Excerpt from the Structure of Scientific Revolutions

The field of psychology is one that has been the subject of much study and discussion for many years. The study of human behavior and mental processes is a complex and multi-faceted endeavor, encompassing a range of perspectives and approaches. Despite this diversity, the discipline has yet to settle on a single dominant paradigm, leading to a continued evolution of the field and a lack of a shared understanding of its basic foundations. According to Thomas Kuhn (1970), the development of science depends on the existence of a shared paradigm or framework that guides research in a particular discipline. A paradigm provides a set of accepted assumptions, concepts, and methods that shape the way researchers approach and interpret their findings. In the case of psychology, the discipline has yet to settle on a single dominant paradigm, leading to a continued evolution of the field and a lack of a shared understanding of its basic foundations.

Kuhn argues that the lack of a clear paradigm in psychology can be attributed to the complex and multi-faceted nature of human behavior and mental processes (1970). Psychology encompasses a range of perspectives and approaches, including biological, cognitive, behavioral, and psychoanalytic, each with their own unique set of assumptions and methods. This diversity has resulted in a fragmented field, with different schools of thought often conflicting with one another. In addition, the development of new research methods and technologies has also contributed to the ongoing evolution of psychology. As researchers are able to gather more data and develop new techniques for analysis, existing theories and paradigms are often challenged and refined, leading to a continued process of refinement and growth.

In conclusion, Thomas Kuhns theory of paradigms and their role in the development of science can help to explain why the field of psychology has yet to settle on a clear and widely accepted paradigm. The multi-disciplinary and complex nature of psychology, along with the ongoing development of new research methods, have contributed to a continued process of evolution and refinement in the field.

Reference

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). Excerpt from the structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.

Scientific Revolution And Its Enlightened Aftermath

We think of Isaac Newton, Einstein, and other renowned scientists who made their name during the era in which they lived when we hear about the scientific revolution. Although these great scientists were formidable and influential proponents of the scientific revolution, many more twists and turns are attached to this period of time than most people think. Before the scientific revolution occurred, almost all and sundry viewed the world in a pious, and not secular way. They viewed the world as a place ruled by God and His chosen people and that the natural order of things must be followed. This period of time was called the middle ages. After the middle ages came the age of Renaissance, which in one way or the other began the scientific revolution in that the desire to know more about mankind and its habitats actually started during the Renaissance period. Around the year 1550, the scientific revolution finally began, which has shaped and defined the world throughout the subsequent years till now, indicating its influence on every generation.

It all started when people in Western Europe decided to forgo their thoughts and beliefs and adopt new changes to institutional organizations and social structures. Nicolas Copernicus, a polish astronomer at that time was the main and earliest known proponent of the scientific revolution. His research on the revolution of the celestial spheres marked revolution. He proposed that the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun and not the other way round, which was the notion of most people at that time. He made this proposal around 1500, which was to be highly influential in the years to come. Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton all played their parts in the scientific revolution. Tycho Brahe, a Danish Astronomer studied the sky with a telescope. He located craters and mountains on the moon. He also invented the thermometer and discovered how falling objects behaved. Isaac Newton, an English scientist, invented the Principia Mathematica which is a three-volume work on the foundations of Mathematics. He made theories that later became laws and also simplified the works and studies of most of the other scientists. He is also highly known for the invention of calculus.

During the scientific revolution, numerous concepts were introduced to the natural world. Scientists came out with numerous theories and laws governing their surroundings. The scientific method, for example, began during the scientific revolution. People got to know more about their world. As outlined by an article on science buddies, the scientific method consists of five stages which include “Ask a Question, Do Background Research, Construct a Hypothesis, Test Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment, Analyze Data and Draw a Conclusion.”(sciencebuddies.org ). This era also sparked the age of reason, with Descartes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques sparking it. According to an article on sparks notes, the scientific revolution also brought advancement in Mathematics to a large extent.

The main condition necessary for the advancement of physics and astronomy that progressed during the Scientific Revolution was the advance of mathematics, which allowed the proof of abstract theories and provided a more logical method for attacking the Aristotelian system. During the late sixteenth century, a French lawyer, Francois Viete, was among the first to use letters to represent unknown quantities. In 1591 and after, he applied this algebraic method to geometry, laying the foundation for the invention of trigonometry. The Fleming Simon Stevin also worked with geometry during the late sixteenth century, applying it to the physics of incline planes and the hydrostatic surface tension of water. Additionally, he introduced the decimal system of representing fractions, an advance which greatly eased the task of calculation”.

Although many people supported and embraced the scientific revolution, there were some organizations who did all they could to halt and terminate the progress of the rambunctious scientists and innovators. The Catholic Church, in particular, was against the scientific revolution, as Ethan P notes on his blog “The Roman Catholic Church did not like the scientists because most of them were disagreeing with the churches’ teachings and most were charged, like Galileo who was charged with heresy.”(Social Studies Blog). The Catholic church also banned some of Copernicus’ books, as they considered it heretical, and also put Galileo under house address because of his notorious inquisition. They had to fight and navigate their way through many religious principles, which made them loathed by many conservatives of the middle age’s traditions at that time.

Although the revolution continued throughout the later years, the restrictions attached to it were to continue until the early 1700s, when a German philosopher called Immanuel Kent and other great intellectual leaders initiated the enlightenment. The enlightenment began when the scientific revolution ended in 1700. As noted in the world civilization book, intellectual figures during the eighteenth century wanted to parallel the achievements in the natural sciences with those in the social sciences, thus bringing forth the enlightenment. “Eighteenth-century intellectual leaders saw no reason why what had been done in the natural sciences could not be attempted in social sciences. They wanted to put history, politics, jurisprudence, and economics under the same logical lenses that had been applied to math and Physics. Spurred on by such hopes, the enlightenment was born.”(Adler,413). Immanuel Kent, along with intellectuals like Mary Wollstonecraft, Baron Montesquieu, and Adam Smith did marvelous works throughout the enlightenment, a period of time in which there was a transition from the old to the new world. Science replaced superstition and that was the beginning of the modern era. Mary Wollstonecraft wrote the classic Frankenstein horror novel. Baron is well-known for his famous Spirit of the Laws, perhaps the most influential book on government. Adam Smith wrote the Wealth of Nations as well as Laissez-faire, which has been influential in every generation since then.

The Scientific Revolution has impacted us today. Bacon’s scientific method has helped make experiments more reliable. Cavendish and Maria Winklemann have encouraged many women to contribute to the field of science. Newton and Boyle’s laws have helped to explain how our world and universe work, along with other works and laws influenced by other scientists. Descartes’s work emphasized the importance of his own mind and that he could only be sure of his own existence (Spielvogel). The works of these men and women helped toward the development of technology and natural sciences today. Today, people are able to harness power from natural resources using the laws developed and tested during this time. Medical procedures are more effective today thanks to medical breakthroughs. Scientists have also paved the way to the rise of democracy by advocating the rights of individuals (Spielvogel). There are many impacts that the Scientific Revolution made to our day.”

Researching on this topic, I ascertained much novel information on the scientific revolution and enlightenment generation which really fascinated me. I got to know the ordeals Newton and the other great scientists went through to bring about change through the use of scientific knowledge. Today, their works have proved invaluable to the modern world. Their discoveries and theories have helped shape the world and bring balance in every aspect of our lives. I believe the benefits of the scientific revolution and its enlightenment have continued to evolve over the years, and there is no doubt that it will continue to do so throughout the coming years.

How Starring Astronomy Advancements Of The Scientific Revolution

Everyone has experienced that situation where we crack a great joke and not many people hear, and then someone else repeats it louder, and everyone else is dying of laughter… except you. It stings when you are not given credit for your own thoughts and actions and then someone else steals them and makes them their own. Among some of the most famous astronomers during the sixteenth century, sit names like Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Tycho Brahe, however, the most prominent and influential of the era was the Polish, Nicolaus Copernicus. As astronomy progressed and developed from the very early years of discovery to, later on, sparking the Scientific Revolution, there were many ideas, concepts, and proposals set forth. Copernicus wrote the ‘De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium,” which inspired other astronomers of his time to continue his work and build further upon it, he was very accurate in his calculations, he ventured out to challenge the Church and society, and is thus considered the founder of modern-day astronomy and the scientific revolution as his countless plans and approaches to astronomy still hold true to today; the twenty-first century.

Most notable was Copernicus’ publication of the manuscript De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (‘On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’) in 1543 at the age of 70. In this manuscript, Copernicus ascertained and verified that indeed the other planets orbited the Sun rather than the Earth. He arranged his model of the solar system and the pathway of each planet. James Evans put it best when he affirms, “Until the invention of the telescope and the discovery of the laws of motion and gravity in the 17th century, astronomy was primarily concerned with noting and predicting the positions of the Sun, Moon, and planets, initially for calendrical and astrological purposes and later for navigational applications and scientific interest.” (Evans) The influence of this discovery that the earth was not the center of the universe, but rather the sun (heliocentric) was so profound that the new wave of astronomy that followed his conclusion was named the Copernican Revolution. His book also stated that the Earth has more than one motion, turning on its axis and moving in a circular orbit around the sun. As well as describing the stars as fixed, yet appear to move because of the Earth’s motion (Salaman Khan). Copernicus was not the first to suggest heliocentrism, as Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek astronomer who lived in the 200s BCE, theorized that Earth and other planets revolved around the Sun. (Biography.com Editors) Nevertheless, the key aspect is the term “theorized,” as Copernicus was the one to actually prove his thoughts with an accurate model and details to support it. As such, Copernicus’ writing is considered to be one of the foundational manuscripts of modern astronomy.

Copernicus is also arguably the most influential astronomer of the Scientific Revolution as he took the first step forward in going against the Church’s pedagogy. In a way, he showed the ropes to Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo by publishing his manuscript on his deathbed. The motivation and rationale for doing so was because the Church during the Renaissance was too overpowering, and literally burned, tortured, and seized people’s properties who went against their teachings. By putting his models and experiments into print he was able to defy the Church’s wrong studies of the time, that the universe must revolve around humans, therefore the Earth at its center. Most people of the Renaissance believed “Passages in the Bible implied that the earth does not move, the Bible is the word of God, and the penalty for disagreeing with God is death.” (Doc) At the beginning of the 17th centenary, the Catholic Church was in crisis. The Protestant Reformation was making its way all across Europe. Thus, the Church was suffering the loss of entire realms at a time. Accordingly, in Copernicus deciding to issue the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, for the Church it was almost as if the universe was collapsing. The Church sought to eradicate this concept by any means. However, despite their most vigorous efforts, heliocentrism continued to grow and gain popularity. As a Catholic, Copernicus had a good relationship with the Church, yet went against the geocentric doctrine, thus spurring other Catholic and Protestant astronomers like Brahe and Kepler, and Galileo to persist in the exploration of ideas never encountered before.

As well, Copernicus was respected and well-educated for his time compared to the other astronomers of the Scientific Revolution. Tycho Brahe literally died because he refused to relieve himself at a lavish aristocratic party. Even the brightest souls sometimes make unreasonable decisions, but Copernicus was not one of them. “Nicolaus Copernicus fulfilled the Renaissance ideal. He became a mathematician, an astronomer, a church jurist with a doctorate in law, a physician, a translator, an artist, a Catholic cleric, a governor, a diplomat, and an economist. He spoke German, Polish, and Latin, and understood Greek and Italian.” (Salman Khan)

Copernicus proved himself once again to be the most significant astronomer of the 16th and 17th centuries, as he inspired and spurred new insights from other astronomers of the scientific revolution and beyond. “Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was a good example of those who admired Copernicus’s achievement in tying all the motions of the planets closer to the Sun but who were unable to accept the motion of Earth” (Friedlander). Brahe, a fellow cosmologist made new observations based upon Copernicus’ previous ones assembled data, concluding that all the known planets except the Earth circled the sun, thus the whole system circled the Earth. Being Brahe’s assistant, Kepler was in search of mathematical regularity in the universe. He put forth 3 laws of planetary motion; “The planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus; The time necessary to traverse any arc of a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of the sector between the central body and that arc (the “area law”), and there is an exact relationship between the squares of the planets’ periodic times and the cubes of the radii of their orbits known as the “harmonic law.” (Brit) “Galileo Galilei was the first person to look at the heavens with a telescope, and Galileo wasn’t born until Copernicus had been dead for over 20 years.”

This leads to another aspect of Copernicus’ results that are regarded so highly influential, making him the most prominent astronomer of his era. Copernicus reacted to those who criticized him declaring, “There may be babblers, wholly ignorant of mathematics, who dare to condemn my hypothesis, upon the authority of some part of the Bible twisted to suit their purpose. I value them not, and scorn their unfounded judgment.” He based his resolutions on anything he could truly observe for himself, eschewing assumptions, opinions, and theories formulated and then handed down as facts without concise evidence. In contrast to Kepler, Galileo, and Brahe, Copernicus was very accurate in his calculations, models, and figures. Tycho Brahe was given a whole Island where he hired others to build more advanced astronomical instruments and carry out certain observations. Thus everything that is credited to him is still dubious. “Brahe’s ideas about his data were not always correct,” as his investigations were slightly flawed.

Repeatedly Copernicus established himself to be the basis of modern astronomy and further findings and innovations unveiled during the Scientific Revolution. It just goes to show how influential and significant his calculations and explorations of space were to modern science as there is even a periodic element named after him. It is called Copernicium, being the 112th element out of only 118. A prominent statue of the astronomer simply called the Nicolaus Copernicus Monument, stands near the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, Poland. There are also copies and similar models of this monument outside Chicago’s Adler Planetarium and Montreal’s Planétarium Rio Tinto Alcan. As well, Copernicus has a museum and research laboratory; Warsaw’s Copernicus Science Centre is solely devoted to him.

Although Copernicus’ concepts and designs took almost a hundred years to gain credence, fellow astronomers including Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Tycho Brahe, affirmed that the Earth indeed orbited the sun. In this sense, Copernicus demonstrated his ability and influence on the other astronomers of the Scientific Revolution. He provided a framework for others’ discoveries of the near future, allowing them to develop upon the ideas and formulate new ones, cementing the Copernican Revolution. Copernicus is seen to be set apart from the other astronomers in the sense of his dedication as he played a vital role in paving the way in the paradigm transformation to what astronomers are able to achieve nowadays.

Excerpt from the Structure of Scientific Revolutions

The field of psychology is one that has been the subject of much study and discussion for many years. The study of human behavior and mental processes is a complex and multi-faceted endeavor, encompassing a range of perspectives and approaches. Despite this diversity, the discipline has yet to settle on a single dominant paradigm, leading to a continued evolution of the field and a lack of a shared understanding of its basic foundations. According to Thomas Kuhn (1970), the development of science depends on the existence of a shared paradigm or framework that guides research in a particular discipline. A paradigm provides a set of accepted assumptions, concepts, and methods that shape the way researchers approach and interpret their findings. In the case of psychology, the discipline has yet to settle on a single dominant paradigm, leading to a continued evolution of the field and a lack of a shared understanding of its basic foundations.

Kuhn argues that the lack of a clear paradigm in psychology can be attributed to the complex and multi-faceted nature of human behavior and mental processes (1970). Psychology encompasses a range of perspectives and approaches, including biological, cognitive, behavioral, and psychoanalytic, each with their own unique set of assumptions and methods. This diversity has resulted in a fragmented field, with different schools of thought often conflicting with one another. In addition, the development of new research methods and technologies has also contributed to the ongoing evolution of psychology. As researchers are able to gather more data and develop new techniques for analysis, existing theories and paradigms are often challenged and refined, leading to a continued process of refinement and growth.

In conclusion, Thomas Kuhn’s theory of paradigms and their role in the development of science can help to explain why the field of psychology has yet to settle on a clear and widely accepted paradigm. The multi-disciplinary and complex nature of psychology, along with the ongoing development of new research methods, have contributed to a continued process of evolution and refinement in the field.

Reference

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). Excerpt from the structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press.