Category: Segregation

Introduction

The present study is focused on the urgent need for organizations to develop and implement strategies and policies that will facilitate the reduction of gendered occupational segregation in engineering and technology-oriented domains, particularly in Europe and the Middle East.

Towards the attainment of this broad objective, a survey was conducted on a sample of 100 female participants working for telecommunication and ICT-oriented firms, either in Europe or in the Middle East.

An online in-depth interview was also done on a sample of 20 management personnel/supervisors of the selected firms for the purpose of having a deeper understanding on why female professionals continue to constitute a minority of the labour force in these sectors.

This section purposes to detail the results of the two exercises, followed by a wide-ranging discussion of the findings when evaluated against existing literature on the topic. The discussion will be focussed on unearthing the reasons and providing tenable solutions/alternatives to the problem of gendered occupational segregation as per the studys stated objectives and key research questions.

It is important to note that the researcher received 62 completed questionnaires, representing 62% response rate. 14 in-depth interviews were conducted to their logical conclusion, representing 70% response rate. Of the 62 returned questionnaires, 34 (54.8%) came from Europe while 28 (45.2%) came from the Middle East

Statement of Results (Questionnaire Schedule)

The major highlights of the study are not only interesting, but informative too, particularly in relation to understanding why women persist to constitute a minority of the labour force in engineering and technology-oriented domains of the economy.

An analysis of demographic information demonstrates that engineering and technology-oriented firms employ a young female workforce, with the majority of the female participants sampled (62.8%) saying they are yet to celebrate their 30^th birthday, both in Europe and Middle East. Only a handful of the participants (5.2%) have celebrated their 40^th birthday.

A substantial number of participants (70%) had been in active employment for a period not more than five years. A major research finding is that many participants in the two research regions (Europe and Middle East) reported working in low cadre positions as demonstrated in the figure below.

Figure 2: Area of Engagement

The above figure demonstrates that 42% of the female professionals in the sampled firms worked as support personnel; while a mere 10 % were engaged in administrative functions.

A cross-tabulation analysis aimed at noting the differences between Europe and the Middle East revealed that the problem is much embedded in the former, where only two women (3.2%) reported working in an administrative capacity. In Europe, 4 women (6.5%) worked as administrators or supervisors.

Overall, a third of the participants (34.5%) said their satisfaction with their current career engagement was poor, while one in every ten women (11.7%) said they have had very poor experiences with their current career engagement. It is imperative to note that only 15.6% of the female participants agreed that their current career engagements were deeply satisfying.

Majority of the women cited discriminative workplace policies and lack of attention from management and fellow male colleagues as the main reasons behind developing negative attitudes towards their current careers. Training and career advancement opportunities, work-life balance initiatives and reasonable pay were cited as contributing to positive workplace experiences and satisfaction.

Work Environment

The 5-point Likert-type scale was employed to evaluate some critical issues that were perceived to have a domineering influence on the representation of women in engineering and technology-oriented careers.

These issues are directly related to the work environment and include: learning opportunities; training opportunities; tools and resources for performance; achievement recognition; cooperation from male work colleagues; adequate communication frameworks, and; inclusion into the companys vision and mission.

Descriptive means were employed to demonstrate how the female participants rated the underlying issues in their respective organizations according to region. As suggested above, a 5-point Likert-type scale was used to rank the responses, with 1 representing highly disagree and 5 representing highly agree. The table below summarizes the results

Table 1: Descriptive Means of Work Environment Ratings

This descriptive analysis evidently demonstrates that female employees in the two regions disagree with the assertion that their respective companies provide them adequate learning and training opportunities, as well as the necessary tools and resources required to successfully complete work engagements.

An interesting observation from this analysis is the fact that majority of the female employees in the two regions highly disagree with the statement that that management recognizes their abilities and achievement.

Another interesting finding from the analysis is that while majority of female employees in Europe highly agree that they easily get a long with male work colleagues, the scenario drastically changes in the Middle East, with the majority of the female employees sampled highly disagreeing to that assertion.

In equal measure, majority of the employees in Europe highly agree to the assertion that there is adequate communication between them and management, while many of the employees in the Middle Easily disagree to that assertion.

Two-fifths (41.2%) of women professionals in the Middle East had contemplated leaving their current position in their respective companies, with a substantial number citing cultural barriers, discriminative practices, and unfavourable organizational practices and policies as the main reasons behind the move.

Equally, one-fifths (21.7%) of women professionals in Europe had at one time contemplated leaving active employment, mainly due to stagnation in career advancement and lack and inadequate training opportunities.

This finding is particularly important to this study as it demonstrates that the variables that inform women occupation representation in engineering and technology-oriented domains are indeed unique to particular regions.

Women engineers in the Middle East are overworked than their counterparts in Europe, resulting in a scenario where more women crave to leave active employment so as to have time to raise a family.

This observation points to the importance of culture in deciding which career trajectories are meant for women as can be underscored by one of the findings of the in-depth interviews that women are negated to the role of raising a family in many cultures which are predominant in the Middle East.

Consequently, a job with huge demands and strict deadlines is not perceived as ideal for women in the Middle East as it makes them abridge their child-rearing responsibilities.

On the other hand, many firms operating in Europe seems to have implemented good work-life balance initiatives as fewer women working in these firms reported ever having to allocate additional personal time beyond their normal working hours to meet the work demands of their respective companies.

This observation can perhaps explain why few women working for firms in Europe opted to leave active employment, while more women in the Middle East agreed that they had at one time contemplated leaving active employment.

Meritocracy and Organizational Policies & Culture

The 5-point Lickert-type was once again employed to come up with descriptive rankings of various statements used to measure the influence of meritocracy and organizational policies and culture on the representation of women in engineering and technology-oriented domain.

Again, the results demonstrated notable differences of perception between women professionals working in Europe on the one hand and those working in the Middle East on the other, implying that divergent factors might be at play. The mean score was used to rank the responses, with 1 representing highly disagree and 5 representing highly agree. The table below outlines the results

Table 2: Descriptive Means of Meritocracy and organizational Policies Influences

A number of important findings arise from this analysis:

1. the progression of women professionals in the Middle East in engineering and technology-oriented firms remains severely constricted by unequal treatment of women and men at the organizational level,
2. women Professionals in Europe seem to be gaining adequate ground in terms of organizational policies intended to encourage them to seek active employment in these fields,
3. discriminative practices against women professionals in the Middle East appears well embedded in the organizational culture and policies of firms operating in this region,
4. the existing culture and organizational policies are galvanized towards carrying male employees in high esteem as opposed to female employees.

Overall, 39 (62.9%) of the female participants said they were not happy with their respective companys policy issues and directions relating to the provisions of a gender-neutral working environment.

In considering regional differences, it is important to note that 17 (50.0%) of female employees in Europe were not happy with their companies provisions, while 24 (85.7%) of female employees in the Middle East said the provisions adopted by their respective companies could not guarantee a gender neutral working environment.

The main reasons given for assuming this perspective include: long working hours; untenable job demands for women, such as on-site/field postings; biased contribution and compensatory schemes; perceived lack of abilities in women as opposed to men, and; lack of career progression and training opportunities for women.

Again, about two-thirds (64.5%) of the women polled believed that the current organizational policies practiced by their respective firms were not equally supportive for both male and female employees, and failed to provide an enabling environment for workers to perform optimally in a demanding work environment.

A cross-tabulation analysis of the finding demonstrated this perception was more ingrained in the Middle East, with 24 (85.7%) and 16 (47.1%) of the women professionals saying the current organizational policies are not equally supportive for both males and females in the Middle East and Europe, respectively. The region-specific reasons behind this scenario are demonstrated in the figure below.

Figure 2: Reasons behind the Lack of Equally Supportive Organizational Policies

The above distribution demonstrates that the three leading reasons why women feel unsupported when working in engineering and technology-oriented firms in the Middle East include:

1. women feel constrained to the periphery of service delivery,
2. most job advertisements are intended for males,
3. workplace policies tend to limit the womens opportunities to lead teams/groups.

Equally, the three leading reasons why women working for European-based firms feel unsupported include:

1. biased promotion/training opportunities in favour of men,
2. policies limiting womens opportunities to lead teams/groups,
3. limiting women to the periphery of service delivery.

Education & Abilities

Overall, nine in ten women (88.7%) thought they had acquired the right education and abilities required to perform optimally in their current work settings.

However, an interesting observation is the fact that despite nearly all the women saying they had they possessed the right education and abilities to do the job, a third (22.4%) agreed to the assertion that they have at one time faced challenges in their work settings as a direct consequence of their level of education.

This finding points to a particular misconception that women have when working in demanding work environments  that they are not equal to the task despite their level of education, abilities, or cumulative achievements.

This view is reinforced by the fact that about two-thirds (64.8%) of the women polled in this particular survey held a perception that male work colleagues are more qualified than them, mainly due to the reason that it was only males who seemed to lead project teams and other positions of authority in the organizations.

Additionally, the women suggested that male work colleagues always received more pay and recognition than their female counterparts and, as a direct consequence, could have been more qualified than the women.

An interesting finding suggested by some women participants is that women often held males in high esteem even in situations where they knew the males are less qualified, while males often perceived the women as low achievers even in situations where they knew that they are less qualified than the women.

38 (61.9%) of the women participants said that their level of education is not commensurate to their pay and/or benefits in their respective work stations. Region-wise, 22 (78.6%) of women sampled from the Middle East (n=28) believed that they received extremely low pay, which is not in any way commensurate to their level of education, abilities and achievement.

Equally, 16 (47.1%) of women working for Europe-based firms (n=34) said their pay was not commensurate to their level of education. The following distribution captures the reasons behind this perception

Figure 3: Reasons why Current Pay is Not Commensurate to Level of Education

The above figure shows that the three foremost reasons why women professionals in the Middle East think their current pay is not commensurate to their level of education include:

1. perception that male colleagues are rewarded more for equal work,
2. failure by management to provide their women employees with important benefits such as annual leaves and maternity leaves,
3. payment imbalances between males and females with similar levels of education.

Equally, the three foremost reasons why women professionals in Europe think their current pay is not commensurate to their level of education include:

1. lack of career progression to higher positions which guarantee more pay,
2. non-consideration of level of education in making payment decisions,
3. biased training opportunities in favour of male work colleagues at the expense of women with similar qualifications.

Statement of Results (In-depth Interview Guide)

A number of themes were generated when interviewees were asked to elucidate their perception on women professionals in engineering and technology-oriented domains.

Of the 14, interviewees, 6 portrayed women professionals as being equal to the task of what was demanded of them by their employers, while 4 interviewees said engineering is perceived to be a mans profession and therefore there existed limited encouragement for women to excel in engineering.

Another 3 interviewees suggested that women were disadvantaged to work in engineering and technology-oriented firms due to difficult job demands and ungodly working hours. Indeed, someone said that &women professionals want their job to be pleasurable, have an excellent work environment, make a difference, provide a good remuneration package and allowances, and be flexible.

When the interviewees were requested to state the greatest strengths and weaknesses of women professionals working for engineering and technology firms, a sizeable number said that educational background, talents and abilities were the main sources of strength, while others suggested that an organizations leadership and management style could provide the needed strength for women engineers.

Some underlying themes for the weaknesses facing women working in these domains included: discriminative workplace practices; unequal treatment of men and women, particularly when it came to pay, allowances and leadership roles; non-responsive management, and; lack of role models.

A number of notable themes were established when interviewees were asked to explain the reasons for the dwindling numbers of women employees in engineering and technology-oriented domains.

One underlying theme revolved around the fact that organizational culture in engineering and technology-oriented firms is traditionally masculine, while another underlying theme suggested that women professionals in these firms are excluded from mens occupation networks and cannot rely on an authoritative womens occupational network to compensate the exclusion from mens networks.

The emergence of family businesses, particularly in the Middle East, also made it possible for women to be locked out of engineering fields so as they could take care of family responsibilities. Lack of clear career trajectories and unreasonable work demands such as working odd hours were also noted as significant factors.

Interestingly, 8 of the 14 interviewees held a perception that women are constrained to become better engineers and technology experts, not because they have lower educational achievements or abilities than men but due to external factors intrinsically related to the work environment, such as odd working hours, routine travel to the field sites and heavy workload, among other factors.

Other interviewees, particularly from the Middle East, blamed cultural barriers and socialisation processes as the main reasons why women continue to be constrained to outperform their male counterparts.

Indeed, one interviewee for the Middle East stated that &despite my level of education, the male colleagues I was working with could not care to introduce me to meetings held to share knowledge about existing networks. I was always left in the dark to manoeuvre my way&and almost felt like giving in.

A number of underlying themes surfaced when the interviewees were asked to suggest the issues that needed to be addressed to reduce gendered occupational segregation in engineering and technology-oriented fields.

One theme that came out strongly is that of women empowerment; that is, the management and male employees of engineering and technology-oriented firms need to see women professionals less as passive recipients of knowledge and instructions, and more as dynamic contributors and innovators of outstanding ideas.

Another strand of opinions centred on increasing training career advancement opportunities to not only encourage more women into these domains but also to make sure that they are retained in service.

Some interviewees from the Middle East stressed the need for educational institutions to identify established women engineers and use them as role models to encourage more girls choose academic disciplines that would guarantee them a career trajectory in science, engineering and technology-oriented fields.

Still, a sizeable number of interviewees supported a rapid shift of organizational culture and policies practiced in these firms, from a masculine-dominated projection to a gender neutral work environment.

Discussion

The initial objective of the present study was to critically evaluate the reasons why there are few women in the telecommunication industry in Europe and Middle East.

A strand of existing studies (e.g., Morganson et al, 2010; Franzway et al, 2009; Hatchel & Aveling, 2008) have already been commenced to look into the broad issue of gendered occupational segregation in engineering and technology-oriented fields, but only a few have been interested in establishing the scope of the problem beyond the United States of America.

This particular study focussed attention to establishing the antecedents and consequences of employment discrimination in telecommunication and ICT-related sectors in Europe and the Middle East.

The present study has not only corroborated the findings of previous studies on gendered occupation segregation in the engineering domain, but has demonstrated useful insights into understanding the problem from the employees perspective, as well as from organizational and socio-cultural standpoints.

Overall, it has been revealed that the problem of gendered occupational segregation in Engineering and Technology-oriented fields in the two regions is precipitated by, among other things: discriminative workplace policies; inadequate attention of women professionals by management, as well as fellow male work colleagues;

lack of training and career advancement opportunities; low pay compared to male colleagues; a crash between work and life/family responsibilities exemplified by huge work demands, a continuous need to travel to the field, and ungodly working hours, and; the presence of an organizational culture and policies that are traditionally masculine.

These findings reinforce the results of previous studies, which held that despite the fact women were been increasingly absorbed into engineering-related domains in the recent past they have to not only contend with a slump in salaries, status, and working conditions but also with the harsh domain of masculinity that is well entrenched in these sectors (Benson & Yukongdi, 2005; Hafkin & Huyer, 2007; Bystydzienski, 2004).

It has also been established that the problem of gendered occupational segregation in engineering and technology domains is more entrenched in the Middle East than in Europe, particularly due to the strict cultural adherence, which outlines that the place of women is in the family setting as opposed to workplace environment.

A new finding related to these reasons is that family-related businesses in the Middle East have continually served as active co-perpetrators of gendered occupational segregation as they are usually run by the sons of the founders, condemning the daughters and other women professionals to providing supportive roles despite their level of academic qualification.

Again, these findings are reflective of the conclusions of other previous studies, which revealed that religious and social cultural barriers in the Middle East demands that women abide by a social convention that reinforces the need for them to play a supportive role relative to men (Benson & Yukongdi, 2005).

An important insight that has been revealed by this study is that the religious and cultural dogmas practiced in the Middle East trigger a scenario which places men in core occupations despite their qualifications relative to women, thus permitting culture to become the basis for gender divergences in recruitment, promotion, training, compensation and decision-making authority.

It is important to note that this problem is less entrenched in Europe. However, it underlines the need for policy makers to consider cultural issues, particularly from the social constructionist standpoint, when devising and implementing programs and policies aimed at addressing the problem.

As observed by Bhatia & Amati (2010), one of the most elaborated features of the social constructionist perspective is the recognition that women and men are located divergently in society and that not all women or all men share similar experiences or challenges.

One of the specific objectives of the present study was to critically analyze how women are impacted negatively as a result of gendered employment discrimination in the telecommunication and ICT-related sectors.

The findings demonstrate that women are not only constrained to lower cadre positions with no recognition for their abilities and achievement, but they lack support from management and fellow male colleagues, engage in massive resignations due to unbearable/unfavourable working conditions, as well as lack crucial training opportunities to ensure career advancement and growth.

These findings appear to reinforce the conclusions made by Gillard et al (2008), who suggest that women professionals in telecommunication/ICT sectors tend to be concentrated in particular occupational spheres, which are normally the lower skilled support jobs related to data entry.

An important disclosure here is that these negative impacts are more intensive in the Middle East, again due to cultural barriers and the presence of male-dominated work-environments.

This particular study has established that the negative impacts related to gendered occupational segregation in telecommunication and ICT-oriented firms in Europe triggers massive resignations of women professionals, lending credence to Sappleton & Takrui-Rick (2008) assertion that women experience certain influences upon recruitment into these sectors, which obstructs them and make it hard for them to be retained in the sectors.

The interplay between Meritocracy and socio-cultural and organizational variables in entrenching gendered occupational discrimination in engineering and technology-oriented forms have also been evaluated.

It has been revealed that most engineering firms operating in the Middle East demonstrate greater bias in favour of men over equally competitive and perfuming women despite the fact that their respective managements argue that these firms subscribe to meritocratic principles in recruitment and promotion.

It should be recalled that meritocracy denotes a social system that subscribes to merit, talent and capabilities as the foundation for recruiting employees into positions and dispensing rewards (Castilla & Bernard, 2010; Deem, 2007).

A substantial number of women professionals in the Middle East feel that the management of their respective firms limits their career advancement by favouring women over equally qualified women. Indeed, women professionals face more challenges trying to penetrate these critical sectors when job advertisements clearly states some advertised job positions are only reserved for male applicants.

This problem is less entrenched in Europe, but it still needs to be addressed to ensure that women access opportunities in these critical sectors.

In organizational variables, it has been established how organizational policies and culture entrench gendered occupational segregation of women engineers in engineering and technology-oriented firms by: establishing procedures and policies that consider gender when allocating work; ensuring that men are paid more for equal work; facilitating a masculine organizational culture; ignoring or inadequately recognising the contributions made by women employees, and; poor communication networks between women employees and management.

These variables, which are felt across board in Europe and the Middle East, are further exacerbated by social-cultural variables revolving around issues of active work-place discrimination, entrenched cultural barriers, and misplaced perceptions of the womens role in society. Again, it is imperative to note that these problems are more entrenched in the Middle East than in Europe.

Indeed, these revelations lend credence to an assertion by Benson & Yukongdi (2005), who suggested that many organizational policies and strategies orient themselves to the unfounded paradigm that women possess less levels of human capital relative to men.

Lastly, the findings of the present study demonstrates that alternatives to check the problem of gendered occupation segregation in engineering and technology-oriented sectors need to be developed and implemented while considering regional variations, in large part because of the fact that some variables are unique to particular regions.

In this study, it has been demonstrated that European engineering firms need to deal more with variables touching on organizational policies and culture, while engineering forms operating in the Middle East need to deal more with variables touching on the value of education and abilities, social and cultural barriers, as well as organizational policies and culture.

A major alternative for the problem in Europe is to increase training and career advancement opportunities for women professionals with a view to not only encourage more women into these domains but also to guarantee their retention in service. Another alternative is to level the playing ground for both male and female employees by allocating pay and allowances in relation to individual merits and achievements.

Third, European firms need to encourage the development and integration of women networks for purposes of availing ready information and opportunities arising from the evaluated sectors. The underlying denominator in all these alternatives is a reduction in male domination in engineering and technology fields.

Organizations need to develop policies that are responsive to the needs and demands of women professionals as opposed to maintaining a perception popularized by Kusk et al (2007), which posits that womens success in engineering and technology-related fields is often contingent upon them adopting an overtly male-oriented career pattern.

In the Middle East, stakeholders need to address issues relating to cultural barriers and the value of education in womens career progression.

The study findings demonstrate that the Pipeline Theory, which suggests that increasing the number of women professionals in male dominated sectors should automatically lead to more equality in the labour market (Schweitzer et al, 2011), does not hold much water in Middle East work settings due to cultural barriers that condemn women professionals to the periphery of service delivery, their level of education or achievement notwithstanding.

Another alternative for firms operating in the Middle East is to ensure that recruitment and selection of personnel in family-run organizations are done on merit rather than on superficial dimensions such as family lineages. Also, women professionals in the Middle East need to be recognized for their achievement and the girl students aspiring to become engineers need to be provided with adequate role models to identify with.

Reference List

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Bhatia, S., & Amati, J (2010). If these Women can do it, I can do it, Too: Building Women Engineering Leaders through Graduate Peer Mentoring. Leadership & Management in Engineering, 10 (4), pp. 174-184.

Bystydzienski, J.M (2004). (Re)Gendering Science Fields: Transforming Academic Science and Engineering. NWSA Journal, 16 (1), pp. 8-12.

Castilla, E.J., & Bernard, S (2010). The Paradox of Meritocracy in Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55 (4), pp. 543-576.

Deem, R (2007). Managing a Meritocracy or an Equitable Organization? Senior Managers and Employees Views about Equal Opportunities Policies in UK Universities. Journal of Education Policy, 22 (6), pp. 615-636.

Franzway, S., Sharp, R., Mills, J.E., & Gill, J (2009). Engineering Ignorance. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 30 (1), pp. 89-106.

Gillard, H., Howcroft, D., Mitev, N., & Richardson, H (2008). Missing Women: Gender, ICTs, and the Shaping of the Global Economy. Information Technology for Development, 14 (4), pp. 262-279.

Hafkin, N.J., & Huyer, S (2007). Women and Gender in ICT Statistics and Indicators for Development. Information Technologies & International Development, 4 (2), pp. 25-41.

Hatchell, H., & Aveling, N (2008). Those same Old Prejudices? Gendered Experiences in the Science Workplace. Journal of Workplace Rights, 13 (4), pp. 355-375.

Kusk, F., Ozbilgin, M., & Ozkale, L (2007). Against the Tide: Gendered Prejudice and Disadvantage in Engineering. Gender, Work & Organization, 14 (2), pp. 109-129.

Morganson, V.J., Jones, M.P., & Major, D.A (2010). Understanding Womens Underrepresentation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics: The Role of Social Coping. Career Development Quarterly, 59 (2), pp. 169-179.

Sappleton, N., & Takrui-Rick, H (2008). The Gender Subtext of Science, Engineering, and Technology (SET) Organizations: A Review and Critique. Womens Studies, 37 (3), 284-316.

Schweitzer, L., Ng, E., Lyons, S., & Kuron, L (2011). Exploring the Career Pipeline: Gender Differences in Pre-Career Expectations. Industrial Relations, 66 (3), pp. 422-444.

Summary of facts

The case is about Plessy against the state law of Louisiana on racial segregation and rights. In 1890, the Louisiana legislature passed a law on racial rights. The law required all railroads to separate passengers on account of race. This meant that there were designated seats for different races. In case there was only one passenger car on the train, there was the use of curtains or some partitions. Homer Adolph Plessy intentionally broke the law to initiate a case against the Louisiana state law. According to the State law, he was guilty. Ferguson (the trial court judge) issued a writ on the proceedings for a criminal violation against the Louisiana State law. In return, Plessy issued a petition to the State Supreme Court against those proceedings.

However, he was convicted and fined by the State Supreme Court. The case circulates the 13th amendment and the 14th amendment, which gave an Equal Protection on the races. From Plessys point of view, segregation of facilities violated the Equal Protection clause, and it was unconstitutional. On the other hand, the State Law of Louisiana had a right to protect public safety, as of any other State right. In addition, there is no reasonable doubt why the State Legislature should not enact Public segregation statutes. The Supreme Court (presided by Justice Henry B. Brown of Michigan) noted that the Louisiana State Law did not violate any of the 13th or 14th amendments. However, the legislature cannot change the attitude of the public. It concluded that, as long as the facilities were equal, segregation was legal and constitutional.

The legal issue before the court

The legal issue that lay before the court was regarding the constitutional stand on the Louisiana law. Did the Louisiana State law violate the Equal Protection clause and was it unconstitutional?

The courts ruling

The ruling of the Supreme Court was that segregation was constitutional and legal as long as the facilities were equal.

Summary

Justice Henry B. Brown stated that there was no violation of either the 13th or 14th amendments about the Louisiana law. However, he noted that legislation is powerless to remove racial instincts and clear out the distinctions on account of the physical differences. This means that the Legislation cannot change the attitude of the public. The 14th amendment gives equal rights to all races both civilly and politically. If so, there is no inferiority of any race. From a social perspective, if one race is inferior to the other, the constitution of the United States cannot put them in one place. On that matter, the Court saw the Louisiana law as a law enacted to promote the public good.

Comments

The Plessy v. Ferguson case did not quite change the racial outlook but was a step in realizing the equity of all races, constitutionally. After this case, there have been other cases that pushed forward to abolish segregation in the United States. Justice John Marshall Harlan once stated that the constitution is color blind and does not tolerate class among citizens. The constitution cannot make a rule based on the physical appearance of a person. The fight against segregation has seen 60 years since the case of Plessy v. Ferguson.

The law of the land is purposely meant to protect the rights of all individuals. The law of the land confines all citizens to its rules and thus should be followed. The race was and remained a sensitive matter to all. The 14th amendment is a clear law that tries to provide equity in rights to all citizens regardless of their physical appearance. The individuals attitude towards issues such as race is quite different from the law. The 14th amendment put this issue into consideration and still tries to provide the rule of equality to all the citizens.

Introduction

Indigenous people and immigrants in the United States have long been subjected to discrimination and segregation. White people have always tried to show their superiority over people of color through various forms of domination. It created social and economic inequalities in society that persist to this day.

Discussion

For example, Chinese immigrants who came to America during the Gold Rush were forced to work in mines and fields. It was hard and low-paid work, like transforming Californian agriculture from wheat to fruit. Moreover, employers often preferred to hire white people, leaving immigrants without the opportunity to earn money. Moreover, the indigenous population, owning the lands, did not have the opportunity to dispose of them freely. People could work on the land, but they could not sell it because it did not belong to them by law.

Another clear example of segregation is the redlining law. According to this law, the cities were divided into more and less favorable areas, which determined the desire of banks to issue loans to people to buy real estate in the neighborhood. People of color often had significantly lower salaries than white people, so they were forced to settle in the hazardous areas marked in red. Moreover, the seller could deliberately inflate real estate prices for black people, which was not considered a violation of the law. As a result, the city was divided into white and black neighborhoods, and the authorities practically did not finance the areas where people of color lived, which led to poverty and decline.

However, people of color often showed resistance to discrimination and oppression. For example, in 1882, Chinese workers went on strike to raise wages. Even though the demands of immigrants and the indigenous population were often not met, resistance took other forms. One of these forms can be considered self-employment. If the government did not allow people to earn money by working for existing companies, they often opened their shops, restaurants, and laundries. Such practices were widespread in black neighborhoods as well as among Chinese immigrants. Furthermore, living in ethnic communities prevented the complete assimilation of people into American society.

Conclusion

Therefore, they continued their culture and ethnic traditions in the new country. For example, the inhabitants of Chinatown continued to wear national clothes and engaged in traditional leisure activities.

Introduction

This essay is a description of a specific book. I am going to represent a description and a brief analysis of the book Riot and Remembrance: Americas Worst Riot and Its Legacy written by James S. Hirsch. This book can be considered a masterpiece of the literary sphere. It is of great significance, interest, and importance for both professional historians and for curious common readers who want to spend some time reading a good piece of literature instead of wasting it on the reading of some pulp fiction. Riot and Remembrance: Americas Worst Riot and Its Legacy, tells the readers about the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921; it gives a description and analysis of the segregation and the riots which were the result of racial segregation.

Contents of the book

The list of contents of the book makes it clear from the very beginning that the structure of the book depends is based on the chronological description of the events that were the preconditions and the results of the cruelest and bloody riot in history of the United States of America. Thus the book begins with an introduction; then there come the beginnings in other words the events which caused the disorders and because of which so many people died during the riots. The preconditions include The self-Made Oil Capital; The Promised Land; Race, Rape, and the Rope; and Mob Justice (Hirsch VII).

Structure of the book

The book Riot and Remembrance: Americas Worst Riot and Its Legacy begins with the description of the city of Tulsa and the origin of the state of Oklahoma, and the way it became the Oil Capital of the World (Hirsch 11): The field transformed the land of wheat, cotton, and cattle into a vital industrial resource and turned tired villages into vibrant cities (Hirsch 11). The description embraces the period from the first settlers who named the town and until the moment of the riot.

The next part of the book tells the readers about the riot itself. The riot can be determined as a disturbance made by an unruly mob or (in-law) three or more persons. Thus people did not want to live in the conditions presupposed by the authorities, they did not want to supply oilmen with the equipment, financing, and amenities that made their work possible and their lives pleasant (Hirsch 11).

The book is the result of the investigation of reasons, preconditions, and results of the Riot of 1921, which can be considered one of the most fatal racial riots of the twentieth century in the United States of America. The author tells the readers about the riot and its legacy. The Tulsa Race War is the cruelest massacre in American history. The riot presupposed the killing of black people who were the residents of the Greenwood section of the city of Tulsa by thousands of white people including the representatives of the police forces.

The deadliest event happened in hot May of 1921when people were sleeping on the mattresses near their homes because of the high temperature. The white people killed the black ones and burned their houses to the ground. According to the book by James S. Hirsch, there were 300 people killed, other sources give another number of the victims of the disorder.

The author makes emphasis on the case of apartheid that took place during the riot. The black residents of the Greenwood section of the city of Tulsa became the victims of the racial bigotry caused by the disaster. Tulsas authorities accepted the responsibility for the events of the riot. Hirsch describes not only the events that can be considered the preconditions of the race riot, but also the further events, the successive years which deepened the gap between the black and white population of the city of Tulsa and its Greenwood section. The diversities between the representatives of the two races were becoming more obvious during successive years.

The author describes the unpleasant results of the riot of 1921in the present, and how the white and black citizens kept the memory of that night. Hirsch tells about the possible way which can help people to overcome the legacy of the horrible night of the massacre. One more thing that seems obvious is that the Tulsa Race Riot Commission was represented only by people from the media with the white color of skin; the representatives of the black newspapers did not get the opportunity to depict the event and its results from the point of view of the black people that became the victims of the race riot to provide balance.

Conclusion

The book tells about more and less obvious reasons for the riot. The more obvious ones are the tension between the black and white residents of the city of Tulsa; the economic situation, unemployment rate, and other preconditions of the riot. The less obvious reason was the object of all the periodicals when a black man tried to rap a white woman. The story sent an electric charge through Tulsa. The talk of lynching raged like a prairie fire, according to one white witness (Hirsch 80).

Thus there were different reasons for the riot, but the most burning issue of that day was the tension between the citizens of the city possessing different colors of skin the racial discrimination. The book Riot and Remembrance: Americas Worst Riot and Its Legacy written by James S. Hirsch tells about the events of the horrible night and the legacy of the massacre of black people.

Works Cited

Hirsch, S. James. Riot and Remembrance: Americas Worst Race Riot and Its Legacy. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003.

In any developed society, there is a problem of social inequality and an unbalanced distribution of spaces. Discovering the connection between social and spatial inequalities is considered a vital issue. Historically, the gentrification of poor urban areas may have been carried out by the white population through the oppression of blacks. This essay aims to discuss the causes of this phenomenon and to define the role of segregation in urban restructuring.

Classically, gentrification is considered to be a complex and gradual change in disadvantaged or industrial areas of the city that occurs in response to the conscious relocation of citizens with higher financial indicators. In general, the gentrification process aims to improve urban spaces, but the debate about the racial segregation effect of such restructuring does not cease. However, research conducted by Hartnett shows that the involvement of racism in the city settlement process is greatly exaggerated. Nevertheless, the problem of racism does occur in the gentrification process.

If to take into account the fact that gentrification was carried out by the white population with the unconscious aim of getting rid of black slaves, it should be understood that slaves and black people in most cases did not live in the city. Therefore, the white population moved further from the centers to the suburbs, oppressing slaves (Coates 54). Thus, by infringing on the rights of the black population, a number of important issues for the city are being addressed: reducing crime rates, ennobling territories and attracting tourists.

However, it should be understood that no matter what positive aspects segregation gentrification may have, harassment of the rights and needs of black people is unacceptable. Dislodging such a population from their places, white people are not considered to be oppressed. By losing property and assets, blacks take out loans and become debtors (Coates 55). In addition, people who have to break away from their homes lose their connections, leading to the destruction of entire cultural communities.

In conclusion, it is difficult to say with certainty whether gentrification has a positive or negative effect. Despite the ongoing debates around gentrification, this cultural phenomenon carries both positive and negative meanings in the social transformation of urban spaces. In addition to the redistribution of economic zones and the attraction of additional capital to urban areas, this phenomenon is linked to racism and segregation.

Works Cited

Coates, Ta-Nehisi. The Case for Reparations. The Atlantic, vol. 313, no. 5, 2014, pp. 54-71.

Hartnett, Kevin. Gentrification: White People Following White People. The Boston Globe. 2014. Web.

There are certain themes expressed in the readings that are too surprising to be true. Many years after slavery was abandoned, the black generation is still suffering its consequences. Despite the fact that some of the black parents have succeeded and are involved in high-profile jobs in the United States, an attitude of slavery is still being held against them by the whites. The blacks have literally decided to work against odds to prove to their counterparts that they have similar capabilities. This is however not be taken positively by the whites who seem to be determined to put the black man where they belong, and that is their slaves (Ogbu, 1992). To the white, they feel that because the blacks came to their country to serve them, they should continue being in their position even after they were liberated from the same. Racial segregation in the United States seems to be a war that is far from being won. This is not only because the whites dont want the blacks to succeed but also because the blacks have accepted their position.

It is so surprising that even the parents warn their kids as they grow up. They let them know that they can not outsmart the whites even if they prove to be brighter than them. Their smartness has to be double the smartness of the whites for them to experience half of their success. This is a statement that is basically to tell them to work hard in school but not to accept being more prosperous than the whites. This is the kind of attitude that the children grow up with and also pass it to their generation. Even after their liberation from slavery, the blacks seem to be intimidated by the success of the whites. They have not really accepted the fact that they are the citizens of America and hence having similar rights as their white counterparts (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986). They still look at themselves as foreigners who have to live under the mercies of the whites. This basically means that whatever they do, they should ensure that they are not outsmarting the whites. This is a wrong attitude that undermines the efforts that were put across by their freedom fighters to see them free. Martin Luther King played a great role in liberating the blacks from slavery and racial segregation; it was his hope that after the freedom has been achieved they will live in it. An analysis however shows that there is much that needs to be done to the blacks in terms of awareness so that they make their children know that they are no longer under bondage (Kohl, 2007). This will make them grow with the right attitude in their minds and hence not accepting any kind of intimidation from the whites no matter how real it may be.

Racial segregation may be prominent in some situations and not be experienced in others. There are some places where racial diversity has been accepted and appreciated. These are the places where the concerned authority works to ensure that students have access to equal opportunities. Those that have different disabilities are also accommodated and helped to perform better. For instance, from the previous writings, we find a school that is composed of all categories of people yet the administration is willing to make adjustments to accommodate them. They realize the need for them to access the necessary facilities for them to be equally competitive in the future. From this, we realize that it was what is planted in the minds of the children that will determine how they will treat each other. If they are trained to equally esteem each other despite their differences, this will be the attitude that they will display as they grow up.

Bibliography

Fordham, S. & Ogbu, J., 1986, Black students school success: Coping with the burden of acting white.

Kohl, H., 2007, I wont learn from you!: Confronting student resistance, in Rethinking our classrooms: Teachingfor equality and justice, ed.W. Au, B. Bigelow & S. Karp, Milwaukee.

Ogbu, J., 1992. Understanding cultural diversity and learning, Educational Researcher.

Introduction

As the population of the United States continues to rise and more people move to the countrys cities, the need for additional housing grows. As a result, gentrification has become a more common phenomenon. Gentrification refers to the process of transforming areas to meet the wants and desires of the middle classes (Green 46). The houses and residences in the communities are being razed to make room for the new housing complexes, and the people who live there are being forced to flee. Following the gentrification process, many previous inhabitants find themselves homeless or displaced because they cannot afford to purchase properties in other communities. Gentrification in combination with racial and ethnic segregation has the effect of dividing and splintering low-income communities thus leading to their poor life styles as compared to other groups within the US society.

Discussion

Gentrification in the United States is an updated version of redlining. Redlining is a term used to describe the practice of banks drawing lines on neighborhood maps to indicate areas where they would not lend money to African Americans (Aguilar 230). Housing discrimination is not a thing of the past, and it is not something that can be ignored. Additionally, when businesses do not open in a certain neighborhood that Green (12) suggest, they do not appear to be promising. People in low-income areas should not have to travel long distances just to shop at certain stores (Green 38). These businesses only move into their neighborhoods as the area begins to gentrify, further complicating the situation for the residents.

Gentrification has a major flaw of only caring about the middle class, not the low-income families they are displacing and leaving without a home. Families who are forcibly evicted usually end up in cramped quarters (Tehrani et al. 3683). The American Dream is supposed to give individuals the opportunity to build their own wealth, but now they have been placed in a system that makes it nearly impossible for them to save or even survive (Aguilar 246). Multiple people have come to the United States to better their lives for their families, but rent increases have made it more difficult for them to do so.

Throughout the majority of the 20th century, efforts were made to integrate African Americans into the general population. However, several regulations were created that made it impossible for blacks to reside in the affluent areas while whites could (Hwang 563). According to the 1960 civil right movement the rights and freedoms of the black population need to be fully realized in a society. Housing policies, on the other hand, continued to divide white and black neighborhoods. As a result of these tactics, the government was able to maintain the racial segregation that existed throughout the civil repression era.

Gentrification, by its inherent nature, reinforces racial segregation by benefiting whites and oppressing blacks. The goal of gentrification is to improve the housing situation in a community. Because of this, the procedure focuses on the poorest neighborhoods, which are mainly inhabited by blacks (Tehrani et al. 3683). Black groups have been compelled to live in the most disadvantaged areas of most major American cities due to historical circumstances. For the most part, the countrys wealth has been passed down through generations (Green 16). As a result, upper-class areas house those who come from affluent families, while lower-class neighborhoods house those who come from disadvantaged households. As a result of slavery and racial segregation, the black population is confined to the citys poorest areas. Racially segregated communities in the late 19th century and early to mid-20th century severely limited the capacity of black people to build wealth. Due to discriminatory legislation, African-Americans were unable to get well-paying positions or promotions (Richardson 93). As a result, black communities were unable to acquire the riches that white people had access to.

Slavery, on the other hand, has had a major role in keeping black people in low-income areas until now. A century and a half after it was abolished, the effects of slavery are still felt in the United States. Slavery enslaved African-Americans and other people of color to serve as slave labor for white people. In the eyes of the law, these slaves were only entitled to the property that their white owners gave them. Meanwhile, the white aristocracy continued to enrich itself at the cost of the black population. In legal terms, their masters were entitled to all of their possessions (Aguilar 246). For years, African slaves suffered in silence, with little or no recompense. A large number of slaves were forced to labor in low-paying factory occupations when the industrial revolution began. The whites, on the other hand, had gained money from enslavement that allowed them to invest in companies that enhanced their wealth even more (Green 56). Black communities continue to be affected by this tendency. Affluence is passed down from generation to generation, while poverty is not. There is hence a dearth of mobility for black individuals in wealthy communities.

Other social, political, and economic reasons have a role in tearing apart African American communities, in addition to historical ones. There is a disparity in access to resources between the wealthy and the impoverished areas. There are few medical facilities and schools in the poorer areas of most major metropolises (Aguilar 247). However, due to the high population density, these social amenities are used by many more people than they can accommodate. The teacher-to-student ratio is horrendous in ghetto schools, and the teachers themselves make pitiful wages for the labor they do. There are less resources available for the schools therefore making it difficult for learners to acquire the best knowledge. The libraries are understaffed and lab equipment is either missing or broken, which means that many students are forced to share books. This is in stark contrast to the resources available to students who attend schools in more affluent areas of the city or town.

That the government prefers to give high-quality educational services to pupils in more affluent communities is therefore a rationale that cannot be accepted. In consequence of these regulations, people from disadvantaged black neighborhoods are unable to rise the social ladder. People can climb the social ladder with the help of education, which is a critical instrument (Hwang 543). The capacity to better ones living circumstances is something that education provides for its students. As a result, it is impossible for the poor to compete for employment in the market with people in higher economic situations if they are given poorer quality education services (Green 26). Children from disadvantaged middle-class families are more likely to succeed in life than children from low-income families raised in disadvantaged neighbourhoods. As a result, the government guarantees that the black population remains impoverished, while the white population continues to get richer, by keeping the poor people in the poor areas.

There have also been various detrimental repercussions on the disadvantaged neighborhoods due to urban zoning regulations that are discriminatory. Poor communities are home to urban dumping grounds and sewage systems. For that reason, the communities in question continue to lose their visual appeal (Hwang 572). It is common practice to dump garbage collected from affluent and middle-class communities in low-income areas. As a result, the value of real estate in these locations drops (Annunziata et al. 67). Residents health and the environment are at risk due to dumping sites and open sewers. While they create the least amount of rubbish, communities bear the brunt of environmental pollutions harmful effects, such as tainted drinking water.

Cholera and typhoid are also prevalent in the ghettos because of this pollution. Residents of low-income areas are also at risk of developing respiratory illnesses like asthma and TB. These dangers are exacerbated by the high levels of air pollution in the poorer areas. The establishment of factories in low-income areas contributes to this type of air pollution. Toxic gases are emitted into the atmosphere by these factories, posing a danger to the local populations health and safety (Aguilar 247). Those consequences are the result of urban zoning rules that place industries, sewer lines, and dumps near poor districts that are mostly populated by black populations.

The incidence of crime in disadvantaged neighborhoods in the United States is exacerbated by segregation and gentrification, as well. Despite having only 5% of the worlds population, the United States is home to 25% of the worlds inmates (Richardson 103). The vast majority of those detained are of African ancestry. The majority of these people are victims of the ongoing war on drugs. The war on drugs has resulted in a slew of legislation from the US government. The mass prison system is a direct result of these laws. Most of these regulations, it should be noted, are predominantly implemented in black communities (Green 46). Even if white individuals have an equal chance of using or having drugs as black people, research has found that police patrols and drug operations are more common in black areas. The large number of black prisoners in American jails is a direct result of police segregation of black people.

According to a study military personnel have been found to use excessive force against African Americans than whites, according to study. As a case in point, San Francisco police shot and killed Alejandro Nieto because they mistook his electric rifle, an important equipment for his profession, for a pistol. Blacks are more likely to conduct violent crimes than whites, according to the police. In consequence, there has ever-since existed poor understanding between black people and the police. Fear of being labeled snitches, disregarded by the police, or abused by the police prevents African American victims of crime from contacting the police (Richardson 73). Criminals are empowered to commit more crimes and to use more aggressive methods when more crimes go undetected in low-income areas. Because of this, homicides are more common in low-income areas than in higher-income ones. In addition, the police are more likely to respond to allegations of crime in wealthier communities than in less affluent areas. The polices use of racial profiling in African American areas increases the chance of criminal activity. Police violence against black Americans frequently leads to the dissolution of family units and communities.

Conclusion and Recommendations

In conclusion, despite the fact that gentrification is meant to enhance the living circumstances and living standards in blighted areas, it has the opposite effect. When impoverished people are forced out of their homes, new models are built in their place. As a result, the poor are displaced or become homeless since they cannot afford these dwellings. On the other side, urban zoning and policing tactics can also lead to the disintegration of urban neighborhoods. Disposal sites, manufacturing, and sewage systems are all situated near low-income communities in urban planning. Residents health is jeopardized because of this. As a result, dangerous diseases including cholera, typhoid, asthma, and TB are more common in low-income areas than in higher-income areas of the city.

In order to keep residents from disadvantaged communities from moving to middle or upper class neighborhoods, the federal government makes a concerted effort. As a case in point, the government gives different amenities to the two areas. Teachers in disadvantaged regions are overworked and underpaid because of the lack of educational facilities. The citizens of underprivileged areas are denied the skills they need to improve their lives and progress up the socioeconomic ladder to the middle and higher classes because of poor education.

So many families will benefit in the long term if the government can find a way to retain inexpensive housing while also improving it. Families in this situation are forced to prioritize which expenses to pay first while still needing to spend the majority of their income on housing. In addition, it is absurd to see how this all revolves around race, since the establishment wants to keep us divided and keep people of color in the lower class.

Works Cited

Aguilar, Erika. Home Loans Harder to Get for Blacks and Latinos in California. California: The California Report (2019) pp.246-47.

Annunziata, Sandra, et al. Segregation, social mix and gentrification. Companion to Urban Regional Studies (2019).

Green, Matthew. How Government Redlining Maps Pushed Segregation in California Cities. KQED News (2018).

Hwang, Jackelyn. Gentrification without segregation? Race, immigration, and renewal in a diversifying city. City & Community 19.3 (2020): 538-572.

Richardson, Jason, Bruce Mitchell, and Juan Franco. Shifting Neighborhoods: Gentrification and Cultural Displacement in American Cities. (2019).

Tehrani, Shadi O., Shuling J. Wu, and Jennifer D. Roberts. The color of health: residential segregation, light rail transit developments, and gentrification in the United States. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16.19 (2019): 3683.

Introduction

Gated communities provide their residents with certain exclusivity. They are chosen even before they move in, so that an appropriate environment for a particular neighborhood is maintained. As this type of community is so selective of its inhabitants, it makes segregation inseparable from its image in society. They can be called golden ghettos, because of their secluded nature and wealthy people living there. However, being so isolated from the rest of the community makes this social group paranoid in terms of identifying all strangers in their neighborhood as potential criminals. It also contributes to a challenging coexistence of different social classes and exacerbate the already powerful stratification.

Main body

According to Clement and Grant, gated communities or enclaves are enclosed residential developments with shared private streets and restricted access entries (2012:43). They began reappearing throughout the country relatively recently. The cost of housing is one of the major factors that keep most people at distance from those communities. It is high due to the amenities that such neighborhoods have to offer to its residents: good schools, parks, hospitals, and shopping facilities. As Miles stated, you can gate without putting in gates  property prices, residents associations and just knowing one anothers business act as effective barriers to outsiders (2011:32). Showing ghetto residents amenities they cannot have, pushed those further away from pursuing their dream about a better quality of life. The insecurities and paranoia that the rich are trying to hide by creating a secluded community are a weak base for building a neighborhood. Instead of bettering their lives to some extent they are making things worse, by distancing themselves from the rest of the people.

The fear and resentment of the lower and middle class make the rich put up those walls to be somehow protected, barricading themselves from the world. According to Polanska, gated housing affects & the function of cities and creates socio-spatial segregation, keeping out those who cannot afford to live behind gates and walls (2010:299). Residential segregation is what does not allow African Americans to have any chances for a better life, no matter ones personal achievements or traits of character. Clement and Grant added, that fear of crime and violence added to the appeal of protected enclaves in the United States (2012:44). However, they are not protecting their inhabitants from cruelties of everyday life; they slowly contribute to their paranoia of being followed, or about to get mugged. Gating does have a certain appeal because of its exclusivity; being a resident of such a community makes one stand out and feel unique. As the data shows, these are perhaps the only advantages of gated communities, so it is best if this trend does not grow bigger (Polanska 2010:308).

Due to different social backgrounds, and therefore different education, the income inequality between ghetto inhabitants and those of gated communities is another factor that shapes the existing stratification. Not all minorities can afford going to a good school or a prestigious college, as some type of segregation also takes place at those institutions. Since the higher education facilities minorities are likely to attend do not have a rich reputation, chances that the residents can get decent jobs with high salaries are low. According to Krivo and Kaufman, the ability to obtain more financially and socially advantageous housing is strongly influenced by the social and historical situations of racial and ethnic groups (2004:587). Traditionally, blacks and Hispanics own property that values less than that of the white population. Moreover, the whites prejudice against having other races representatives decreases the demand for owning a house in a non-white neighborhood. As it has been noted, the result is diminished value and lower appreciation of owned housing and greater difficulty in finding better quality dwellings. These problems are the most severe for blacks (Krivo and Kaufman 2004:588).

As the value of housing is being elevated, the income remains the same for minorities: even white lower-class families are more superior to middle-class African-American ones. As Gilbert claims, they are trying to separate themselves from the less privileged (2017:3). The mechanisms that can help fight inequality in housing include differences in market appreciation, inheritance levels &, and the social class origins of minority versus majority-white households, according to Krivo and Kaufman (2004:602). The current level of inequality in housing can have certain consequences for the well-being of household members. The research shows that housing wealth provides households with economic resources, such as protection against inflation, a hedge against catastrophic events, and access to low-cost home equity loans (Krivo and Kaufman 2004:602).

The race of the neighborhoods residents also plays a crucial part in the stratification that has only grown stronger over time. With modern technology at hand, it has become even easier for white people to accuse minorities of an alleged crime or suspicious looks and banish them from the community. According to Kurwa, recent scholarship has highlighted the ways that digital platforms have automated inequality and reinforced race and gender stereotypes (2019:113). It is needless to say how technologically dependent people have become; therefore, the appearance of apps that can make matters worse for segregation creates potential damage.

As Kurwa has stated, talking about an app for the neighbors communication, Nextdoor, is a tool used to build a digitally gated community (2019:112). Designed for the residents to feel united and keep an eye on the everyday issues of the area they live in, it quickly became a means of private amateur investigation. It allowed to practically spy on people without their consent because they seemed suspicious to some residents. According to Kurwa, these efforts are an expression of continued white preferences for segregation. Black residents moving into white suburbs are consistently greeted with hate crimes (2019:112). He adds that recent scholarship has highlighted the ways that digital platforms have automated inequality and reinforced race and gender stereotypes, but on Nextdoor, & users may produce it themselves (2019:113). Moreover, it is important to mention, that the use of this app involves every user in surveillance, so one will be constantly watched by the others.

According to Bickford and Massey, a combination of low white rates and high black rates & maximizes the potential for ghetto expansion (1977:1029). The majority of African American population that is forced to live in ghettos with practically zero amenities, also wants what is best for them and their families. They are trying to improve their social status by moving to nicer neighborhoods and using all of their possible income to fulfill that goal. However, according to Kurwa, people of color are often viewed as criminals in their own homes and neighborhoods, and this shapes the interactions they have with their neighbors (2019:114). It seems that it is impossible to overcome the set stereotypes that the white population strangely stays close to. What makes it even harder is that the childrens peers at school often discourage them from succeeding academically as they realize it is extremely difficult to get to better neighborhoods. That also can contribute to ghetto residents anger towards the gated communities inhabitants, as they understand how limited their options are.

Kurwa is also concerned with the power of the app, saying it may have significant racial consequences: instances of minority movement to white neighborhoods or vice versa (2019:114). According to Grusky and Hill (2018), ghettos are no better than colonies; colonies of economic, political and social character, and their residents are victims that cannot escape. Constantly feeling excluded the ghetto inhabitants may develop resentment towards the upper class to the extent when they get violent. Even trying their best to fit on or even to be a part of a gated community their chances to succeed are highly unlikely. Exacerbating this situation with constant allegations based solely on racial identity, upper-class residents are deepening the stratification and making the gap between the two societies wider.

Unfortunately, many white people that live in those communities still think of black people as of potential criminals. Grusky and Hill claim that even when confronted with the & evidence that they were wrong, users refuse to see Black people in their neighborhood as decent citizens (2018:115). The fact that whites at gated communities allow themselves to spy on a suspicious person without his knowledge or consent reflects their lack of value for that person. This action is more often fueled by racial animosity and the feeling of ones inner superiority. Their accusations of alleged criminal activity or any other reason for his inability to fit in that society are always followed by pushing the person out. In the question of housing, residents from ghettos are always disadvantaged by varied forms of discrimination targeting various kinds of people, usually by race, according to Troutt (2018:1179).

In the case of gentrification (when white people move to minority neighborhoods), it does not get any better for the residents. Research shows that white newcomers to non-white neighborhoods also bring their preferences about neighborhood characteristics. They may use surveillance and policing to assert those expectations (Kurwa 2019:115). The rich try hard to secure their position and undermine the smallest opportunities for lower-class residents to improve their status and living conditions. Even those who live in non-white neighborhoods, feel threatened on their own territory as new rules and regulations are being introduced and the property value grows.

The stratification in the U.S. is tightly intertwined with class and race inequality, as people that belong to minorities group have a hard time pursuing the goal of being on a higher level. Their inability to get the education they want or live in a better neighborhood is largely limited by their status and class, as well as several other factors. The college admission often depends on students social background; applying for a job one has to have graduated from a respectful higher education institution. A decent job that provides a resident at least some sort of status may be a ticket to a better life, but it still does not give any guarantees.

One cannot be sure that he will be included in elite society or be pushed out of it because of his background. What is more, gated communities destroy social cohesion and create an unhealthy atmosphere inside. Excluding themselves from a normal interaction, they create this bubble, that at the same time protects them from their fears and worries and prevents them from having a relationship with someone. The children that would be raised in this type of community will be less open to the conversation; they will suspect people around them in various deeds. In general, people from such communities are more prone to developing far fewer relationships of all kinds.

People in gated communities are predominantly white and generally have more opportunities and privileges than those that live in ghettos. Those people face inequalities and unfairness every day and not all of them have the power or enough resources to win at this. This is why there is a real need for change in policies that are connected to this problem. The problem of segregation does not necessarily lie in the rise of gated communities. On the contrary: the recent boom of gating should be perceived as a symptom of a much bigger problem. It also highlights that something needs to be done on a much higher, municipal level to deal with this issue once and for all. Perhaps, lowering the plank at college admissions and job interviews may help, as that will give the ghetto residents more opportunities for getting a quality education and receiving better jobs. Lack of power and low social status still play a big role in lives of working-class, as they are denied in things like good accommodation or prestigious schools. The fact that they cannot contribute to the image of certain colleges or neighborhoods with a worthy reputation in society makes it difficult for them to survive.

There have to be changes in potentially racist behavior in gated communities. The government has to come up with a punishment or regulation system for this matter so that the rich do not overstep the boundaries. Segregation of any kind has to remain in the past; until that happens, the U.S. has no right to call itself a non-racist country. Promoting tolerance everywhere, from social media to television, the government forgets to check what is really going on in the country. The most important places to keep an eye on and constantly evaluate the situation there are ghettos and gated communities. That is because both of them represent society at a certain extreme: a secluded group of people, with their own rules and regulations and living conditions.

Conclusion

Gated communities should be educated on being accepting when it comes to race or social status, as these factors cannot change life in this society for the worst. Ghetto residents, in turn, should encourage their younger generations to get higher education in a respectable institution to acquire a better status and a decent job. The housing conditions for ghetto inhabitants must be altered so that they can afford nice accommodation for themselves and their families. Universities and colleges need to start accepting applications of students based on their scores at the exams and their knowledge, not the prestige of their families. Balancing out the factors that contribute to the development of segregation and, therefore, stratification in the U.S. will help with keeping the violence rate and possible rioting at minimum. Not only promoting tolerance but also pursuing social, economic and racial equality through real actions, will the U.S. become a truly great country.

Works Cited

Bickford, Adam, and Douglas S. Massey. Segregation in the Second Ghetto: Racial and Ethnic Segregation in American Public Housing, 1977. Social Forces, vol. 69, no.4, 1991, pp. 1011-1036.

Clement, Raquel, and Jill L. Grant. Enclosing Paradise: The Design of Gated Communities in Barbados. Journal of Urban Design, vol.17, no.1, 2012, pp. 43-60.

Gilbert, Dennis L. The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. SAGE Publications, 2017.

Grusky, David, and Jasmine Hill. Inequality in the 21st Century. Routledge, 2018.

Krivo, Lauren J., and Robert L. Kaufman. Housing and Wealth Inequality: Racial-Ethnic Differences in Home Equity in the United States. Demography, vol. 41, no.3, 2004, pp. 585-605.

Kurwa, Rahim. Building the Digitally Gated Community: The Case of Nextdoor. Surveillance & Society, vol. 17, no. 1/2, 2019, pp. 111-117.

Miles, Alice. It Matters if Youre Black or White. New Statesman. 2011, pp. 32-33.

Polanska, Dominika V. The Emergence of Gated Communities in Post-Communist Urban Context: and The Reasons for Their Increasing Popularity. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, vol. 25, no. 3, 2010, pp. 295-312.

Troutt, David D. Cities, Fair Housing, and Gentrification: A Proposal in Progressive Federalism. Cardozo Law Review. Vol. 40, 2018, pp. 1177-1205.

The United States has continuously been a diverse but segregated nation. This has developed American politics extremely. Danah Boyd’s article, “Why America is Self Segregating”, he briefly explains the unraveling of two historical institutions through social, racial, and class-supported differences of social networks. “Displacing Democracy Economic Segregation in America”, by Amy Widestrom she discusses that less forunate residents are at a disadvantage. She states that “neighborhoods segregated along economic lines create conditions that encourage high levels of political activity, including political and civic mobilization and voting, among wealthier citizens while discouraging and impeding the poor from similar forms of civic engagement.” (Widestrom, 2) John P. Jackson, Jr’s book “Social Scientists for Social Justice Making the Case Against Segregation”, Jackson exposes the efforts of social scientists in their struggle to change American legislation and order on race and poverty and confirms that without certain scientists, who produced their expertise to convey on the most important concerns of the time. Throughout history, Americans have had to fight with conflicting views and beliefs, governmental ideas, and experiences to operate as a nation. Many of the organizations that undermine American democracy drive individuals in the United States to confront inequality.

This does not essentially produce understanding or occur in a wholesome analysis. The history of the United States is filled with infinite examples of people dominating and suppressing different individuals based on differences. This is not regarding our past; it is regarding our present. And today’s conflicts over legislation and education are nothing unusual. Ironically, within an environment in which we possess innumerable means to connect, we are also following fragmentation or breaking something big into smaller pieces, polarization, division into two sharply contrasting groups and de-diversification happens in masses. American society is self-segregating, and this is splitting the social framework of the country.

Several individuals within the technology environment believed that the Internet would unite people in miraculous ways, allow for groups to be connected and wounds to mend. Today, these same visionaries perceive it considerably unsettling to follow as the devices that were intended to bring people together are applied by people to exaggerate divisions and threaten human solidarity. These devices were created in a single idea, and that idea has to burst. The predicament is not solely the “filter bubble,” Eli Pariser’s opinion that personalized problem solving methods help put people into separated content streams. However, Facebook uncovers and magnifies trends that have been unraveling in the United States for the last two decades, the idea of self-segregation that is facilitated by technology in multiple complicated ways. Yet, we are going in the opposing direction with severe outcomes.

To understand these outcomes, address two present trend lines and consider the connections going onward. “Displacing Democracy Economic Segregation in America”, by Amy Widestrom,Today in America, Low-income residents are less likely to be politically involved in communities with individuals who produce less income, a trend that is relevant in individual governmental activity. Researching communities in large cities such as, Atlanta, GA, New York City, NY, Kansas City, MO, Saint Louis, MO, and Rochester, NY. Amy Widestrom examines the theory that the ‘class gap’ which in theory is simply social classes, in federal support is mainly the outcome of individual preferences. ‘Displacing Democracy’ proves that “communities separated along economic lines produce situations that promote large levels of legislative activity, including legislative and civil mobilization, among more prosperous citizens while controlling and hindering the disadvantaged from comparable forms of civic engagement.” (Widestrom, 3).

Analyze research, case studies, and meetings, Widestrom shows that community-level sources and characteristics influence political action in unmistakable ways that are not adequately recognized in the current knowledge of American governments and governmental behavior. Also, the roles executed by individual characteristics, increasing financial division in the United States refuse low-income residents the civil and cultural supplies necessary for political militarization and support throughout these communities. Individuals living in poverty ridin communities need the experience, capital or money, and facilities for active civil participation, and this is known by the experience that suburban separation creates an unproductive civil environment incapable of maintaining a vibrant community throughout many decades.

Over time, this produces a balance of legislative authority amoung individuals that is dramatically skewed by individuals with higher incomes but toward whole communities with more financial resources. John P. Jackson, Jr’s book “Social Scientists for Social Justice Making the Case Against Segregation”, In one of the twentieth century’s monumental Supreme Court cases, Brown v. Board of Education, cultural specialists such as Kenneth Clark helped to influence the Supreme Court Justices of the decrease of the emotional outcomes of racism and discrimination. John P. Jackson, Jr., explores the well-known investigations used in the assistance of Brown, such as Clark’s famous “doll tests,” as well as years of analysis on race which begin the case. In his book Clark states, “Clark gave African American children black and white dolls, identical except for skin color, and asked them to choose the ‘nice’ doll, the ‘bad’ doll, and so on.

Clark was ‘only one of dozens of expert witnesses’ who testified in the four cases that together made up Brown.” (Clark, 4) Kenneth Clark’s important “doll tests” jolted the country in the 1950s when he was apt to illustrate that when provided a choice, Black children favored white dolls to black dolls. Few recognize that these experiments were conducted within the circumstances of the Brown v. Board of Education conferences to display the debilitating psychological impacts of racism and discrimination.

Clark ‘stepped over the bounds of proper scientific procedure and into the realm of advocacy,’ (Clark, 2) This analysis and others like it had a powerful impact on the Supreme Court justices and were mentioned in the memorable Brown ruling. In many ways, Kenneth Clark and other social experts assisted to reveal the head of Southern segregation.Jackson unveils the efforts of human specialists in their attempt to influence American law and administration on race and hunger and illustrates that without these specialists, who delivered their expertise to carry the most urgent matters of the day, we would not appreciate the legal protections against judgment we may presently take for granted.

Together sixty-five percent of kindergarten classrooms are made up of African Americans and Hispanic individuals. On the contrary, only eighteen percent of them are being admitted into gifted and talented programs (par. 5). America’s school system and student population remain segregated, by race and class. Inequalities still remain in schools; this is not just the result of poorly managed schools; it reflects how society still contains racial and socio-economic discrimination. Most of the problems of schools come from either racism in or outside the school or financial inequality between wealthy and poor school districts. Since schools receive funding through local property taxes, low-income communities start at an economic disadvantage. The editorial essay proves that students that identify as Hispanic and African-American are being segregated from advance schools. However, every student regarding their race, socio-economic, legal, and health status should have the opportunity to attend gifted schools if their grades uphold the criteria.

The Editorial Board’s essay discusses significant issues, such as segregation, that are still evident in today’s society. Professor Allison Roda from Molloy College states, ‘the city’s system is the third most-segregated in the country’ (par. 2). This is regarding the public education system established in New York City. This essay explains how individuals that have Hispanic or African American heritage are infrequently admitted into schools that offer gifted or talented programs based on their socio-economic status. For such gifted schools, an admission requirement is needed, but why is it if a child gets those grades, they are still denied? Some schools do use other criteria for admission; attendance or lateness (par. 7). However, this is automatically placing Hispanic and African American students at a disadvantage as ‘three-quarters of black and Hispanic students miss more than five days of school per year’ (par. 7). In this essay, strategies are addressed to decrease such segregation. However, the mayor of New York City stresses that it is going to be difficult to change policies that have been used for years prior without any backlash.

The essay suggests that having such segregation helps maintain the expected status quo, dictating that low-income families remain poor, and rich stay wealthy. Furthermore, the status quo requires that these low-income families depend on government assistance, such as low-income housing and welfare (par. 5). Due to the income within household groups, the poorest people live in the same communities; it is allowing only unprivileged children to attend the same schools. They do not have the opportunity to participate in a gifted school as the government would not put such a prestigious school in their community. Money, health, family, and housing stability are common aspects of their life that restrict the students from being able to participate in such prestigious schools (par. 6). The majority of poor people feel they have no opportunity to transcend in the classroom. The class restrictions and the property taxes that fund their schools do not relieve their stress. Those of the lower class often have insecurities about going to school as they do not feel accepted. Since the gifted schools mostly consist of Caucasians and Asians, the African American and Hispanic students do not feel comfortable as they lack proper school supplies. Many of the underprivileged students can barely secure a pencil and paper. Schools regularly suppress minority and African American students; however, when a school’s enrollment contains a vast racial majority, why is that the case? If students have no exposure to people of different ethnicities, cultures, races, and religions, then these students will not know how to socialize amongst a diverse group.

Though there are great context and discussion points within this essay, there is no particular points or argument. It merely kept addressing that African American and Hispanic students are segregated against, and they are working towards a solution. However, it does not state the action steps and what the final solution will be or should be. The essay is very eye-opening as I am not familiar with such segregation. As a young Caucasian citizen in Canada, as a race, most do not feel segregated against or have felt that there were limitations to aspects of life; school. It is also very informative as it included some facts. For example, the essay states, that about one in ten Hispanic or African American students resided in temporary housing (par. 8). However, I think it should have touched on why the African American and Hispanic students miss class. Possibly where they live public transportation is not available, and their parents cannot afford or do not have a car. Those students have disadvantages like where they are geographically living (par. 17). Thus, it would take the student too long to walk to the testing for the gifted school. The tone is a very crucial component in essays. For such a topic, a passionate, firm tone, and diction are required. However, it felt relaxed and did not make the subject come across as critical. Being denied to advanced education is a massive problem as the students want to better their lives and themselves. They should not have to be turned away because of race, social status, family income, or health issues.

Segregation is not only an issue in America, but it is still present in Canada. Changes need to be made to alter such admission requirements. Segregation is when you neglect someone or something from others (Segregation). Being as young as four, and having to face rejection can do psychological damage and make them question their self-worth (Leary, par. 2). This is why New York needs to make drastic changes to its education system. To improve the issue, making gifted schools more easily accessible to the African American and Hispanic students could help. For example, since many of the talented schools are located in expensive neighborhoods, there should be more situated in close proximity to communities such as the Bronx (par. 16). Being segregated just based on your ethnic background is horrible; no outside factors like health, money, social status, and family dynamics should never be taken into consideration for an academic school. If students are successful in achieving the admission average, then that is all that should matter. Students offer a variety of skills and could have such opportunities in the future. However, when they are restricted to a particular school based on financial stability, the true potential of a student might not be fully shown. For example, a young African American or Hispanic student could have a cure for cancer. However, they might be denied access to the gifted programs simply because they are in the foster system. These outside factors need to be removed to ensure every student has a fair chance.

New York cities’ education system needs to change. Segregation is unfair and unjust. When admitting students in such prestigious schools, marks should be the only factor. Unfortunately, African American and Hispanic students are still being neglected in the twenty-first century. The American school systems need to reflect on how their policies are negatively effecting the students; young students have such potential for greatness. However, if the students are not rising to their full potential based on factors they cannot control, rejection will only enhance such poor behaviors. Changes need to be made to make this system more inclusive and equitable.