that the conception of the self is made possible through the use of the five senses augmented by common sense and the belief in the existence of a good God. However, Buddha, the great eastern philosopher presented a different idea, such that the self is perceivable even without the use of the five senses of the human body. Furthermore, the highest level in the process of the perception of the self leads to oblivion.
It is easier to accept Descartes ideas, because of its practicality and appeal to reason. Surely, it is easy to accept the assumption that a good God exists especially if one focuses on the wonders of nature and the complicated design and function of the human body. It is hard to accept Buddhas understanding of how people perceived the self because, at the highest levels, human identity disappears as if swallowed up in oblivion. Therefore, one must seriously consider the purpose of everything if the end only leads to nothingness. It is hard to accept as fact that all the beautiful flowers and all the amazing creatures on this planet were created so that at the onset of pure wisdom, mankind becomes as mute and dumb as a piece of rock.

Works Cited

Buddha. The Dhammapada. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print.

Descartes. Meditations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print.

The sane deep-self view is a concept proposed by the philosopher Susan Wolf. The essence of this phenomenon is closely related to moral responsibility. The researcher defines criteria that allow us to determine to what extent a person is able to accept the consequences of his actions at different levels of consciousness. The concept developed by Susan Wolf reflects the relationship between free will and responsibility.

The sane deep-self view suggests that people can be guilty of an act if their will directs their behavior, and deep-self awareness adequately interacts with the outside world. Free will, although perceived by ordinary consciousness as an empirically obvious fact, the philosophical explication of this concept plunges into the depths of metaphysics. This phenomenon from the position of responsibility, according to Susan Wolf, occupies an exceptional place in the causally ordered world. It can only be the cause of events but never the consequence of anything.

The tirade, which includes the concepts of free will, responsibility, and determinism from Susan Wolfs perspective, is a system of interrelated factors that largely influence one another (Wolf 2007). The notion of free will is central to this problematic complex, which includes two interrelated questions:

1. are free will and moral responsibility compatible,
2. whether free will and determinism are compatible (Deery 2002). These questions are constructed, with some amendments and refinements of wording, according to the

The questions are constructed with some corrections and refinements of wording according to a scheme that is in use in modern philosophical literature. Susan Wolf answers this question by saying that free will is compatible with moral responsibility; moreover, it is a necessary condition of the latter. That said, determinism, whether probabilistic or rigidly unambiguous, does not excludes the possibility of free will.

These questions and possible answers form a compact and, at the same time, fairly complete typology of alternative conceptual approaches that have emerged in this field of research. At the same time, researchers who give the same answer to the same question can draw different conclusions from their common recognition of the compatibility of the elements of the triad. Consequently, such scholars may be supporters of different concepts. The discussion between different approaches is of an abstract-academic nature only as long as the practical consequences of one or another solution to the problems are not addressed.

However, such consequences are inevitable because each theoretical concept of free will offers its own particular interpretation of the nature and content of human values and its own vision of the driving forces and mechanisms of human behavior. The latter is the source of different approaches in the development of means and methods of moral and legal education, social management, propaganda, advertising, and psychotherapy. Defects, in theory, are fraught with errors in practice, and although this connection is not always straightforward, it nevertheless serves as a real incentive to search for a true, rationally grounded (Frankfurt 1969). Thus, uniform for all concept of free will in its correlation with moral responsibility and the principle of determinism.

Responsibility is a special socio-psychological and value-normative phenomenon, the essence of which is to subordinate the motives and actions of people to the requirements of custom, morality, law, administrative or professional code. In its subjective hypostasis, it is the experience of duty or obligation before some objectively impersonal or personalized instance with spiritual authority or punitive force. According to Susan Wolf, several factors are indispensable for the imputation of responsibility to the individual and the basis for accountability and sanctions in case of violation of the obligations imposed on him (Wolf 2007).First, these include the principle sanctity of that person, the criteria of which may vary from community to community and from situation to situation. Second, the dependence of his decisions and actions on the individual has a great influence. In this case, the measure of responsibility is determined by the extent to which people are free from external factors in their decisions and actions.

As for freedom of action, which is a potential objective opportunity for the subject to translate into deeds his desires or imputed duties, the specified condition of responsibility, in fact, no one questions. Indeed, in force majeure circumstances, people cannot foresee and take preventive measures in order to act in accordance with their desires or obligations. This is generally recognized as a sufficient basis for absolving oneself of responsibility for the wrong acts or omissions (Aristotle and McMahon). There may also be intractable obstacles, partially restricting the individuals freedom of action, which to some extent, reduces the responsibility for the results of the activity.

Free will is the ability of the subject to make certain decisions entirely arbitrarily without reliance on innate or acquired needs, desires, or values. According to the prevailing Susan Wolf, the denial of the reality of free will calls into question the very existence of the institution of responsibility. Behind this reasoning is the idea that recognizing the secondary nature of the human will, its decisions a consequence of some external cause, removes responsibility from the acting subject and shifts it into the causal chain. Feelings of duty, moral responsibility, guilt, approval and condemnation, experiencing objectivity, absoluteness, categoricalness of moral demand lend themselves to causal explanation. The same can be concluded about ordinary motives and feelingsthe desire for wealth, power, the pursuit of happiness and pleasure.

Against the idea of free will as a condition of responsibility, there are arguments that can be reduced to several ideas. Philosophers claim that the institution of responsibility is impossible without free will, and therefore, the reality of the phenomenon of free will should be recognized  this is a logically flawed inference. Even if one accepts that predeterminism, which excludes free will, does lead to such negative consequences, this does not evidence that it is false.

Another counterargument is that the fictitiousness of free will is quite compatible with the existence and functioning of moral and legal responsibility. Moreover, in determining a subjects responsibility for the decisions he or she makes and the acts he or she does, the factors determining behavior are usually taken into account and affect the bottom line. If one is assumed to act of free will, then their decisions are not subject to either positive or negative evaluation. Thus, the main conclusion built from the mentioned ideas is that moral consciousness is ascribed such properties and abilities that are alien to the world of natural causality.

A strong argument usually advanced against the concept of free will is a reference to determinism as a universal principle of being, which denies the place of free will as an absolutely independent principle that generates something out of nothing. Since the principle of determinism is firmly rooted in philosophy and science, the main effort of proponents of the idea of free will is not to refute determinism in general but to interpret it in a way that is compatible with this idea (Nagel 1987). In order to find a place for free will in the causal world, the concept of Susan Woolf was put forward in philosophy.

Often a, free will is seen as a kind of essential property of the individual, self-evident and reliably experienced. The commonplace reflection of moral consciousness, which does not delve into the nuances of philosophical analysis, captures the fact that a reasonable, sane person is, in principle, capable of making their decisions (Aristotle and McMahon). It does not depend on someone elses influences or any circumstances, and in the same situation, the decisions could have been different. Introspection shows that the human self is never empty, it carries with it innate and acquired.

Attitudes are embodied in different situations in various motives, decisions, and actions. The fact that people are capable of making decisions on their own, of choosing the way of acting in this or that situation, does not mean that the choice is made freely.

The concept of the self is a special spiritual essence not included in the worlds. Determinism is not having any value preferences formed before the act of choosing. Standing above values, above good and evil, and nevertheless capable of making choices or assuming the significant things. All components of the human spirit, behavior, life activity, and interpersonal communication cannot be adequately described and explained in terms of pandering without reference to the concept of free will. It is impossible to say whether a person is guilty or not, given only the persistence of the relevant values. This explains why it often seems impossible to predict peoples tactics since decision-making depends not only on initial factors but also on a conscious and volitional analysis of the context of the situation.

Thus, the concept of free will in terms of responsibility, described by Susan Wolf, excludes deterministic human activities such as education, propaganda, and advertising. The sane deep-self view assumes a free, unprejudiced assumption of values, not excluding the total absence of supra-individual, generally meaningful criteria of good and evil. This approach looks at responsibility without neglecting morality as a regulator of interpersonal relations and as a social institution.

References

Aristotle, and John H. McMahon. 2018. The Metaphysics. Dover Publications.

Frankfurt, Harry G. 1969. Frankfurt, Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility. Thatmarcusfamily. Web.

Nagel, Thomas. 1987. Free Will. Lauren Alpert. Web.

Deery, Osin. 2002. Notes on Harry Frankfurt and Susan Wolf. Oxford.

Wolf, Susan. 2007. Sanity and the Metaphysics of Responsibility. rationalites-contemporaines. Web.

Our experiences develop us into ourselves. The self refers to who we are and our beliefs about attributes and attitudes (Baumeister, 1999). We develop ourselves as we try to find answers to the universal questions of ‘‘Who or what am I?’’ (Markus & Hamedani, 2007). Self-concepts change and we can have multiple self-concepts overtime (Baumeister 1998). Cross cultural psychology assumes that culture exists separate from the individual and influences our personality (Church & Lonner, 1998). Furthermore, without culture there is no self (Geertz, 1973). Differences in norms, beliefs and social interactions between cultures causes variations between selves (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). I will be discussing the extent to which the self differs culturally with reference to James’ self-theory, and self-constructs of; self-esteem, social perception, self-verification, and self-enhancement which influence our self-concept.

James provides a universal self-theory; the self is one’s consciousness. We are aware that the self is separate but connected to the social world (Swann & Bosson, 2010). James referred to the self as ‘me’ and the ‘I’ as the ego (James, 1890). The ego is linked to the minds of individuals (James, 1890). The empirical me comprises; social self, the spiritual self, and material self. The body is the core of the material self, called ‘me’. The material self consists of; wealth, clothes, home and family, called ‘mine’ (James, 1890). The social self is our interaction with society; how society recognises you and our reputation within society. The social self changes in different situations (James, 1890). The spiritual me is personality, thoughts, beliefs and feelings. James ordered these components in a hierarchy with the material me at the bottom, followed by social me and the spiritual me at the top (James, 1890). James shows the self has many components and it has social parts. His theory is universal; suggesting that everyone has the same structure to the self. However, Markus and Kitayama (1991) said this theory failed to describe everyone’s self-views. The self is defined differently across cultures (Markus, Mullally, & Kitayama, 1997) so his theory cannot account for differences in the self.

Markus and Kitayama (1991) proposed two different self-concepts; independent and interdependent self-construal’s. A self-construal is one’s thoughts and conduct to relationships, and the self as separate from others” (Singelis, 1994). Individualistic cultures view an individual as autonomous (Triandis, 1989). This is an independent self-construal where aspects of the self stem from within the individual (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). In collectivistic cultures the self is viewed in relation to others. Private beliefs and attitudes aren’t important, but family and society are of importance (Wu, 1994). Social relationships define the self thus aspects of the self stem external to the individual; referring to an interdependent self-construal (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Markus, Uchida, Omoregie, Townsend & Kitayama (2006) found athletes from China attributed success with the importance of their coaches and others. American athletes only emphasised their own strength and work. This supports self-construal theory as it shows the differences in social relationships between cultures. Singelis created a scale to measure self-construals. Americans score higher on independence than interdependence compared to Asian-Americans (Singelis, 1994). Similar results were found with Euro-Americans and Chinese (Singelis, Bond, Sharkey & Lai, 1999). Singelis showed differences exist with self-construals. Kitayama and colleagues compared Hokkaido Japanese with mainland Japan and found Hokkaido showed more independence than urban Japan (Kitayama, Ishii, Imada, Takemura & Ramaswamy, 2006). Similarly, Martella and Maass (2000) found Northern Italians were more independent than Southern Italians; suggesting individual differences within cultures. Although Markus and Kitayama assumed that nations would be classed as independent or interdependent, findings show the self differs within the same nation. The self cannot be universal as studies show that collectivistic cultures place importance to relationships while individualistic cultures are independent; causing variations across cultures. The self-construal theories account for these differences. We should consider cultural influence on the self.

Self-enhancement theory proposes that people are motivated to feel good about themselves (Sedikides & Gregg, 2008). People want a positive self-concept, and so they self-enhance and avoid negative views (self-protect) (Baumeister, 1998). We all have the innate drive to self-enhance, but it differs across cultures. One study found Japanese students were more self-critical to failure feedback than Canadian students. Also, Japanese didn’t share their good performance whereas Canadian students didn’t share their poor performance (Heine, Kitayama & Lehman, 2001). This suggests that East Asians are motivated by self-improvement. Heine and Hamamura (2007) conducted a meta-analysis comparing self-enhancement between East Asia and the West. All 45 studies showed self-enhancement was higher in the West than East. The analysis also showed the western sample didn’t self-criticise but East-Asians self-criticised in 20 studies. This suggests the East self-criticise; holding less positive views of the self than the West.

However, one can view self-enhancement as equal across cultures. One study showed Japanese were less self-enhancing for the individualistic traits but higher self-enhancing for collectivistic traits (Sedikides, Gaertner, & Toguchi, 2003). This shows that people universally engage in self-enhancement; but only on culturally valued dimensions. Self enhancement slightly varies across cultures. Research shows that East Asians are less motivated for self-enhancement than Westerners. They do show self-positivity but self-criticise more and are motivated by self-improvement than westerners. This suggests cultural values impact the expression of the self.

The self-esteem theory is defined as the evaluation of the self. Factors such as our appearance, performance, and our relationships contribute to self-esteem (Tafarodi & Swann, 1995). Rosenberg said high self-esteem is innately rewarding but low self-esteem is the opposite (Rosenberg, 1979). Everyone has sets of positive and negative evaluations, but it differs across cultures. Tafarodi and Swann (1996) found American students scored higher for self-competence compared to Chinese students who scored higher for self-liking. Other studies have shown similar results with students from Malaysian collectivistic cultures and British individualistic cultures (Tafarodi, Lang, & Smith, 1999) and comparisons in Spain and Britain (Tafarodi & Walters, 1999). If we consider self-liking as an affective trait, then both West and East are equal in their self-esteem rather than suggesting Asians are lower on self-esteem. Twenge & Crocker (2002) found that self-esteem in Mexicans was lower compared to Americans or Whites. However, Frazier and Deblassie (1982) found no difference in self-concepts of Mexican-American students and American students’ self-esteem. This suggests self-esteem is universal, but culture does have little influence. Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit (1997) found that Japanese saw failure more relevant to self-esteem than success, and Americans saw the opposite. Japanese thought that failures would decrease their self-esteem more than success would increase their self-esteem. This suggests culture shapes self-esteem as Japanese are taught to fit in and be considerate of others in society hence, they may see their success as hurtful to others. Culture does impact self-esteem to a small extent. The West promotes independence and so collectively they show higher self-esteem but in collectivistic cultures, they value others over themselves, so they have lower self-esteem on average to keep from failing group views.

The self-verification theory states that we want others to view us the way we view ourselves (Swann, 1983). Individuals with a positive self-view would rather interact with people who view themselves positively. Those with a negative self-view prefer to interact with those who view themselves negatively (de la Ronde and Swann, 1993). We all aim to self-verify but the extent varies from cultures. Swann & Pelham (2002) found people elicit feedback from relationship partners who verified similar views as each other. Other findings show participants preferred to interact with a partner who verified a negative self-view (Chen, Chen & Shaw, 2004). Research from Spain has shown preferences in interacting with others who verified their group identity (Gómez, Seyle, Huici & Swann, 2009). Participants felt more comfortable and understood when their group identity was verified. These findings are similar to western findings; suggesting there is an overall tendency to self-verify in all cultures. One study found that collectivistic cultures self-verify. In the study between Indian participants, Taiwanese participants and Americans, all participants displayed self-verifying strivings. They found self-verification was stronger in Americans when compared to Indians, but it was significant in both groups. They also showed that culture did not influence self-verification (Seih, Buhrmester, Lin, Huang & Swann, 2013). (Chen, English, & Peng, 2006) discovered that Asians and Westerners both favour self-verifying evaluations. These findings again suggest that culture does not impact one’s tendencies to self-verify. We can interpret a universal need for self-verification. Self-verification exists across all cultures, but the way it’s expressed may vary slightly across cultures. Research supports this view that even in collectivistic cultures they look to verify with their group views.

Overall, it is clear that some aspects of the self do indeed vary between cultures and culture certainly does impact one’s expression of the self. Western and Eastern cultural norms and values result in different selves. Although the same underlying processes of the self are seen within cultures, the selves develop through social environment and interaction so we cannot disregard culture in relation to the self.

Introduction

Technology plays a vital role in the present generation. Majority of tasks and activities people do today are aided by various forms of technology. Some of which include doing laundry by using a washing machine, accomplishing school or work responsibilities through the utilization of online applications, and interacting with other people by making use of handheld devices. The possible primary reason why people intertwine their lives with technology is the efficiency brought upon by this branch of science. Consequently, the deepening involvement of the self to the new technological environment, especially in the platform of social media, caused individuals to create or manipulate social selves. Since the social self is a component of the overall self, it can be inferred that whatever affects the social self also affects the overall self; which then can lead to self-concept and self presentation changes. Thus, acquiring linkage between the self and social media.

Body

Mead’s (1934) theory regarding the social self is greatly evident to Jones’ (2015) study regarding self-concept changes due to social media practices. George Herbert Mead (1934) specified that the self is composed of two variables which are the “I” and “Me”. The “I” portion of the self focuses on the individuality or autonomy of the person itself. While the “Me” part of the self primarily circulates on the different social interactions a person experiences. These two components work hand in hand in developing the self. Therefore, any internal or external forces experienced by any of the two variables can also have an effect on the other; which later on can affect the overall self and self-concept. This phenomena can be directly related to Cooley’s (1902) looking glass self; a theory that suggests that social experiences and interactions take part in building up one’s self or self-concept. Since social media is a brand new platform wherein an individual can gather comments or reactions from other people, Jones studied whether these interactions cause effects on the self-concept development. Conclusively, she was able to determine that the social media environment can affect the “Me” or social part of the self; thus, confirming self or self-concept changes.

Another research similar with Jones’ (2015) study is Hogan’s (2010) investigation on self presentation in social media. The discussion circulated on the process of forming one’s self presentation through performances and exhibitions. Performances and exhibitions were defined as execution of selected actions to the person’s environment (Goofman, 1959). Individuals choose to manipulate their actions in order to achieve the desired impression they want their peers to have. It can be inferred that this kind of utilization involves the self-concept since it is a redefinition of the self, may it be actions or attitudes. Therefore, self-concept is changed for improved self presentation in social media.

Bernie Hogan’s (2010) study was also able to present the idea why people want good self presentation in social media. Similar with Seidman’s (2012) research, both papers were able to deduce that people strive for better self presentation to achieve belongingness in their society. The eagerness to acquire belongingness in a group is a common feeling because humans are naturally social beings. Again, the self-concept is changed in order to achieve the desired self presentation in different social media groups and achieve that sense of belongingness. Furthermore, people strive for belongingness in order to gain various connections from different people (Hussain, 2012).

Conclusion

The social self is the one primarily concerned with the experiences and interactions with the society. Since the social self (“Me”) is a vital part of the overall self, changes acquired by the social self affects the overall self; and the branch directly affected by these changes is the self-concept. In the specific environment of social media, the self-concept is manipulated in order to achieve better self presentation. Self presentation assists in delivering and maintaining a good impression to the audience present in one’s community. Additionally, changes in self-concept and self presentation help in obtaining belongingness and connections with the person’s environment or society.

After critically reviewing various papers regarding the relationship of the self and social media, I was able to further understand how one’s environment and society can affect the self. Additionally, I was also able to comprehend that the different parts of the self interlink with each other in order to achieve the full identity of the self.

References:

1. Cooley, C.H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York, NY: Scribner’s Sons.
2. Goofman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
3. Hogan, B. (2010). The presentation of self in the age of social media: Distinguishing performances and exhibitions online. Bulletin of Science, Technology, and Society, 30(6), 377-386. doi: 10.1177/0270467610385893.
4. Hussain, I. (2012). A study to evaluate the social media trends among university students. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 64, 639-645. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.075.
5. Jones, J. (2015). The looking glass lens: Self-concept changes due to social media practices. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 4(1), 100-125. Retrieved from https://thejsms.org/tsmri/index.php/TSMRI/article/view/97.
6. Mead, G. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
7. Seidman, G. (2012). Self-presentation and belonging on Facebook: How personality influences social media use and motivations. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(3), 402-407. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.009.

Abstract:

One of the things that is still in the spotlight for the Surabaya City government is the population density. It makes city officials take strategic steps to increase public participation in family planning program. One of the programs being promoted is male family planning with vasectomy method. In order for this pro-gram to be widely known, public service ads will be made. The ads take consideration of perceptions and self-concept of the target. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative, with in-depth interviews as data collection instruments. This research informant consisted of five people who were the target of the male family planning program using vasectomy methods, namely men, Surabaya residents, aged 25-49 years old, married and already had a child of at least one person. The results show that the target have no negative per-ception towards the program and willing to participate when they feel it is necessary. They also want to be seen as responsible and useful person for their family and surroundings. Thus the ads to be made are advisable to lift it as the main message.

Keywords : Public Service Ads, Adverstising, Family Planning, Vasectomy

Introduction

The Surabaya City Government faces one serious problem, namely controlling the population. Until the end of 2015, the East Java Central Statistics Agency (BPS) recorded 2,848,583 residents of the city of Surabaya (BPS Jatim, 2016). The population that is not small is still developing with a population growth rate of 0.63 (Pemerintah Kota Surabaya, 2015). This growth has become a problem because the population density in Surabaya has exceeded the limit since 2010. The ideal population of Surabaya city should be 75 people per hectare, according to the Surabaya Population and Civil Registration Service (Dispendukcapil). However, the latest data from the population census in 2010, there were 87 residents per hectare (Kristanti, 2010). Various negative impacts of population growth that exceeded the limits were identified. Residents who live in areas that are too dense must compete to meet basic needs such as clothing, food, shelter, education, and jobs to survive. The more people are unable to fulfil their needs, the greater the crime will occur (Khaqim & Andawaningtyas, 2013).

With regard to these problems, the Surabaya City Government through the Surabaya City Population Control, Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection (DP5A) Office has promoted the Family Planning (KB) program again. One of their programs is the vasectomy method. This male family planning program is expected to grow. So far, women dominate the use of family planning. Women are susceptible to various diseases if they take part in family planning programs such as diabetes, high blood pressure, lung disease, heart disease, systemic or pelvic infections, vaginal bleeding, and allergies. Since 2013, DP5A (formerly the Community Empowerment and Family Planning Agency/Bapemas KB) has conducted a male family planning group formation program and aims to increase vasectomy user participation. Until 2017 there were around 7 male family planning groups. This family planning group with the longest formation of data was found in Pakal Subdistrict with the name ‘Siwalan Mesra’ group with 150 members. The group with the highest number of participants was named ‘Karangpilang Bahagia’ and had 250 participants (Yudianto, 2018).

Regardless of the efforts made, the development of male contraceptives tends to stagnate. 2013 data from Bapemas KB showed a target of around 0.27% of 518,000 fertile age couples in the city of Surabaya. In 2014, the target had reached around 0.38%, and in 2015 the target achievement decreased to 0.32% (Wono & Teguh, 2016). Departing from this problem, the Surabaya city government took the initiative to find a solution. According to information from various sources in the field, the cause of the low male KB participation is that people have low knowledge and there are even many myths that are mistaken about male contraception. So far the main action to overcome this is by relying on doctors and physician assistants to follow up on male KB. Unfortunately, the number of health workers is very limited: DP5A only has 6 doctors from the Health Service and 5 doctor assistants from BKKBN who handle all KB participants every year. Because the numbers are very limited, health workers focus more on providing explanations to people who are interested in participating in male family planning rather than socializing to targets who do not understand male KB issues (Yudianto, 2018). Therefore, it is necessary to have an alternative to effective and efficient socialization to encourage the participation of male KB users in Surabaya.

The alternative solution chosen by DP5A is to create public service advertisements which are disseminated through the media such as posters, leaflets, booklets, and videos. In order for the public service advertisement to be right and effective to the target, the ad must be able to attract the attention of the audience. Attractive advertising is an ad that can answer the needs of the target audience and they can interpret the content of the ad positively. Conditions that affect a person’s interpretation include their perception and self-concept (Khan, 2006). This study describes the perceptions and self-concept of target targets related to male family planning programs.

Literature review

Advertising is a promotional message that is generally paid and distributed by a source identified through a communication medium. Advertising often sells a product. However, in its development the contents of the advertisement expanded to include various things such as ideology, public appeal, health and safety issues, social activities and other non-profit matters (Hackley & Hackley, 2018). In general, advertisements that aim to convey non-profit messages are called public service advertisements. Public service advertising is a very important approach to promoting health issues. Various changes in people’s behavior after being exposed to health service advertisements have been observed. These advertisements are like prevention of melanoma, prevention of uterine cancer, the urge to do more physical activity and the call to stop smoking. These observations show positive results: public service advertisements can increase awareness and change people’s behavior effectively (Hu, et.al, 2017).

In order for the content of the ad message to be well received, the content of the message must have an appeal and pay attention to the attitudes and behavior of the target audience (in this case it can also be said as a consumer of advertising). In terms of attractiveness, there are three attractions that can be developed for advertising messages (Harjanto, 2009):

• Factual appeal. This attraction emphasizes the benefits of the product in accordance with the interests and desires of consumers. Pesanyang must highlight rational or factual benefits for consumers such as product basic ingredients, product performance, quality, formula, low prices, and others.
• Emotional attractiveness. This attraction focuses on the emotions of the target audience. Emotions here relate to one’s self-concept about feelings of love, pride, feelings of pleasure, fear, hate, shame, guilt, and so on. The trick is to motivate them to act. The messages conveyed usually touch feelings, attract attention, and create feelings that need, want, or like what is advertised.
• Moral attractiveness. This attraction is closely related to the conscience of the target audience, and relates to perceptions of the right things, virtues, or things that should be done. This type of attraction is often used to arouse awareness and conduct activities that benefit the social environment and others.

Self-concept can be described as a situation where a person sees himself and his behavior in everyday life. Self-concept is about how a person sees himself and how they think about him. There are six human self-concepts that can be described as follows (Khan, 2006):

• Actual self: how a person sees his true self
• Ideal self: how someone wants to see themselves
• Social self: how someone thinks about what others see about him
• Ideal social self: how someone wants to be seen by others
• Expected self: a self-image that is in the midst of actual self and ideal self
• Situational self: A personal picture of a person when in a specific situation

Ad adjustment to the self-concept of the target group is one way to attract attention. If the ad is too deviated from the target’s self-concept, the target group will lose interest in the ad. According to them the advertisement was not intended for them.

Perception is the most important psychological factor in influencing human behavior. Perception of stimuli and situations plays a large role in human behavior. Perception is an important activity that can make individuals feel connected with a group, situation, and various messages and invitations. A study conducted in Ngudilor Hamlet, Bandung Village, Gedeg Subdistrict, Mojokerto District showed a relationship between perception and interest in doing a vasectomy. The results of this study stated that the negative perception of the target group caused their low interest in doing a vasectomy. This study took a sample of 62 respondents: 40 respondents had a negative perception of vasectomy, 39 people (97.5%) were not interested in participating in the male family planning program. 22 people have a positive perception, 18 people (81.8%) are interested in participating in the Male Family Planning program . It is important to know the perception of the target group of male family planning users in Surabaya so that an advertising message can be made correctly and then the ad encourages their interest in participating in the family planning program for male.

In advertising, an advertisement can be said to be successful if the advertisement succeeds through the stages in perception as follows (Khan, 2006):

• Exposure: the target is exposed by advertising, meaning that the advertisement reaches the target easily
• Attention: does not stop at advertisement delivery to the target group. The target group must be interested in the ad. This means that advertising messages have meaning for them to think and touch their hearts.
• Interpretation: after the target group has been attracted to the ad, then the ad can be interpreted correctly by the target. The correct interpretation is the interpretation that matches the purpose of making the advertisement.
• Memory: after the ad has been interpreted, the ad must be remembered by the target group. It is expected that the target group will be ready to participate because they are able to remember the information or message of the advertisement.

Research method

This research used descriptive qualitative method. This method was used to understand phenomena in a natural and profound way: researchers explored seed and probed all information to obtain specific data . Data collection methods were carried out through in-depth interview techniques for informants. The criteria of the informants were the people who were the target of the male family planning program using vasectomy methods, namely men, Surabaya residents, aged 25-49 years old, married and already had a child of at least one person. In particular, informants were taken from the area of residence in Semampir, Kenjeran, Tambaksari, Sawahan and Wonokromo sub-districts. These regions were chosen because the region is the region with the lowest male KB penetration in Surabaya. Data from this study were taken from five informants aged 28 years, 33 years, 35 years, 40 years and 48 years. They live in Tambaksari, Kenjeran, Semampir, Sawahan, and Wonokromo. They work as small traders, online transportation drivers, administrative staff, and security. They have as many children at 1-3. The informant was chosen because it was in accordance with the criteria needed in this study. Transcript results from in-depth interviews were analysed by reducing, presented and drawn conclusions .

Discussion

From the results of the interviews it was found that they generally gathered and socialized around their living area or working area. Therefore their perception is strongly influenced by the household environment and their work environment. The topics of conversation in their daily lives are work, daily living and household needs, hobbies, issues that are currently crowded and events in their environment. They use topics in conversation because the topic is interesting and can be an input to support the work, add new information, and increase familiarity. Apart from the social environment, the informants also got a lot of information from various main media social media and sites on the internet and from television. One of the information they pay attention to is audio visual advertising. Often ads appear when they are browsing on the internet or watching television. The things that make them pay attention to advertising are because they are interested in the content of the ad. If the content of the advertisement is interesting and according to their needs, they will continue to see the ad. If the ad is considered not useful, they will just skip the ad. They also claimed to still get additional information from various types of print media such as brochures, posters or leaflets. Generally they will only read news content if the design in the print media is interesting to them and information is relevant to their needs. If not, even if they get the print media, they are reluctant to read it.

Specifically for health information they generally get information through several channels such as conversations with friends, sharing experiences about health, talking with health center staff or doctors while they are on treatment, browsing internet sites, and posters installed in the surrounding environment. Health information that attracts their attention is information about prevention of disease, the level of risk of various diseases, and the benefits of various health tips. For male family planning or vasectomy, the informants claimed that they had already known about the method. However, they have not explored deeper information because they do not feel the need. The informants actually did not have a negative view of male family planning. They have only a few concerns: they do not understand the vasectomy procedure; they feel afraid of vasectomy procedures, they do not get support from their wives; their wives have joined the family planning program; they are worried about the side effects of vasectomy for the body. If their worries prove to be incorrect, they are willing to use male KB.

While in terms of self-concept, they generally see themselves as people who are good and can be accepted by the social environment. Their ideal self-image is someone who is responsible, independent, does not trouble others, and is able to make the family happy. They feel they are seen by others as a low profile, not much, simple, and consequent person. They want to be seen by others as contributive people, able to share what they have even if they are simple, able to raise children well, and able to maintain harmony in their own homes.

From the informants’ perception it can be seen that there is no significant rejection of the vasectomy. But there are things that need to be a concern that their conditions of lack of information. These informations must be included in the ads that will be created. Therefore, information must be included in the advertisement regarding the benefits of vasectomy, vasectomy procedures, the level of safety of the vasectomy for male health and stamina, the safety of the vasectomy for the marital relationship, and the side effects of the vasectomy. Consideration should be given also to include information about who needs a vasectomy and why it needed to be able to encourage interest in the target using vasectomy.

Besides needing to pay attention to the information contained in the advertisement, the theme of the message that will be carried is also important. The theme of the message can pay attention to the self-concept of the informants. They want to be seen as someone who is good and can mingle with the environment as much as possible. In particular they also want to be seen as a responsible person, not troubling others, and able to contribute to the family and people around them. Therefore the right picture to be raised in the advertisement is the figure of a father, who is able to work well to make the family happy and contribute to society. Why is the father figure more appropriate than the husband’s figure, because the target of the vasectomy program is a father. Therefore the father figure is much more appropriate to be used in the advertisement that will be made. The father’s figure must be described as an active father and able to work diligently. This is needed because the self-image of the informants shows that the ability to work and contribute becomes an important part of their lives. This also simultaneously removes the misperception that the vasectomy will make the user weak and unable to work properly. Besides that, the father figure must also be described as someone who works for the welfare of the family and the people around him. Why is this important, because the impression of a workaholic father but is not responsible for the family or loner and is not accepted by the environment should also be avoided. This is in addition to answering the ideal picture for a father, as well as providing an impetus those vasectomy users can improve their families’ welfare. Because with the ability to plan the number of family members, fathers will also be more responsible for the family’s future. Besides that, a father who is not burdened with too many children can also contribute to his social environment.

Conclusions and recommendations

From this study it can be concluded that the perception of the target of male family planning programs with vasectomy methods does not tend to be negative: there is no rejection from the target group frontally. However, it is important to pay attention to various concerns that stem from misperceptions about vasectomy procedures. For self-concept, they want to be seen as someone who is responsible and able to contribute positively especially to the family and the surrounding environment. It is recommended that advertising messages can correct the perception that is still wrong about vasectomy. Information that must be entered includes the benefits of vasectomy, vasectomy procedures, the level of safety of the vasectomy for male health and stamina, the safety of the vasectomy for the marital relationship, and the side effects of the vasectomy. Meanwhile, advertising theme and design should refer to the self-concept of program target. Where the theme and design raised should refer to the figure of a father, who is able to work well to make the family happy and contribute to society.

References

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The question, ‘Who am I?’ is simple yet profoundly difficult to answer. Oftentimes, I thought I already have a definite picture of who I am, but when pushed to articulate it I falter and fail to form a clear overall picture. I could respond with my name, aspirations in life, gifts I possess, and talents I have perfected but these are merely reflections of who I am as a human being. Nevertheless, being able to answer this question could lead to a solid self-concept and self-understanding, which refers to understanding who you are as a person and understanding what your motives are when you act, respectively. Understanding the self is vital not only because it can have a multitude of repercussions in our daily life and goals but it also serves as a cornerstone for ways to improve ourselves and provides a reference point for personal development. Thus, I would want to pause and take the time to reflect in order to have a clear concept of self and be in a much better position in making long-term goals and radical self-improvements.

In one of the readings, McVittie and McKinlay (2017) emphasized the outsets regarding two understandings of the self, the I and the me. These two are distinguished by William James as the former being the doer, nominative self, and responsible for making sense of how we interact with others while the latter being the social, objective self and responsible for having a collection of selves based and through social interactions. Nonetheless, the I and the me have the self as intermediate reflexive, which is not a reflection of others’ judgement but rather how you internalize these. In other words, the self is a continuous recalibration of constructs (Gecas, 1982). Personally, my concept of self is the product of a recurrently restructured narrative, a sort of dynamic construct through which I sense my existence. As a human being, I am persistently discovering the inside and outside of my self, as well and how structured the narrative is and how persistent I am, represent the quality of attention and effort I am exerting to understand myself better. I believe that it is the self that perceives, distinguishes, and reports our dreams for us to realize we were dreaming – it is the conscious of consciousness itself like a passageway of looking glass endlessly extending out until it develops into its own thing; however, it is also that thing which knows about the existence of all other things. There is the I that is separate from the rest of the world yet there is a distinct outside world that contains my body and influences the me, inscribing the illustrative narrative of events that become my personal history. Hence, my idea of the self is the result of my interactions with the surrounding world and it is usually dependent on the culture and tradition of my surroundings but at the same time, on what I accept as the truth based on my own reflections. In this way, it is consolidative and thereafter akin to chemical reactions, I can both be a reactant and a product of the reaction depending on the circumstances. Culture and tradition might initially stain my views yet by experiencing new things and interacting with others more frequently, these fluid and impermanent views might change. Society might influence me but I have the ability to influence society as well. When I was young, I had the conception that I am simply an object in this universe and my actions have some ramifications to the point where I dropped into this pit of negativity, which was exhausting. Nevertheless, I remained to be civil and continued to withstand all those uncalled-for insolences brought by society, specifically those people who like to micromanage and bully others. But as I grew older, I got into the habit of so-called ‘gratitude attitude’ and began to introspect into how good I am relative to the ‘ideal self” that I want to become rather than focusing on what I lack based on society’s standards. By looking at the self, I was able to manage my life in such a way that it would minimize my dependence on others for the self, such as having a social circle that reflect my principles and intrinsic values rather than those that reflect how I would like society to perceive me. Moreover, I now prefer being with people I care about over the long term as compared to people who temporarily caught my attention. While I am still vulnerable regarding the social impact of people trying to judge me, I became less influenced by society, emotionally and psychologically. As long as there is no necessary impact, I do not let society and people’s opinion influence my concept of the self but if there is, I prefer to look where the grass is greener. Hence, it made me realize that self is not merely a product of society and culture but also an agent of change that needs preservation, wakefulness, and attention in order to function and achieve its goals and purpose. Otherwise, it would dissolve.

Society influences people every day and it comes in many different ways. It influences the distinct traits of a person whether or not the person is aware of it. Sometimes, it influences the person so strong that it overcomes the person’s purposes, exerting constant pressure for everyone to be alike and follow its ideals when diversity should be celebrated. At an early age, my identity development was shaped by everything that I came in contact with; however, in the adulthood I already have the ability to choose, reject or simply accept those influences to guide my life. Ergo, through the foundation of identities, people are the most significant and influential because they help to achieve personal, emotional and educational development, especially those people with power. As stated by Callero (2003), Foucault viewed power as “so-called regimes of power […] bring the self into existence by imposing disciplinary practices on the body”. Hence, my social identity has been influenced by those with power, particularly my parents, affecting my relationships and goals in life. My parents were very protective of me as I am an only child and they sent me to a private school during kindergarten. I remember back when I was in grade school, they did not allow me to play outside and interact with other children of my age as often. They regularly reminded me not to talk to strangers and not to trust others easily. This circumstance sheltered me from most of the external influences of our culture. At that time, I only interacted with people that I have already created bonds with hence it was easy for me to communicate with my previous friends. I felt free, comfortable, and accepted when talking to them because we share similar characteristics; therefore, I felt no social pressure and it helped us build a formative relationship. Furthermore, my parents always told me that my social circle would tell a lot about me. Therefore, as the top student in class, I was only friends with those that have high academic standing and socio-economic status. I only felt comfortable interacting with those that have the same traits as I do. Surely, this had an effect on my social identity. I was not close to the majority of the class and I felt like I was often the one singled out by others and excluded from activities. Other people perceived me as upright, serious, grade-conscious, and competitive but I know deep down that I am also capable of having fun and be what society perceives to be ‘normal’ yet I had to act the way my parents want me to because I was sure they were doing it for my own good. Nevertheless, I did not feel like I was ‘normal’. My parents always reminded me that it’s okay to be different yet society seems to reinforce a contrary message. As my mind was gradually infected by cultural influences, I became pre-occupied about how others perceived me. Thereafter, I tried to change myself to prove them wrong. In high school, I tried to be more carefree and outgoing. I made the effort to socialize and join various groups but I crossed the line to the point where I was not happy with my grades and the person I had become. I realized that I gave the power that my significant others (parents) previously held to the generalized others. In other words, instead of following those who are important in establishing my concept of the self, I chose to please or meet the expectations of people I may not even know. But then again, the act of evolving is part of the discovery and I realized that if my acts are guided by other people’s ideas of who I should be, it leads to inauthenticity because the change is made solely to fit in. Indeed, people with power played a huge role in shaping my identity during my early years but now that I am an adult who is capable of deciding for herself, I already have the ability to resist the imposition of values and ideals of others. I have realized that not everyone is capable of giving me the encouragement I need to achieve my goals. Moreover, I’ve become aware that I hold the power to choose the people who will influence my identity the strongest.

My identity represents who I truly am and it allows me to be unique and stand out from the crowd. In my 19 years of existence, I have come across many obstacles that shaped my being and will further shape me into someone with particular traits, or an identity. Additionally, as aforementioned, I have already strategized my life to be less dependent on other people’s opinions and learned to focus on things that make me truly joyful such as going with the crowd that I share similar core values with and stop fitting in to groups that I do not really feel any sense of belonging. Because of this mindset, my personal identity is in a close relationship with my social identity – no pretending in front of other people, no wearing of mask – my life is an open book. The only distinction between these two is openness since I tend to share more about my personal thoughts to people, I trust and feel comfortable with. With this in mind, I would like to continue maintaining this balance between the two identities for my own personal growth and development.

Over the course of my life, I have had many experiences that molded me into who I am today. At my early years, my life experiences played a vital role in shaping my concept of the self. Even though my memories of the past might not have been lovely, as I got older, I began to gain awareness and decided which memories are worth remembering to continue having an effect on my life. Akin to a reflection in a mirror, the self is virtual yet seeing it cannot be prevented.

Furthermore, in today’s world, deviance of society’s rules, standards, and ideals is frowned upon yet obedience results to repression and lose of individuality. Hence, like an earthquake-proof infrastructure, my identity must have a firm foundation in order to withstand the portentous conditions of the world. When obstacles and issues loom to crush my identity, my foundation must stand its ground. Ergo, I would like to end my reflection with this quote, “Pay no mind to what other people say; whatever makes an individual happy is what he or she should do”.

References

1. Callero, P. L. (2003). The Sociology of the Self. Annual Review of Sociology,29(1), 115-133. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100057.
2. Gecas, V. (1982). The Self-Concept. Annual Review of Sociology,8(1), 1-33. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.000245.
3. Mcvittie, C., & Mckinlay, A. (2017). The Self. The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Social Psychology,389-408. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-51018-1_19.

Self Image

It is critical to have an idea on the way one sees oneself since this has an effect on one’s thinking, behavior and relations with other people. People react positively or negatively based on confidence and this confidence in relationships relies on the image of how one sees oneself. How others view you and how you view yourself are two different things. One’s views are defined by both unique thoughts and twisted views. Seeing the positive and negative in oneself differ from one’s level of self-esteem. If one has a negative view in seeing oneself, the one is most likely hypercritical of oneself (Nair, 2016).

The way individuals view or see themselves has been the focus of recent researches. These studies explained the preeminence between independent self-image and interdependent self-image. People who have independent self-image see themselves as separate from other people while people who have interdependent self-image intend to be within a social structure as well as keeping a harmonized relationship with other people. According to a recent study from the John Hopkins Carey Business School (2015), an individual’s sense of independence and interdependence can contribute to how goals are placed. Participants were asked a series of possible actions which include increasing college average grades, losing weight and adding to a savings account – one’s motivation of attaining a better state was preferred more when the actions are considered beneficial to them as individuals, as opposed to gain one’s social groups.

Language can be strong – it is not just because of the words we utter but also the words we say to ourselves. One’s personal thoughts, attitudes and emotions form what one does in their lives and what one thinks of oneself. A healthy self-image gives an individual the opportunity to become the best version of themselves. This is greatly related to one’s self-esteem which can be a critical factor of a healthy personality. The more an individual likes themself, the more their confidence increases and the more efficient they become in life. On the other hand, the people with low self-esteem tend to hide away from the opportunities given to them, as well as preventing social situations. These daily actions will develop into a cycle of choices that will soon make it more difficult for people with low self-esteem to go beyond their comfort zones. Therefore, the way an individual perceives themselves is strong, regardless of the positivity or negativity of this perception (Oppong, 2019).

In addition, it was stated in the study of Gunnardsdottir (2014) that adolescence is a period where individuals undergo changes, be it physical, cognitive and/or social. These changes during this development period may be stressful and adolescents may feel less valuable compared to others, which in effect may put them at risk in having lower self-esteem. Self-image is revamped from childhood and onto adolescence through experiences in social settings which take place both inside and outside the family circle. The study also emphasized on the way self-image can serve as a mediator for the relationship between the family and among peers. Family is considered one of the key factors influencing self-image among adolescents. It was also found that the family demonstrated importance in the adolescence stage (Collins & Steinberg, 2007). Moreover, friends also impact self-image of adolescents.

Sex

An overall self-evaluation of gender differences and specific dimensions of self-concept were investigated among high school and college students. The role of gender attitude in the relationship of gender and self-concept was investigated as well. The results indicated differences in overall self-evaluation relative to gender which favored males and in specific self-concept dimensions, gender differences were consistent with gender stereotypes. Although differences were reported, these differences in overall self-evaluation were in a minimum and the stereotyping was not consistent enough (Jackson, Hodge & Ingram, 1994).

In a previous self-concept research, a stereotypic pattern of gender differences has been found. Men tend to rate themselves higher on self-concept measures of power, invulnerability and giftedness while women rate themselves higher on self-concept measures of morality and likability. The study was able to test the validity of these gender differences in two natural life contexts which included work and family – based on the target person’s view and others in the work contexts and family who knew the target person well. In summary, the gender stereotypic pattern of self-concept was apparent in family and work observers, as well as in self-ratings (Stake, 1992).

Existing studies revealed ample evidence of gender-typed self-descriptions. In line with this, men are more likely to see themselves as financially oriented, independent, achievement-oriented and competitive compared to women. On the other hand, women saw themselves as a dependent, less assertive, sociable and moral. In contrast to what was presented, gender differences in self-descriptive and self-evaluative global dimensions are equivocal (Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001).

Social Relationships

The product of learning is self-image. Parents and caregivers are considered major influences in an individual’s self-image. These people are like mirrors that reflect images of the self. Experiences with friends, teachers and family add to the mirror image and these present relationships strengthen feelings and thoughts about the self. On the other hand, strengths and weaknesses can affect present behavior where there is a continuous intake of information and evaluation of the self in areas such as the physical, performance and relationships. Self-image is important due to the fact that the way one thinks about oneself affects how one acts with other people and how one feels about oneself. A negative self-image can decrease the ability to function in the said areas as well as gratification. On the other hand, a positive self-image increases mental, social, physical, emotional and spiritual well-being (Cleveland Clinic, 2016).

At this point, among other things, it can be observed that humans have well-developed and complex self-concepts and that they generally attempt to positively view themselves. However, the affective and cognitive aspects do not occur in a vacuum, these are influenced to a great extent by social forces that revolve around them. An example would be in self-verification theory, where it was determined that responses from other people can impact self-esteem and self-concept. The self is not created in isolation, and perception towards the self is not innate, such as being shy, being charitable to others or being interested in jazz; rather, these beliefs are determined through the way one observes and interacts with other people. The self has significance only within the social context and there is nothing wrong in saying how social situations define one’s self-esteem and self-concept. People tend to trust on other people to give a ‘social reality’ that will serve as a guide in determining what one does, thinks and feels (Jhangiani & Tarry, 2014).

Self-image can be formed through interactions with other people, taking into account the way others react to and categorize another. Others’ reactions are based on their own worldview distortions, however, one does not always get an accurate reflection of themselves. Also, there is a tendency to compare oneself against their family and friends’ expectations which is due to the way society often provides us expectations and roles, such as being a good parent or having a successful career. All this can contribute to how one sees oneself continually. To add, a negative self-image leads to a sense of inferiority or even as worse as depression while a positive self-image leads to self-acceptance and confidence. Overall, people who develop a realistic and mature self-image will less likely come undone by every critical comment from others (Collingwood, 2020).

Over the course of the first ten weeks of my study of education, I have developed a wide knowledge of the key aspect of Teacher Identity. This simple aspect permeates the entire study of education and plays an important role in many other aspects of the study. Through my study of education, it has become apparent that Teacher Identity is based solely on the individual and their values as well as emotions. Professional identity is defined as “one’s professional self-concept based on attributes, beliefs, values, motives and experiences” (Ibarra, 1999; Schein, 1978). Professional Identity is “shifting, unstable and multiple” (Beijaard et al., 2004: 108). Therefore it is not fixed for any individuals, instead it is formed through many past experiences. Teacher Identity is formed through experiences at school, at home, through family, culture, religion and many other factors. Thus, it is evident that Teacher Identity is unfixed.

In addition, I have developed the knowledge and understanding that over the course of one’s teaching career that your Identity as a teacher will undoubtedly change and develop as you progress from a student teacher to a teacher. There are many challenges associated with the endeavor of developing your Professional Identity. There are questions which must be asked in order for you to fully understand your approach to teaching which will form your Teacher Identity. These questions include why you want to be a teacher, what you will need to do as a teacher and ultimately who are you as a person?

One of the most challenging aspects of developing your Teacher Professional Identity is forming your identity as a student teacher. This may prove difficult when considering your role within the workplace. More often than not, the endeavor of developing your Teacher Identity as a student teacher may be overpowered by the idea that you are not a member of staff or that you are not fully in charge of your class. Other significant obstacles include tutors and host teachers as these factors may affect how you develop your Teacher Identity. It is said that as a student teacher you enter into an “interim world” whereby you journey to find your teacher Identity.

Following this, Rollett claims that teachers should be “optimistic, outreach, loving personalities interested in children and concerned about their needs, able and happy in relating with them and willing to put in any amount of time and effort necessary to make a success of this”. Thus, Rollett’s ideals about the key aspect of Teacher identity is one of care, compassion and love. These values should be instilled in each teacher through the study of education and should form their Professional Identity. Rollett also places emphasis on emotions, reinforcing the intention of teaching as an emotive profession which in turn illustrates the idea of teacher identity forming through emotions. Likewise, it is apparent that in order to develop a Professional Identity, teachers must constantly engage in self-reflection, questioning and evaluation.

Furthermore, in order to develop your Teacher Professional Identity, an overwhelming factor is confidence. It is essential to develop your confidence through various different strategies. These strategies include: reading, thinking, working, immersing yourself and seeking advice. Firstly, reading helps to further your beliefs and understanding of education and thus forms what is known as your Teacher Identity. Additionally, thinking is another strategy whereby your Teacher Identity is formed. The thought process of teaching and education implements core values and beliefs which indeed furthers your knowledge and understanding of education, in turn forming your Teacher Identity. Teacher identity is also developed through immersing yourself in the practice of teaching. Through immersion, experience is gained which heightens and manipulates your Professional Identity. Continuing on from this, it is necessary to seek advice from individuals in the profession of teaching to contribute to your own Professional “persona”. Following this, this advice must be implemented and acted upon.

The ‘General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland’ refers to Teacher Identity on many different occasions. This publication outlines that teaching is an ethical and value based profession, therefore these attributes must stand at the core of your Teacher Identity. These values help to form and create a Professional Identity which has deep roots in religion and personal experiences. With reference to the ‘General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland’ there are many competences that teachers should employ which will help to shape their Teacher Identity. These competences have been set out under three broad headings. The first heading is considered to be “Professional Values and Practice” which states that teachers should “uphold the core values and commitments” as outlined in the Council’s “Code of Values and Professional Practice”. Furthermore, the second competence headline is “Professional Knowledge and Understanding” which focuses on the development of teachers. Teachers should present a knowledge and understanding of the learning areas that they teach. As an Irish medium student, it is also expected that I should develop bilingual contexts, sufficient linguistic and pedagogical knowledge to teach the curriculum. This forms another aspect of teacher identity which is enshrined with the Irish Language. The final competence is “Professional Skills and Application”. This competence concentrates on planning and leading, and teaching, and learning. As a result of these competences, teacher identity should be shaped with close reference to the codes outlined in the ‘General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland’.

With close reference to the idea that teaching is an ethical and value based profession, as outlined in the “General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland”. Another key aspect to Teacher Identity in Northern Ireland is Catholic Education. Any teacher who works within a Catholic maintained school, must have a Religious Education Certificate. As a teacher in a Catholic maintained school, each teacher must have an aspect of faith, morality and religion enshrined within their Teacher Identity. Sockett (1993) utilizes the charter and code to give the impression that “It is… impossible to talk extensively about teachers and teaching without a language of morality.” Thus, teacher identity should also be formed with the idea of morality, following with the key aspect of ethics. Catholic ethos plays a significant role in education across Northern Ireland. The ethos of a school lies at the heart of the educative process, initiated with the teacher’s professional identity. Catholic Education is often described as inclusive, person-centred and focuses on community, therefore, these values should be instilled within the Professional Identity of those who teach in these schools. Additionally, Teacher Identity is furthered developed by their own faith and ethos.

Moreover, Rodgers and Scott explore the view that “Contemporary conceptions of identity share four basic assumptions: (1) that identity is dependent upon and formed within multiple contexts which bring social, cultural, political, and historical forces to bear upon that formation; (2) that identity is formed in relationship with others and involves emotions; (3) that identity is shifting, unstable, and multiple; and, (4) that identity involves the construction and reconstruction of meaning through stories over time”. With close analysis to this extract, Rodgers and Scott portray the view that Professional Identity is different for every individual and is shaped through past experiences. The four assumptions as outlined above, certainly outline the nature of Professional Identity and “persona”. Kegan’s “Conception of self” is also outlined in Rodgers and Scott. Through the “Conception of self”, teachers reflect on their own personal experiences and the developmental stages of their Teacher Identity. Teachers may focus on their own teaching content such as their discipline and how they teach their area of study, they may reflect on their experiences throughout their teaching career or they may reflect on their identity.

However, despite Teacher Identity playing a prominent role in the educative process, it must coincide with the Northern Ireland Curriculum. Some of the key factors of the Northern Ireland Curriculum include: the idea that it focuses on the learning process and the outcomes of education, also, the curriculum is flexible in that schools and teachers can decide the topics and approaches that best suit their pupils, and it also gives equal emphasis to knowledge understanding and skills. With reference to these factors, the teacher must enshrine their Teacher Professional Identity with those factors outlined above. The flexible nature of the curriculum, as it does not outline mandatory topics, allows for the teacher to express their Teacher Identity in the classroom through their own approaches and experiences.

To conclude, Teacher Professional Identity is developed over the course of a teacher’s career. Professional Identity is also known as Professional “persona”. It cannot be fixed, nor can two individuals have the same Teacher Identity. Professional identity is formed through past experiences, values, beliefs and emotions. Although there are many challenges in the endeavour, Teacher Identity can be developed through reading, thinking, immersing and seeking advice. Overall, Teacher Identity plays one of the most prominent roles in the study of education. As a concluding statement, I have now developed a greater knowledge and understanding of the importance of Teacher Identity and what is required of me as a student in order to develop my Teacher Identity.

References:

1. Bartlett, S. and Burton , D. (Eds.) (2003), Education Studies: Essential Issues, London: Sage.
2. Council for the curriculum for examination and assessment (2007), CCEA: Bangor
3. General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland, (2006), Teaching: the Reflective Profession, Belfast: GTCNI
4. Pollard, A. (Ed) (2014), Reflective Teaching in Schools, London: Bloomsbury
5. Pollard, A. (Ed) (2014), Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools, London: Bloomsbury
6. Rogers, C. and Scott, K. (2008), The development of the personal self and professional identity in learning to teach, available at https://www.academia.edu/1879050/Rodgers_and_Scott_2008_The_development_of_the_personal_self_and_professional_identity_in_learning_to_teach (accessed 23rd November 2019)