Validity refers to a study that is accurate and assesses given areas of study that the researcher should understand. Validity may be internal or external. This depends on the aspect of the study that the researcher wants to measure.
Internal validity is the design of conducting research and how the decision making process is undertaken to get the best results. External validity explains the depth of study and the level of generalization and comparison with research studies that different authors conduct. Reliability refers to the extent to which a given research project can give consistent results and outcome.
This is achieved when several experiments are done using the same procedure. In this case, the experiments are done using the same research tools and procedures even if conducted by different researchers. However, the outcome should be similar. Reliable data from a research study should be relevant to the problems that the researcher should solve to help in the decision-making process (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007).
Validity measures how an instrument can measure a given characteristic in a research field accurately. In this regard, similar results are expected when using a common procedure. When the experiment is done, and the results are compared, they should indicate the same outcome.
For a research to be valid, the results should be verified by a peer in the same doctrine of study. A peer is a person who shares the same legal status in terms of education or even age. A peer can also be a person who shares qualifications or abilities with another researcher. Thus, in a health and medicine field, it is important for researchers to undertake peer review of a given study.
Peer review is important because it helps to check the validity of any results derived from a research study. In the field of medicine, the researcher should consult widely with peers to find solutions to health issues that affect people. Peer review help to compare the best approach to a given ailment and thus better drugs are provided to people (Gerrish & Lacey, 2010).
On the other hand, reliability can be enhanced by conducting peer review among different people in the same field of study to find the best result and outcome that can be relied upon by all. Having peer review helps in determining the consistency of results in the area of study.
Two health officer researchers can review one another’s work on a given topic to expound on the topic. This helps to eradicate any errors that might have occurred during the initial stages of research. Peer review helps in comparing the analysis of each health officer and to gauge the consistency of the data used in the research.
Test and retesting can be done on the data to bring out the consistency in results while following the required procedure. The review can be done by a committee to ascertain consistency of the data because human decisions are classified as reliable if different people come to the same conclusion and results. Peer reviews that are done by committees should be supervised so as to achieve the objectives of the research.
Thus, the committee should have access to information from other professionals in the same field of study who can check for consistency of the information. Therefore, for a given health and medical information to be considered valid and reliable, it should have undergone a peer review. In this case, it is crucial to certify the information given by the researcher on the topic (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007).
References
Gerrish, K. & Lacey, A. (2010). The research process in nursing. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. (2007). Best practices: Evidence-based nursing procedures. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Geographically, Middle East is in West Asia. People have traditionally used the term ‘West Asia’ to differentiate the region with the Eastern part of Asia. However, ethnically, the Middle East is different from other parts of Asia because of its high Arab population.
From this notable difference, the Middle East has defined its identity from the rest of the Asian continent. Nonetheless, there are calls to rename Middle East as West Asia because of its significance in the Asian continent, and its geographic position in the same region (Telhami, 2002).
This paper opposes this view by proposing three reasons for the preservation of the Middle East name. First, the extension of Middle East into Asia and Africa shows that Middle East is not exclusively part of the Asian peninsular. Secondly, this paper suggests that Middle East has its unique identity, which differentiates the region from other parts of Asia, like China or India. Therefore, if Middle East is renamed West Asia, the region may lose its identity.
Lastly, this paper acknowledges that the social and economic relation between Middle East and the rest of Asia is strong, but this relationship is insufficient to warrant the renaming of Middle East as West Asia. Comprehensively, there are significant geographic, social, political, and economic differences between Middle East and the rest of Asia, which suggest the preservation of the Middle East name.
Geographic Limitation
Traditionally, the Middle East comprises of many countries that stretch across several parts of North Africa and West Asia. Therefore, besides the common Middle East countries such as Jordan, Kuwait, and Lebanon (located in West Asia), there are other traditional Middle East countries such as Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya, which are located in Northern Africa.
Therefore, the distributions of Middle East countries stretch across two continents. It would therefore be incorrect to rename Middle East as West Asia because North Africa is also part of the Middle East. Moreover, Africa is an independent continent that has its geographic boundaries, which is independent of Asia. The conception of the ‘West Asia’ name is therefore narrow because it fails to capture the full scope of the Middle East region.
Preservation of the Middle East Identity
Middle East has a special identity that differentiates the region from other parts of the world. Its identity not only cuts across its social and political spheres, but also its geographic and economic makeup. For example, Middle Eastern people dress differently from other countries around the world (not only in Asia).
For example, women wear the Niqab as a respectable formal wear in the region (Omair, 2009, p. 412). Other parts of Asia (such as India) adopt a different style of clothing. Middle East architecture is also different from other parts of Asia. For example, Middle East architecture greatly differs from Chinese architecture.
These differences show the varied identities of Middle Eastern people and the rest of the Asian continent. These differences are deeper while analyzing religion, lifestyle, and politics. Therefore, after considering the significant differences between these two regions, it is crucial to preserve the Middle East identity. It is also incorrect to change the name of Middle East to west Asia.
Relationship with the Rest of Asia
Molavi (2011) says that the trade between the Arab world (GCC countries) and the rest of Asia supersedes the level of trade in the Middle East region. Molavi (2011) estimates the trade between Asia and the rest of the Middle East to peak during 2017 (observers estimate that Asia will be Middle East’s biggest trading partner).
To this extent, some people have voiced their suggestions to rename Middle East as West Asia. However, the strong trade relation between Middle East and the rest of Asia does not provide sufficient grounds to warrant a name change. Comparatively, many other regions around the world have strong trade relations, but they do not consider a name change because of their strong trade ties.
For example, there is an increased volume of trade between China and America. In fact, billions of dollars in trade revolve between the two countries alone (Morris, 2001). The strong trade relation between China and America has however not warranted a name change from either of the two trading partners. Therefore, it is incorrect to claim a name change for Middle East, just because it shares a cordial trade relationship with the rest of Asia.
Effect of Name Change on the Economy
From the growth of globalization, regional economic dynamics spread fast among different countries. Therefore, if Middle East changes its name to West Asia, it may suffer the same economic fortunes as the rest of the continent. For example, developed countries allocate aid to regions and continents around the globe. A name change would therefore mean that Middle East has to share the same aid as Asia. This would undermine its economic prospects.
Conclusion
The effect of a name change on the Middle East would be profound. Traditionally, the world has understood Middle East as a region with unique economic, social, and political dynamics. This paper identifies that these unique attributes of the region may disappear with a name change.
Moreover, Middle East is slowly making a name for itself as a global economic powerhouse. This trend has seen Middle East develop close ties with the rest of Asia. However, if the region loses its identity, it may lose its economic dominance in regional trade. Lastly, it makes no sense renaming Middle East as West Asia, while a large portion of the region is not even in Asia. Comprehensively, these dynamics show that Middle East should preserve its identity.
China is faced by a great challenge of trying to maintain its national culture in the strong wave of globalization. It was inevitable to shun away this new ideology because it was perceived as a bridge of development between the West and China. However, the Chinese are bent on preserving their traditional culture.
Every time there is a mention of globalization in relation to culture, the worst is portrayed because globalization is often described to erode cultures. Regardless of the fact that traditional Confucianism was swept away in China, neo-Confucianism’s significance is evident in its humanistic spirit. The confucianists’ aim is to foresee the general wellbeing of every human being, and this has been a very strong characteristic feature of the Chinese identity.
Gender and how it shapes Chinese identity
The sex ratio at birth in China is the highest in the world according to the United Nation’s Population Prospects 2010 revision (Golley & Tyers, 2012). This sex ratio has resulted in a great gender imbalance that has resulted in what Amartya Sen termed as “missing women”. Reference to the current fertility policy of one-child in China, it was postulated that the imbalance would escalate.
This imbalance has implications on the realms of social, economic and political events in the country. However, as it has been later discussed, concerted efforts of the government have changed the course of the postulated outcomes.
The continuum of gender imbalance in China has resulted in a reduced labor force growth. The slowed growth in labor force sheds light on “Lewis turning point” and beyond this point there is perceived to be a slow progression in the transition from rural to urban. This subsequently places constraint on future growth. The Chinese nonetheless have a higher preference for sons rather than girls and this can be traced back to the patrilineal system of Han Chinese (Li, 2007).
As a result of the bias towards the boy-child, there are unequal opportunities and rights for the girl-child in education and subsequently in employment. This is augmented by Wang Xia’s: head of China’s National Population and Family Planning Commission, statement, “the bias against females in economic, social and cultural fields is still the root cause of the current gender imbalance” (Golley & Tyers, 2012).
The high preference for the boy-child has given rise to sex selective abortion, a fact that is well acknowledged by the Chinese government as stated by Wang Xia, “the authorities will crack down further on illegal prenatal gender tests and selective abortions, which are believed to be the primary causes of the gender imbalance” (Golley & Tyers, 2012). The Chinese have a very low regard for the girl-child and women; hence, the reason why policies such as 1.5 child policy was introduced, which equates a girl-child to half.
The gender imbalance is believed to pose a great challenge on the social lives of the People Republic of China (PRC) as crime, mercenary marriage, prostitution and abduction of women set in. According to Edlund, Li, Yi & Zhang (2010), an escalation of 0.01 in sex ration led to a 3% rise in property and violent crimes. The realization that a higher preference for the boy-child is associated with high costs has led to counteractive measures meant to redress gender imbalance in China.
China has been labelled as an epitome of gender inequality. Women lack a stable position in employment as more than half of the formal jobs are given to men. Women on the other hand are overwhelmed by domestic chores of taking care of the family, housework and cooking (Fincher, 2013).
In the case of looming unemployment crisis, there have been campaigns urging women to return home and create room for men to take up employment because of the apparent traditional gender roles. The common belief is that women should stay at home while the men are take part in the public affairs.
In China, it becomes very difficult for a woman who has left her career for any reason to get rehired later on. According to Fincher (2013), from the New York Times, one woman had a child at 33 and had to take a leave from her career as an art director. After taking care of her baby for some years, she decided to go back to her career but unfortunately she did not manage to find a job and this is evident in her reiteration statement, “I am very worried about my future because it is so difficult for a woman my age to find work” (Fincher, 2013).
The propaganda of leftover women is stigmatizing to women at the age of 27, who are still aiming to excel in their careers. As a result of all these gender issues, women are opting to forego their dreams of becoming educated and instead are opting for marriage.
The role of gender in defining Chinese cultural identity has also been discussed by Chang through the peacock dance. The Dai peacock dance has transited since the 1950s to 2006, and in its transformations, various elements of change have been embodied in its choreography and practice. The female body is used to decipher these transformations.
In synonymous to use of old cultural practices and ethnic minority identities to promote Chinese national identity, the female dancing body is an emblem of “racial ideas, gender issues and nationalism” (Chang, 2008). The reason why the female dancing body is used is because of the associated transition that has been realized in solving feminine related issues as discussed above. The most interesting feature of Chinese identity as described by Chang is its unique ability to survive regardless of Cultural Revolution.
Globalization and Chinese identity
When China endorsed the implementation of the adoption law in 1991, globalization became a reality since exchange of people, information and resources could take place between countries. Globalization has led to a change in practically every dimension of the Chinese identity. Initially, a communist society, now with its commitment to globalization, China has become a capitalist nation.
As a result of globalization, China is now an industrialized country and market-oriented. Globalization is associated with westernization, which is Americanization, and infringement of western values on other cultures. Globalization, which promotes adoption, heightens identity crisis of the Chinese as adopted children yearn to trace back their heritage in a foreign land (Fischler, n. d.).
Globalization has been a heated topic in Beijing for the past years, focusing on its relationship with culture. Chinese scholars were very much concerned about the myth around globalization because of the attachment placed to their local cultures.
It is however interesting to realize that in China, globalization took a different effect. As a result of globalization, global capital expansion has been realized and this has led to the development of a new kind of international division of labor. China has greatly benefited from economic globalization because it is a hub for production (Ning, 2007).
Chinese literature has been continually progressing towards globalization. Western cultural trends and academic thoughts have invaded China and gradually eroded China’s long history of nationalism. As a result of the strong wave of globalization, Chinese scholars paid little attention to using globalization to their own advantage, by making the Chinese known to the outside world.
As if embracing western culture and systems was not enough, globalization continued to take a toll on Chinese culture as Confucius temples became destroyed and some of the positive elements of Confucianism were thrown away (Ning, 2007). Regardless of the erosion of the Chinese culture due to globalization, China is one of the countries that has greatly benefited economically due to globalization.
Despite the fact that Confucianism was greatly criticized as an impediment to attainment of development in modern China, it has recently gained access into the people’s lives. Both individuals and the Chinese government are bent on reviving Confucianism but from a different angle.
Confucius will be symbolic of traditional Chinese language and culture but short of the Confucianist doctrines. The current cultural situation of Chinese is pseudo-Chinese because theoretical discourses are not original. They are either borrowed or mere translations from the West. Even though there are attempts to revive Confucianism, it can only thrive if incorporated into the current contemporary society (Liu, 2004).
It is worth noting that in today’s government policy of promoting a harmonious society, Confucianism is being revived. Confucianism is held dear to all Chinese; hence, the reason why modern Chinese scholars are making attempts to reconstruct it and promote it in an acceptable form throughout the world.
This is actually working because Chinese has recently become a very popular language and it is assumed that in time, it will be second to English (Ning, 2007). There have been similarities depicted from Neo-Confucianism and postmodernism in China in that in both, the totalitarian discourse of modernity has been deconstructed to provide the Chinese with an alternative modern form compatible with Chinese characteristics.
As a result of the global economy, some Chinese have been forced to immigrate to other countries such as Canada. The shift in cultural values and beliefs has led to the liberalism, enabling the Chinese to voluntarily immigrate to other countries. Even while outside of China, maintenance of a Chinese identity is deemed important. Three institutions are largely involved in the maintenance of Chinese identity and these are “social and business networks, Chinese-language education systems and Chinese-language media” (Tamang, 2008).
As a result of this, new cultural images of the Chinese ethnic and cultural identities have been borne. The images related to Chinese culture are spread over the country and abroad in the world wide web. As a result of differences in socio-economic and educational backgrounds, some of the Chinese immigrants do not access these Chinese images hence this is shown to give rise to a new global economic hierarchy among immigrant groups (Tamang, 2008).
Chinese-language electronic media products have recently gained access to the global market and this has further redefined the Chinese identity in the culture of the immigrant Chinese. This is attributed to the fact that the some of the images broadcasted pose a certain difficulty for the Chinese immigrants who are trying to comprehend what relates to Chinese culture and what does not. One could now identify three evident versions in the world wide web of what could be called Chinese.
The first is related to Communism alongside its political ideology of socialism, in particular the loyalty to this regime and the feel of belonging to it. Secondly, Chinese identity is associated with being a part of Han ethnicity (Tamang, 2008). Thirdly is that the Chinese identity is closely knitted with Confucianism, a prominent feature of Chinese culture.
Culture and Chinese cultural identity
The elderly in one of the parks in Wuhan, Hubei Province gather together to greet the day through song and dance. The elderly are worried about the modernity that has imposed on the Chinese traditional values. The elderly think that the young Chinese people have abandoned their culture and the fact that schools and teachers do not talk about tradition makes it worse.
The young people prefer to visit the gym instead of giving patronage to the elderly in the continuum of traditional values (McGivering, 2005). Even though the culture of the modern world is changing, it is possible to have a unique Chinese identity that embraces the new without throwing away the old.
The culture in China is very imperative in defining the prevailing Chinese identity. This is especially the case with reference to Chinese nationalism. Chinese culture has been an integral element of globalization, development and progress. At no one time has the Chinese culture been abandoned, instead it has undergone a paradigm shift from traditional culture to modern culture. This is seen in the bulldozing of traditional houses to make way for modern blocks.
However, cultural preservation has been at the frontline as some individuals make attempts to stop destruction of traditional representations of old culture. The old houses are associated with a sense of belonging as individuals attempt to familiarize and associate themselves with the practices of the olden days. That is why individuals are willing to buy old-style houses as a way of preserving the Chinese identity.
In spite of globalization and changing world, cultural heritage is greatly valued among the Chinese. This is important for the economic domain in China because the strong cultural background makes China a tourist center. Cultural festivals are also held as a way of acknowledging and promoting cultural identity. In the recent years, as a result of contradictory in elements defining national culture, there has been a transformation towards Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism (Mei & Zhenzhi, 2006).
There have been various traditional rituals that have been conducted in memorial services in reverence to “Confucius and Yan and Huang, both of whom were legendary Chinese founders” (Mei & Zhenzhi, 2006). Visits to Buddha’s finger bones are permitted through sacred tours.
More attention is accorded to traditional holidays which include: Lantern Festival, Moon Festival, Dragon Boat Festival and Chinese New Year. Various individuals have been at the frontline in the transitions towards Confucianism such that houses are built while incorporating the Confucius style.
Regardless of the fact that there has been a distortion of the national culture, it persists to be displayed as coherent especially in the national TV system. This presentation of cultural uniformity tends to hide the eminent regional variety within China. For instance, besides having 55 ethnic minorities, there are diverse local cultures in Han only.
Every Chinese individual possesses a regional identity due to variation in cultural values. Each region has its own unique “language, heritage sites, famous persons, regional customs, native crops, landscape and cuisine” (Mei & Zhenzhi, 2006). The Chinese culture is labelled as unique and captivating because of richness and diversity in its regional cultures.
Unfortunately, the rich and diverse cultural aspect of China is not shown on China’s television. The Chinese government is against the use of vernacular on local screen, but some ethnic minorities have the liberty to host TV programmes in their local dialects. The inconsistency and show of favour for some local dialect has led to contestation over dialect programming.
The legal structure in China was a triggering precipitating factor in adoption of Chinese daughters by U. S. families. The one-child policy led to the abandonment of female babies to orphanages since they were of insignificant value to the Chinese society. The Chinese identifies the male child to be the successor and bearer of the family name. The girl-child on the other hand is regarded as a misfortune. This cultural practice embedded in the legal framework takes a toll on the social and economic progress on China.
Not everything has been lost due to modernism. Something to smile about is the improved relationships between man and wife in a marriage. Initially, the main reason for marriage was to get an heir in the form of a son and that was it.
Nowadays things are different as the fact that few individuals recognize the essence of a daughter in the same light as a son is a good sign. The preference for a son has had a negative implication on the country because the government spends millions of dollars in attempts to shift the preferences (Branigan, 2011).
Conclusion
According to this discussion, it is obvious that the Chinese identity has been greatly attacked and forced to undergo metamorphosis. Changes have been realized right from the one-child policy, which interferes with the moral and social values of the Chinese people, to the destruction of cultural values due to globalization.
The woman has been sidelined and seen as unimportant. When a woman becomes empowered to the extent of securing a very decent and well-paying job, she is perceived as a threat to the man and this evidently shows the chauvinistic position of the Chinese society. Various cultural aspects strongly stand out that define the Chinese identity and these are communism, Han ethnicity and Confucianism.
Chang, T. (2008). Choreographing the peacock: Gender, ethnicity and national identity in Chinese ethnic dance. Web.
Edlund, L., Li, H., Yi, J., & Zhang, J. (2007). Sex ratios and crime: evidence from China’s one-child policy. Bonn: Institute for the Study of Labor.
Fischler, L. Yuan Fen: Fortuitous Connections, Gender, and Chinese Identity Transnationally. Web.
Golley, J., & Tyers, R. (2012). China’s gender imbalance and its economic performance. Web.
Li, S. (2007). Imbalanced sex ratio at birth and comprehensive interventions in China. Paper presented at the 4th Asia Pacific Conference on Reproduction and Sex Health and Rights. India: Hyderabad.
Liu, K. (2004). Globalization and Cultural Trends in China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
McGivering, J. (2005). Fears for China’s cultural identity. BBC NEWS. Web.
Mei, W., & Zhenzhi, G. (2006). Globalization, national culture and the search for identity: A Chinese dilemma. Web.
Ning, W. (2007). Constructing Chinese National and Cultural Identities in the age of Globalization. Situations, 1, 26-43.
Tamang, R. (2008). Negotiating Chinese identity in the internet age. Asian Social Science, 4(11), 8-12.
The common sense scientists disprove claims from physics discipline. Albert Einstein laid the foundation for two successful theories that have withstood the taste of time over one hundred years of experimental tests. His theory of annus mirabilis, which deals with quantum mechanics, was explained in the two theories. The string theory and cosmological external inflation are two theories that common sense defenders do not agree with.
They do not agree with the fact that an electron can exist at two different places on the earth at the same time. In their counter argument, the physicists have labeled common sense as an impediment to the progress of the discipline of physics. The common sense defenders are also against the procedure where only scientists can judge their fellow scientists. They also do not agree with theories that they term profundity.
The common sense scientists define their profession as one that has the ordinary, nonspecialized knowledge of judgment and that it has the ability to judge the work of scientists. Failure by scientists to find a common ground on Einstein’s theory of quantum mechanics has been a subject of argument by the common sense defenders. They claim that the varied approach used by scientists to explain the theory has only served to elicit profundity.
The common sense defenders observe that scientists should come up with a single common stand to explain the theory. Their argument is that the two theories cannot stand any convincing experiment on earth. They have put forward two reasons to support their stand. The first is that the parallel universe is far apart and the second reason is that the membrane strings are too small to be manufactured by any manufacturing company. According to them, it becomes impractical to perform these experiments (Gray, 1921).
The common science find human beings to be very unpredictable and as having diverse personalities. It is therefore very difficult to trace their behavior. In other words, a number of reasons determine their behavior. In this argument, they refute some facts posed by the theories of evolution, genetics, and inheritance.
They disagree with the God-gene theory. The idea that the human spirituality stems from a specific snippet of DNA and that the birth order has a strong impact on personality lacks strong evidence of defense. They disagree with claims that the first-born tends to be conformists while the last-born children is likely to be rebellious (Parson, 1915).
The common sense defenders demand that scientists must proof every bit of their theories in a systematic way. They explain that putting forward theories that include oedipal complex, conditioned reflexes, genes, and the evolutionary adaptation do not make sense. The theories tend to explain human behavior without giving empirical tests. The common sense is so strong and only special to human beings because even computers developed by scientists lack the human basic intelligence. This indicates that they do not have common sense.
It is argued that the stand taken by common sense defenders have not received the attention deserved because of a few reasons. Among the reasons is that most of these facts come from people who are not natural scientists. Some are philosophers, others are journalists, and others are specialists in literature. It is assumed that they lack the knowledge to carry out any test. They engage in a field that does not affect them.
References
Gray, A. (1921). Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism. London: MacMillan.
Parson, L. (1915). Magneton Theory of the Structure of the Atom. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, 65(11), 1-80.
The two traditional disciplines that will be analyzed are agriculture and genetics while the interdisciplinary one is biotechnology. The new field has come of age as it now has the potential to solve the problem of world hunger.
Overlap between the new discipline and the traditional ones
Agriculture is one of the natural sciences that contributed to the interdisciplinary yield of biotechnology. Players in the agricultural industry have always engaged in certain practices that have inspired stakeholders in biotechnology. For instance, agriculturalists have been engaging in selective breeding for a long time. This is the process of taking closely related species and breeding them with the expectation that their offspring will possess the desirable characteristics.
Likewise, biotechnologists also do breeding but unlike agriculturists who consider similar varieties, they can get genes from very different species types. In genetic engineering, which is a key component of the field of biotechnology, scientists can use DNA from unrelated specimens. For instance, they may obtain DNA from viruses, a plant, and an animal.
This DNA will then be biochemically combined to create a gene construct that may consist of five or more sources. Afterwards, the construct is replicated in bacteria and then injected into a plant species at its embryonic phase. These injections may be administered on a number of embryos in order to increase their chances of survival. Only a few of the targeted plants will grow into a full organism.
Therefore, the main area of overlap between agriculture and biotechnology is selectivity in breeding. However, agriculturists respect the evolutionary origin of the targeted species while biotechnologists do not restrict themselves in this regard. They may take genes from a plant and place them in an animal and vice versa (Fergelson et al., 1998).
Agriculturalists and biotechnologists both depend on certain biological processes for the creation of products. In agriculture, individuals perpetuate the growth of new crops and animals through asexual and sexual reproduction. These are all biological processes that can be easily understood and manipulated.
Similarly biotechnologists depend on biological processes to create their own outcomes. The main area of difference is the nature of biological processes chosen. Agriculturalists depend on conventional processes while biotechnologists use genetic promoters to transfer the new genetic material into the host species.
For instance, a desirable gene from a different plant may be inserted into a target plant using a virus as the transporter. The purpose of using a third-party organism is to get the genetic material to penetrate and integrate into areas that would have been conventionally rejected (Lorenz and Wackernagel, 1994). Therefore, these two fields manipulate biological processes in different ways thus explaining the unpredictable nature of some products in biotechnology.
The second traditional discipline is genetics which has a number of similarities with biotechnology. Geneticists focus on DNA and its subsequent functions. This may sometimes involve genetic manipulation, where genes extracted from one organism enter another. Techniques used in genetics are useful in regulating genes, altering their functions and structure.
Likewise in biotechnology, genes are often manipulated in the same way to create new products for human use (Demain & Adrio, 2012). For instance, antibodies are created using recombinant technology, and one such example is penicillin. Therefore, these two schools of thought are similar in the way they depend on genetic manipulation and DNA recombination.
Genetics differs from biotechnology because all concerns in genetics revolve around genes while biotechnology may consist of non gene element. In this regard, tissues, cells and whole organizations may also be studied and used by scientists in this field. Unlike geneticists, who do not adopt such a holistic approach, biotechnologists may work on plant tissue or seed production for hybridization purposes.
A typical example of how non genetic biotechnology has been applied is the alcohol industry, where microorganisms are used to make products. Additionally, microorganisms create useful products such as vitamins and organic acids (Friedman, 2008). Therefore, the main difference between genetics and biotechnology is its focus on other non-genetic processes. Geneticists only restrict themselves to DNA procedures.
New discoveries and techniques emerging from the new discipline
Biotechnologists have discovered ways of imparting new and desirable traits into other species. This has been applied in medicine, agriculture, industrial production and many other aspects of the economy. Sometimes the process may lead to production of a genetically superior product or it may create a situation in which species have higher chances of survival in their respective environments (National Academy of Sciences, 2001).
Biotechnologists are also working on processes that are designed to protect various species from predators. In this regard, they can inject a certain gene into the host species and this would make it lethal to the predator. The method holds a lot of promise in agriculture.
Some new processes are being developed to slightly modify the characters of certain species. For instance, if they predominantly contained a certain chemical element, then they can be genetically altered so as to change their internal make up.
How the technology could be used to solve the problem of GMOs and food
Biotechnology is already making an impact in the area of agriculture by availing genetically modified foods. Over the past two decades, the quantity of commercial crops that have emerged from the field of biotechnology has been quite impressive.
As mentioned in the previous section, the transference of certain characteristics from one species to another in biotechnology can assist individuals in production of crops with high yield. It should, however, be noted that currently, most GMOs do not increase crop yield; genetic interventions largely causes crops to cope with their external conditions.
In the future, it is likely that biotechnology will assist in making better GMOs, which can directly increase crop yield (James, 1999). Currently, GMOs hold a lot of promise in tackling world hunger because they can transfer virus resistance of certain crops to edible varieties and this prevents their destruction.
A case in point is genetically modified rice that can resist the yellow mottle virus. This disease has wiped out several crops in third world countries, so the GMO species could really assist the third world. Biotechnologists are yet to develop other plant varieties that can deal with excess salinity in soil or other difficult environmental conditions. However, the possibility of this occurring is high.
The technique of making certain species lethal against their predators has greatly assisted in wading off unwanted insects in various GMOS. For instance, a bacterium called Bt is a natural insecticide owing to its toxins (Thieman & Palladino, 2008).
Biotechnologists have found a way of injecting genes from the bacterium into corn. As a result, insects that try to feed on the genetically modified corn will immediately stop eating and die. The biotechnological technique has eliminated the need for chemical weed control, which has numerous costs and effects on the corn plantation.
Similarly, this approach has also been used to make crops more resistant to herbicides. Therefore, such crops do not die or encounter injuries during weed management. In fact, the most prevalent application of biotechnology in food cultivation is the use of herbicide resistant and insect resistant GMOs. These have protected farmers from loss and made foods available in large quantities (Martineau, 2001).
Scientists are working on methods that will alter the protein quality of maize. As mentioned earlier, biotechnologists have developed techniques designed to alter the chemical composition of certain species. In this case, maize, which predominantly consists of carbohydrates as its main components, has now been genetically altered to contain elements of protein (Walsh, 2000).
This type of GMO could assist many starving populations around the world. A number of children in third world countries are malnourished because all they can eat is maize. If they get GMOs that have been altered to contain proteins, then they would get two forms of nutrition from one plant. These nutrients could protect many poor children from kwashiorkor, which is a protein-deficiency disease.
Regardless of all these benefits, a number of protests have been made against the proliferation of GMOs, especially in the developing world where it is needed most. Some of these individuals affirm that western nations are damping untested GMOs in their countries and this could harm their genetic pool.
Biotechnology holds a lot of promise for starving populations around the world. However, in order to benefit from these initiatives, concerned scientists and governments must instate rigorous testing programs and standards (Borlaug, 2000). Unless safety measures are established, then biotechnologists will not make an impact on global hunger.
Conclusion
The disciplines of agriculture and genetics utilize methods and approaches that have led to the development of biotechnology. However, the multidisciplinary approach of the subject has increased the options and techniques available to scientists. Now new traits can be transferred to products and food resistance can be increased. This has the effect of increasing food availability.
References
Borlaug, N. (2000). Ending world hunger: The promise of biotechnology and the threat of antiscience zealotry. Plant Physiology, 124(2), 487-490.
Demain, A. & Adrio, J. (2012). Essential role of genetics in the advancement of biotechnology. Methods Mol Biol, 898, 1-40.
Fergelson, J., Purrington, C. and Wichmann, G. (1998). Promiscuity in transgenic plants. Nature, 395, 25.
Friedman, Y. (2008). Building biotechnology: starting, managing, and understanding biotechnology companies. Washington, DC: Logos Press.
James, C. (1999). Global review of commercialized transgenic crops. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotechnology Applications Brief, 12, 55-60.
Lorenz, M. and Wackernagel, W. (1994). Bacterial gene transfer by natural genetic transformation in the environment. Microbial Reviews, 58, 563-602.
Martineau, B. (2001). First fruit: the creation of the flavr savr tomato and the birth of biotech food. New York: McGraw-Hill.
National Academy of Sciences (2001). Transgenic plants and world agriculture. Washington: National Academy Press.
Thieman, W. & Palladino, M. (2008). Introduction to biotechnology. NY: Benjamin Cummings.
Walsh D. (2000, March 30). America finds ready market for genetically modified food: the hungry. The Independent, 15.
The Gulf States have had very depressing consequences as far as the continued existence of the native species is concerned. For instance, in these states, the most common indigenous variety of animals in the gulf is the sea mammals.
The most common indigenous marine mammal is the Dugongs that are always referred to as the sea cows due to their grazing abilities as well as their meek manner of similarities to the farm animals (Al-Maslamani, et al., 2007). Further, the animals share a number of similarities with humans ranging from life expectancy to the height of about 3 meter tall. In addition, there are very clearly comparable hereditary likeness betweens the sea cows and the land mammals.
The genetic resemblances in the dugongs to the land mammals are more seeable as compared to other marine mammals such as whales and dolphins. However, despite the easy diet on grass, the marine animals also depend on other food types found along the gulf shoreline.
The habitats of the indigenous marine animals have been adversely affected by the modern developments along the shoreline (Al-Aarajy, 2011). The Gulf States have continued with their urban expansions along the shoreline, which is the major habitat for the indigenous marine animals.
For instance, the continued artificial island developments taking place along the gulf coast. As a result, the existence of the indigenous animals has been adversely affected by pollution arising from the oil spillages as well as uncontrolled hunting of the Dugongs (Al-Aarajy, 2011). As such, the current numbers of these native animals continue to decline with no clear knowledge on the present number and the reproductive tendency.
Causes of the extinction of the indigenous animals
The development of gas and oil industries along the coastlines of the gulf countries has had major contribution on the extinction of the indigenous species. For instance, oil refinery as well as other effluents has heavy metals and drilling mud that pose very great threats to the marine creatures (Al-Aarajy, 2011).
In addition, these industries discharge very hot water into the sea thereby increasing the temperature of water and thus making life unbearable for the species in the sea. Further, the industries channel their effluent in the sea and this has a negative effect on the existence of the species. As a result, this leads to the destruction of coral reefs and hence making survival unbearable to the species (Al-Aarajy, 2011).
The development of agriculture has also caused immense threats to the extinction of the indigenous species. For example, using fertilizers local eutrophication is guaranteed. In addition, saline intrusion and use of insecticides such as DDT pose very great threats to the lives of the species (Dunford et al., 2008). In addition, there has been a great reduction in the number of indigenous species in the gulf countries because of fishing and hunting of these animals.
In other words, through fishing there is the decline of the species as well as the degradation of habitats. In addition, the desalination and seawater treatment plants carry with them heavy metals with high temperatures as well as other chemicals that offer very unbearable conditions for survival to the animals (Edwards & Richardson, 2004). As such, the numbers of the indigenous animals continue to die due to unfavorable conditions in their habitats.
Another cause of the extinction of the indigenous arises from oil pollution. Due to the numerous number of offshore oil together with gas platforms or terminals for large tankers and ships that transport this oil, a huge damage has been done to the marine habitat. A higher percentage of this oil is transported by ship.
As a result, numerous threats are posed to the animals in the sea ranging from the spillage through discharge of dirty ballast waters to tank washing. All these have negative effects on the existence of the organisms because they contain toxic chemicals that are dangerous to their survival. In addition, studies have shown that oil pollution relates to about 0.5-1.51%of total organic carbon and this result in alterations of the populations of the animals (Edwards & Richardson, 2004).
Further, the development of power generating plants also has adverse impacts on the survival of the animals. In other words, these power plants discharge harmful effluents in the sea and as a result, there is the deposition of acidic solutions to the sea. Consequently, there is the increase in the generation of greenhouse gases and global warming (Edwards & Richardson, 2004).
All these have adverse impacts on the survival of the sea cows. Moreover, the degradation of reefs because of anchor damages caused by recreation also has deplorable consequences on the existence of the indigenous species. The establishments of shipping ports contribute to land reclamation as well as sedimentation. As a result, there is habitat loss.
Actions that should be taken to prevent further loss and increase their numbers
To evade extra loss of the indigenous marine animals particularly the dugongs, improving the gulf set of connections of the protected areas along the coast is very significant.
The development has the capability of re-instilling the functionality as well as healthy nature of the indigenous animals’ growth (Edwards & Richardson, 2004). On that hand, curbing of the risks that are likely to face the productive habitations is feasible. In addition, close monitoring of the protected areas along the coast is also an effective solution to counteract the current and the probable risks.
In other words, coming up with long term perspectives and accepted policy approaches by the Gulf States are key to guarantee economic maintenance as well as natural balance . The approaches can be achieved through coming up with stronger environmental deliberations as well as increasing sharing of data related to the indigenous animals within relative government branches to ensure massive network of diverse schemes.
Developing robust as well as resilience roadmap is fundamental in addressing the issues related to understanding the extra shocks and disturbances posed to the ecosystem (Dunford et al., 2008). As a result, there is a reduction of damages to the indigenous animals. In addition, synergistic researches have advocated to the integration of long term as well as the past information about the gulf. Moreover, the establishment of artificial seawaters in salt of low ecological importance is vital in balancing the degraded coastal systems.
To avoid the loss of the numbers, all the schemes should consider assessing the current, existing as well as potential ventures as a unit. Recent studies emphasize on the threat posed by the oil fields as well as gas reserves found in the coastlines on the Gulf States (Burt et al., 2009). In other words, the oil cause reserves lead to coast dredging, infilling as well as conversion of shallow waters into land. As a result, all these factors pose very great threats to lose of habitats as well as the animals as a whole.
References
Al-Aarajy, M. J. (2011). Some observations on accidental fish mortality in the northwest Arabian Gulf. Marine Mesopotania Special Issue, 16(4), 431–439.
Al-Maslamani, I., LeVay, L., Kennedy, H. & Jones, D. A. (2007). Feeding ecology of the grooved tiger shrimp Penaeus semisulcatus De Haan Decapada: Penaeidae in inshore waters of Qatar, Arabian Gulf. Marine Biology, 150(16), 627–637.
Burt, J. A., Bartholomew, A., Bauman, A. & Sale, P. (2009). Coral recruitment and early benthic community development on common materials used in the construction of artificial reefs. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 373(23), 72–78.
Dunford, R. W., Ginn, T. C. & Desvousges, W. H. (2008). The use of habitat equivalency analysis in natural resource damage assessments. Ecological Economics, 48(16), 49–70.
Edwards, M. & Richardson, A. J. (2004). Impact of climate change on marine pelagic phenology and trophic mismatch. Journal of Nature, 430(11), 881–884.
Even though it might seem as a minor part of the environment, rain and heavy snowfall can become quite problematic with an increase in their quantity. Stormwater and its drainage have been a part of the management system, as sometimes, the consequences might become severe for the geography of the place and its surrounding area. Cities have developed many systems of control but nonetheless, there are cases that are out of human reach.
An important part of stormwater drainage is the way it interacts with the environment and how it is controlled. The design of the system can have a great effect on how the water is contained.
The primary and major influence that stormwater might have on the surrounding area is flooding. Water has a great force and impact, if it is not contained and so, runoff must be controlled at all stages. Not only rainfall can cause flooding but melting snow and changes to the rivers, lakes and in some cases, oceans can become a problem. Another issue attained to stormwater is pollution.
As the water moves through an area it collects all sorts of residue and pollutants along the way. Pesticides, oil, bacteria and other city garbage is all picked up and carried to one location. The connection between many waterways affects the public areas but also the life of organisms in the body of water. The public safety becomes a concern when the runoff water causes erosion.
There is much danger when the debris is carried around and can cause blockages or unsafe conditions. But more importantly, is that storm waters can pool in certain areas and become a drowning hazard. There have been many cases when large amounts of water have severely affected roads and other structures, causing a collapse in the base of roads, bridges and buildings. Mud slides are known to inflict major damage to buildings and large populated areas (Butler 2010, p. 56).
As the factors of the storm waters are studied, the control and management become more efficient. A key feature of the landscape architecture is to make sure that the water is used in the most beneficial way for the people and environment.
Sometimes, the circumstances of water damage are hardly predictable and so, a lot of future planning must be done. The environment is very sensitive to the overflowing waters, as it influences top soil and the living ecosystem. The surface of the ground is particularly affected when the roots of grass and plants are washed off.
The roots of trees lose connection to the ground and become largely unstable. Even though nature has established a balance between the amount of water and plants, sometimes it becomes hard to control. Not only there are natural causes but humanity has also impacted the way water circulates. When the ground gets largely saturated with water it has an immediate result, the density affected becomes unstable and connection of the physical entity is lost.
In response to the effects of flooding cities has developed numerous systems of control and containment. The most basic feature is drainage. Since the water affects a large area the drainage system has to be spread out. Both industrial and residential areas of a town must have sufficient amount of drains to allow for water collection.
The sewage system is designed specifically to collect as much rain and other runoff water as possible. It is also made in such a way, as to allow for any solid material to be included in the potential containment. There are several classifications of the placement and chains of water drainage and control. The first one is internal and consists of the arrangement inside buildings and other human made structures. It is used to deliver water to the external waterways.
The outside system is used to collect and deliver water to the places where it is either collected temporarily, stored indefinitely or is cleaned for further usage. There is a division in the types of water management according to its destination. The storm water is a great resource for agriculture and so, it is cleaned and stored, whereas water for industrial uses is sent to plants and industrial areas (Marsalek 2001, p. 7).
The circulation of water in nature is very much dependant on rains and further movement of water. Rivers play a great role in the environment and the geographical changes to the close by landscape. The existing departments of water control have a structure of development and functioning of the rain water.
The basins of rivers and regional waterways are included in the planning system, as the state of readiness must always be present in relation to such a force. The rain water and flooding danger do not have a specific area of impact, so the trans-regional geographical strategy is best in controlling and predicating the outcomes.
There are some physical limitations, as to the traditional systems of control which were developed in response to the water danger and its behavior in an area. A close communication and cooperation between different nations and countries is essential to the control and preservation of the natural environment, as well as safety of the population.
As previously mentioned, snow is another source of water that can cause significant damage to the area (Hudson 1993, p. 30). Usually, a great amount of snowfall and its further collection in a certain area leads to problems. Often, the city authorities will devote a specific area where it is collected and mostly, it is designated to be outside the city limits.
At the times of heavy snowfall, the amount of melted snow might add to seasonal changes and rainfall will greatly increase runoff. There are countries that have developed a system where snow is collected and stored for future practical uses but the majority of nations do not have resources to properly deal with excess water.
Overall, the major issues connected to the drainage systems and their management is the predictability and control of water. The modeling that is involved is a science that bases itself on the modification of the design in relation to the conditions that are present at a particular time and place.
The geography plays a major role, as the natural resources of the area can be largely used for the containment of the water. The transformation of rivers and waterways to include dams and channels will help in the direction and storage of stormwater. There are numerous tests that must be carried out prior to any changes to the environment, as water is a force that can have a great influence on the area. The topography and vegetation can be used to aid in the containment and channeling of unneeded water.
It is important to keep in mind that the capacity of the soil has to precisely managed, as there is a limit to the amount of absorption. Human activity and changes to the landscape have changed the cycle of water but at the same time, many problems with run off and storm waters have been solved. Certain natural and unnatural materials, like gravel, sand or even metal can be used to deal with precaution procedures and control (Beven 2012, p.27).
The science of water control has been a part of human history for a long time. Because people have always settled near rivers and other sources of water, flooding has been a constant problem. A close study of types of soil, evaporation and water absorption has helped better understand the movement of water through nature. The impact that flooding has had on countries is well known and cannot be undermined. Modern technologies have focused on the construction of best preventative and control measures for drainage of water.
The intricate system of sewage and pipelines has allowed for channeling of water without significant changes to the geography of the area but it has also created opportunities for accidents and loss of control. The extra water that has been ignored and management systems affected by malpractice and improper functioning have given rise to casualties and considerable damage.
There is no denying that the linkage between urbanization and natural systems very much controls and affects the way water is distributed within human and ecological world. It is a force that cannot be ignored and misused.
References
Beven, K 2012, Rainfall-Runoff Modelling: The Primer, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken
Butler, D 2010, Urban Drainage. Taylor & Francis, New York.
Hudson, N 1993, Field Measurement of Soil Erosion and Runoff. Food & Agriculture Org, Bedford.
Marsalek, J 2001, Advances in urban stormwater and agricultural runoff source controls. Springer, Norwell.
Every sector of the economy depends on energy for production and other day-to-day activities. Arguably, transport sector is one of the sectors that highly depend on energy.
Each vessel of transportation uses one source of energy or the other. However, oil which is mostly used as a source of energy in the transport sector is non-renewable. In this regard, the campaign by environmentalists about the need to use renewable sources of energy which are environmentally friendly has led to the introduction of biofuel as a source of energy. Unfortunately, biofuel uses food crops in its production thus reducing the amount of food available for human consumption.
Moreover, food prices have increased drastically in recent years thereby becoming unaffordable especially for the poor people. Part of this increase has been attributed to use of biofuels. Consequently, there have been arguments as to whether measures should be taken to ensure that people do not die of hunger while food crops are used to produce biofuel.
With the trend of current use of energy, it is quite crucial that alternative sources of energy are found. Fossil fuels which are majorly used in energy production are not only non-renewable, but also a source of environmental pollution. Consequently, it is quite crucial that other sources of energy which are environmentally friendly should be explored to reduce the effects of environmental degradation (Gasparators & Stromberg, 2012).
In Addition, a source of energy that will support future generations should be found or else we leave the future generation at the mercy of fate. Biofuels are thus very crucial because despite the fact that they are renewable and will therefore be sustainable in the long run, they do not pollute the environment.
It is important to note that production of biofuel does not only have advantages as its activists may want us to believe. Increase in use of biofuels has increased competition in food production. The amount of corn used in the production of ethanol has increased sharply in recent years.
On the same note, soybeans are also increasingly being used in production of biodiesel while their consumption as food is reducing. Unfortunately, increase in production of food is not proportionate to the increase in the quantity of food demanded. Consequently, prices have had to increase due to high demand (Scragg, 2009). This has reduced the ability of people especially the poor to afford food thus exposing them to danger of starvation.
Moreover, due to increased demand of corn and soybeans coupled with the good prices that these crops fetch, more and more farmers are dedicating their land to production of these crops. This has encouraged monocropping which has proved to be dangerous in the past.
It is important to note that planting one type of crop repeatedly in a place reduces fertility of the soil while at the same time it leads to resistant pests (Westhoff, 2010). Consequently, this reduces quantity of production in the long run. Though, these effects may take time to be felt, they will definitely affect future production.
Similarly, increased demand for production of ethanol and biodiesel has made farmers to look for farming ways through which they can increase their production.
As a result, farmers are using more aggressive methods of farming (Westhoff, 2010). These include; too much mechanization and increased use of fertilizers as well as pesticides. The result is soil depletion, increased soil erosion and environmental pollution. Therefore, contrary to the main aim of using biofuels which is to conserve the environment, biofuels contribute to environmental degradation.
Notably, biofuel accounts for a very minimal percentage of energy consumed in the world currently. Nevertheless, the amount of energy used in its production is far much higher than the amount of energy produced from biofuels.
However, biofuels are responsible for a very significant increase in the quantity of food consumed. Similarly, biofuels have affected biodiversity by encouraging people to rely on one crop farming. All these will affect the low income earners not only due to increased food prices, but also due to reduced choices (Scragg, 2009).
We all agree that renewable and eco-friendly sources of energy should be explored to ensure sustainability of energy in the future. However, increase in world population means that food production especially for human consumption should be increased, not decreased.
Much as biofuels have to be produced, steps should be taken to ensure that food security is achieved. It is very inhuman to produce food which is used for energy production while people are dying of hunger. Research should be done to increase the number of crops that can be used to produce biofuel (Gasparators & Stromberg, 2012).
Moreover, mixed farming should be encouraged so that the quantity of crops produced will be increased thus ensuring that food is always available. In addition, there is need to educate farmers that food can be produced for profits. This will ensure that people do not stop producing food because biofuel crops pay well. In a nutshell, the cost of biofuel should be balanced with the sacrifices made. If stakeholders do not take care, production of biofuel will jeopardize food security.
References
Gasparators, A. & Stromberg P. (2012). Socioeconomic and Environmental Impacts of Biofuels: Evidence from Developing Nations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scragg, A. H. (2009). Biofuels: Production, Application and Development. Wallingford: CABI.
Westhoff, P. (2010). The Economics of Food: How Feeding and Fueling the Planet Affects Food Prices. Upper Saddle River: FT Press.
Archeulian tools were associated with the Homo erectus. They had no level of specialization and could be used for a series of purposes that included butchering, hacking trees or many more.
Conversely, Levallion tools were linked to Neanderthal man. Levallion tools differed from earlier Archeulian tools because they required a lot more technology to manufacture them. Metin Eren had to learn the process of flint napping, and this took him several years. A further 18 months were sufficient to determine the strength and number of blows required for the work.
The Neanderthals were not just making a sharp object; they needed a flake whose shape would allow them to perform tasks using the least amount of effort. They had to make their blows as precise as possible in order to make the item symmetrical. Morphometrics, or the study of object shapes, allowed Eren to uncover this truth.
The key advantage of the Levallois flake was that it was easy to reuse owing to its symmetry. One could sharpen the tool quite easily. Furthermore, it allowed users to exert less pressure when making cuts, so they saved time and energy. Other stone flakes could not be reused easily and required a lot of force.
Adhesive materials
Neanderthals manufactured the adhesive they used in spears from birch trees. They made the first artificial pitch in this era. Experts like Wil Roebroeks have found that this species spent a lot of time to heat the bark of those trees. They had to determine the right amount of heat needed to create the adhesive because excessive amounts would have burnt the bark while minimal heat would not have produced the glue. It took Roerboeks and his team eight products to recreate the product using Neanderthal man’s tools.
Since the adhesive was not naturally found, but was manufactured, one can assert that Neanderthals were intelligent beings. They had the wits needed to formulate this process. Living Homo sapiens, who proceeded him, have not even been able to make as much of the adhesive as Neanderthals.
Roebroeks experiments did not yield sufficient adhesive to make a spear. This means that Neanderthals were sharp enough to figure out such a complex process. They worked with some of the most difficult apparatus and unfriendly conditions, yet they overcame those limitations. Such industriousness destroys the myth that they were brutish.
DNA and the FOXP2 gene
Scientists first found Neanderthal bone material from Croatia. The site would allow them to obtain DNA from three females. The investigators found out that Neanderthal man shared the same gene for language as man. This means that the species communicated through language.
Additionally, their investigations reveled that Neanderthals and man interbred. They had enough material to make them similar to man. Svante Paabo, together with a range of other geneticists, compared man’s genes with that of Neanderthals. They realized that the DNA in Neanderthal man was present in man. It accounted for between one and four percent of the Homo sapiens they analyzed. This indicates that interbreeding between the two species occurred and some of man’s descendants testify to this interbreeding.
The FOXP2 is the gene responsible for language. It is present in Homo sapiens thus testifying to their intelligence. The process reveals that Neanderthals had skills and abilities that testified to their brainpower.
Evidence of ritual behavior
Neanderthals used to decorate themselves as seen through cut marks on tail ends of birds found in their caves. They targeted birds that had minimal food value for aesthetic reasons. Additionally, they used seashells to adorn themselves. This was seen through holes in the shells as well as the presence of iron pigments in seashells. The latter was used to decorate or change the color of the shells. Other scientists like Zolhao have found colored minerals on horse bones,
Evidence also exists on Neanderthals’ burials of the dead. Some bones were found in Spain; they were in a fetal position. Their hands were close to their chest, and rocks covered them in a manner that indicated intent. This implies that they buried their dead.
Neanderthals similarity to man
John Hawks found that the degree to which Neanderthal genes were present in man differed from geographical area to geographical area. Homo sapiens from Europe had a much higher level of Neanderthal genes than say the Chinese. This indicates that interbreeding took place depending on where the two species interacted the most. The least interbreeding took place in Africa and China while the most was in Tuscany Italy.
Neanderthals may have become extinct as a result of absorption by a distinct species. The process took a relatively long time because interbreeding between the species was a prolonged event. Therefore, it is the breeding of these species that led to their extinction rather than the sudden elimination of Neanderthals. Many scientists assume that they were simply wiped out by a superior group. However, it is the outnumbering process that led to their elimination.
The article, titled “Justices Rule Human Genes cannot be Patented”, reports a ruling by the United States Supreme Court on a case between Myriad Genetics and other stakeholders who were fighting against Myriad’s claim for exclusive rights to patent human genes. The main point of the article, it seems, is that human genetic material cannot be patented because it is a product of nature rather than nurture.
The article, by quoting the justices of the Supreme Court, stresses that although scientists and biotechnologists may have the capacity to isolate the gene from the genetic material and use this break-through technology to prevent various diseases such as breast and ovarian cancer, they cannot claim patents for making the gene itself as this process occurs naturally.
In view of this point, the Supreme Court denied Myriad Genetics the exclusive rights to patent and own human genes, and stressed the fact that genes and the information they encode are not patent-eligible simply because a company has succeeded in isolating the genes from the surrounding genetic material.
The article is from a credible source as it has been published in a respected newspaper. Editors of newspapers such as USA Today always ensure the authenticity of content before publishing. Additionally, the author of the article often makes mention of his sources of information, further reinforcing the article’s credibility.
All the facts included in the article directly support the ruling that human genetic material cannot be patented because it is a product of nature rather than nurture.
For instance, it has been demonstrated how the health and wellbeing of breast and ovarian cancer patients will be jeopardized by monopolizing the human genes through giving one company exclusive patent rights. Arguably, the cost of seeking for treatment for such forms of cancer will definitely go up in spite of the fact that scientists have already identified the gene that normally dysfunction to trigger cancerous tumors.
Another supporting fact that has been explained in the article is that patenting of human genes may also limit research activities and advances in human genetics. Additionally, it has been acknowledged that genes and the information they encode are naturally occurring and hence no single individual or organization can claim a patent for their existence or perceived discovery. In short, genes and the information they encode cannot be termed as products of innovation.
In my view, there was no notable bias from the author of this article which is worth mentioning. Indeed, the researcher does well to balance the positive and the negative sides of the Supreme Court ruling. The positive elements have already been discussed in this paper.
However, on the negative elements, the author notes the historic ruling may create precedence whereby other biotechnology companies will be objecting to making huge investments in research due to incapacity to own the patents to protect their scientific discoveries. This is a valid concern that warrants closer scrutiny.
Overall, the major learning outcome is that human genes are naturally occurring and hence cannot be patented by any individual or organization. The second learning outcome is that genetic research is critical in dealing with the rampant cases of breast and ovarian cancer witnessed in the society today. Lastly, the idea of patenting scientific discoveries and the limits that one can go has been well explicated in the article.