Category: Sciences 2502

Bacteria have simple digestive systems whereby food is ingested and wastes are eliminated from the body through the cell membrane by use of the contractile vacuole by the process of simple diffusion. On the other hand human beings have a more developed digestive system with various organs being used to remove wastes for instance the skin, liver and anus. Therefore the main distinction between bacterial excretion and human digestive systems are the organs that are present in the humans that facilitate the removal of various wastes. Each organ in humans is adapted for excreting specific wastes for instance the liver is adapted for the removal of urea from the body. This is not the same case for bacteria which removes most of the wastes together. Specialization of organs for removal of wastes is not found in bacteria because of their simple body plan.

Bacteria such as amoeba eliminate nitrogenous wastes in form of ammonia which requires a lot of water for removal while humans excrete their nitrogenous wastes in the form of urine from the kidney nephrons. ( Bunnell, 1984).

Grasshoppers are underclass Insecta group of animals. Their digestive system differs from that of the human beings in some respects. First of all, insects possess structures called malpighian tubules that collect wastes such as ammonia, uric acid and faecal pellets from the gut and haemolymph for elimination. The malpighian tubules are not found in humans instead we have the liver, skin and anus for eliminating the waste products of digestion. In insects the nitrogenous wastes are eliminated in the form of uric acid while in the human beings the nitrogenous wastes are eliminated in form of Urine and urea in the sweat.

Fish have a very simple digestive system as compared to that of the humans. The fish have mouth sucking parts for ingesting food unlike the teeth in the humans.

The fish use their gills for removing some wastes from their bodies. Their nitrogenous wastes are in the form of ammonia and require water as they diffuse out of the gills. Other wastes in the fish are removed by the use of the kidneys that are adapted to filter wastes from the blood. Fish have structures called caeca in their digestive system and this structures absorb water before wastes are removed via the anal opening. These structures are not found in the complicated systems of humans.( Helfman , Collette & Facey 1997)

This is not the same case in the humans because the humans do not have gills and they do not use diffusion to remove their nitrogenous waste. Unlike ammonia the humans excrete urine from their well developed kidneys. The fish do not use their skin for excretion like the humans do. Fishes also do not remove solid wastes from digestion like the humans do via the anus.

The bear is a mammal in the family Ursidae. Their digestive system is similar to that of the human being. Differences only come in the They differ from human beings in terms of their dentition. The dentition in the Bear is different from that of the human being because of the food substances the two feed on. The digestive tract of a bear differs from that of the human being in terms of length particularly for structures such as the intestines. The human colon is more elaborate than that of a bear. This follows that the faecal excrement of the human will differ from that of the bear.

References

Bunnell, Fred (1984). Macdonald, D. ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts on File. pp. 87.

Helfman G., Collette B., & Facey D.: The Diversity of Fishes, Blackwell Publishing, p 3, 1997, Protists. Web.

Questions about Non-Parametric Procedures

Non-parametric tests are choice tests if the dataset does not assume normality in its distribution (for skewed data) (Field, 2009). In addition, data that does not heed to the assumption of homogeneity of variances calls for the use of non-parametric rather than parametric tests. The preference for non-parametric tests in place of parametric tests would also be based on the fact that non-parametric tests can give exact probabilities despite how the population from which the sample was taken is distributed. In addition, a non-parametric test is valuable for analyzing data with small samples sizes. When working with data that is classificatory, non-parametric tests become vary indispensable just as they are when working with data that is collected from a number of different populations. Data that is essentially arranged in ranks or data which gets more strength by arranging its numerical scores in ranks is suitably handled by non-parametric tests (Hebel, 2002).

Non-parametric tests are less powerful compared to their parametric counterparts, unless when testing significance when power is almost equal. The low power of non-parametric tests is attributed to the fact that the data is usually not normally distributed but instead, the data is skewed towards one direction. Parametric tests calculate their statistical power by use of formulas as well as dependence on tables as well as graphs and hence they have more power. On the other hand, non-parametric tests register a lower statistical power since power calculation is done in less straightforward approaches (Hebel, 2002).

Non-Parametric Tests for Parametric Versions

Wilcoxons Test

Table 1 indicates that there were 9 cases where creativity pre-test scores were greater than creativity post-test scores. In 28 cases, the creativity test scores were greater than creativity pre-test scores, and only in 3 cases were creativity pre-test scores equal to the creativity post-test scores. The Wilcoxons test was conducted to establish whether 40 students registered higher post-test scores than pre-test scores. It was identified that the difference between pre-test and post-test creativity scores were significantly different, Wilcoxons Z = -3.179, p =.001 (2-tailed significance) (Table 2). It was clear that post-test scores were significantly higher than creativity pre-test scores.

Mann Whitney U test

A new dataset (activity 5b.sav) was created from activity 5a.sav for use in between-subjects design. The new data set contained two variables only (creativity test scores while pre-test and post-test scores became the grouping variable). This new dataset was used to conduct a Mann-Whitney U test. A Mann Whitney U test was conducted on creativity test scores and it was identified that the average rank (pretest) scores were 36.22 whereas the mean rank scores for post-test scores were 44.78 (Table 3). This implies that creativity test scores conducted after the test tend to be higher than creativity test scores registered before the creativity test was conducted. Table 4 displays the Mann Whitney U which was conducted at a 2-tailed level of significance. The Mann Whitney U when applied to creativity test scores found that there existed no significant differences between the pre-test creativity scores and the post-test creativity scores, Mann Whitney U (N = 80) = 929.00, p =.10 which is greater than the significance level of.05.

Friedmans test

On conducting a Friedman test to find out differences in systolic and diastolic blood pressures based on the setting, the mean rank for systolic blood pressure was 3.00 while the mean rank for diastolic blood pressure was 2.00 (Table 5). The Friedman test was significant, Chi-Square (N = 30) = 60.00 p =.001 (Table 6). As a result, a Wilcoxon test was conducted as a follow-up test to enable pairwise comparisons and the Z score was significant, Wilcoxon Z = -4.784, p =.001 (Table 8). It was established that the median for systolic blood pressure was significantly greater than diastolic pressure, p <.05. In fact, in all the 30 cases (Table 7), the systolic blood pressure was higher than the diastolic blood pressure.

Kruskal-Wallis test

A Kruskal-Wallis test was performed to find out if there existed any differences between the three classroom sizes for math performance. The mean ranks for a classroom of 10 or fewer students were 43.02, 27.80 for 11 to 19 students, and 20.68 for a classroom of 20 or more students (Table 9). The Kruskal-Wallis test indicated that there were significant differences between the classroom sizes in math performance (Chi-Square (N = 60) = 17.197, p =.001) (Table 10).

Contingency Tables

A 2×2 cross-tabulation was conducted to determine the relationship between education (degree) and life. The actual count of less than high school respondents who viewed life as exciting was 52 whereas the expected count for the same was 77.0; high school respondents who viewed life as exciting were an actual count of 221 and an expected count of 226.7. On the other hand, the actual count of junior college or more respondents who viewed life as exciting was 162 whereas the expected count was 131.4. There was an actual count of 95 for respondents who had less than a high school education and viewed life as a routine with an expected count of 79.1. For high school students, there was an actual count of 242 who viewed life as a routine with an expected count of 232.9. There was an actual count of 110 for respondents who viewed life as a routine and had a junior college education or more whereas the expected count for the same was 135.0. Finally, the actual count of high school respondents who viewed life as dull was 17 while the expected count was 8.0. For high school students, the actual count of those who viewed life as dull was 20 with an expected count of 23.4. The actual count of respondents with at least a junior college education and who viewed life as dull were 8 and the expected count was 13.6 (Table 11).

The Pearson Chi-Square value for this analysis was 36.630, 2-tailed significance p =.001 at 4 degrees of freedom (Table 12). This value was significant and it was large enough to indicate that the null hypothesis is rejected as there are large differences between actual and expected counts for a degree (education) and perception of life. In other words, the two variables (education and perception of life) are not independent. The largest number of respondents who viewed life as exciting had at least a junior college education while a majority of those who viewed life as dull had a high school education (Figure 1).

References

Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS, Third edition. San Diego, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.

Hebel, A. (2002). Statistics-when to use them and which is more powerful? Lecture Notes. Department of Natural Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore.

Appendix

Table 1: Ranks for Creativity Pre- and Post-test Scores.

Table 2: Wilcoxons Test for Creativity Pre- and Post-test Scores.

Table 3: Ranks for Pre- and Post-Test Score.

Table 4: Mann Whitney U Test for Creativity Test Scores.

Table 5: Ranks for Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressures.

Table 6: Friedman Test for Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressures.

Table 7: Follow up Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test for Blood Pressures.

Table 8: Follow up Wilcoxons test for Blood Pressures.

Table 9: Mean Ranks and Number of Students.

Table 10: Kruskal-Willis Test with Chi-Square Value.

Table 11: A Cross-Tabulation (2×2 Contingency Table) of Degree and Life Expectations.

Table 12: Chi-Square Test for Degree and Life.

Sabine Doebel is a cognitive scientist who knows a lot about the work of the human brain and shares her observations and research in her speech for TED Talks. Doebel (2019) tells about the importance of executive functions of the brain for learning and completing daily tasks, as well as the possibilities for training them. The main point of Doebels performance is the importance of context for the use and development of executive functions. The book Motivation and learning strategies for college success by Dembo and Seli also relate to Doebels findings, since the motivation studied by the authors is a context, the importance of which Doebel emphasizes.

People in the learning process should be focused on the information and tasks that are necessary for mastering knowledge to improve their skills. Doebel (2019), in her speech, talks about the executive functions of the brain that contribute to the process of concentration and direction of a persons actions and thoughts to a specific goal. She cites several examples of people experiencing lapse of executive function when they accidentally pour juice into cereal or miss a store on their way home. Doebel (2019) also tells about the uselessness of various exercises to improve these functions and shows an example of children who cannot switch from separation of images by color to their allocation by shapes. However, the scientist demonstrates another way of training with her findings.

Any learning or action requires motivation and a conscious desire to complete it. Doebel (2019) talks about the Marshmallow test that she conducted with some changes and demonstrates the importance of context for executive functions. The Marshmallow test is expressed in placing one marshmallow in front of the child, which he or she really wants. However, if he or she waits while the adult brings another marshmallow from another room, then he or she will receive both. Doebel (2019) also told the children that they belong to a team that was waiting for a second marshmallow or group that was not waiting. This test showed that the children most likely chose the same as their team. In conclusion, scientist says that the executive functions of children depended on context, and it is also useful for other tasks or learning. For example, receiving rewards after completing lessons can be such a context, and removing the phone is a strategy to achieve the goal. Thus, a Doebel study shows how context can be used to train the executive functions that are needed for learning.

These findings on the importance of context are in many ways similar to the motivation for learning. Dembo and Seli (2016), in the chapter Understanding motivation, talk about its importance for learning. In general, the context that Doebel is talking about can be completely different depending on the situation. However, her last remarks about studying Spanish or mathematics show that in this case, context is a motivation, although it is various. In one case, desire can be intensified by the example of another person, in another case, the opportunity to receive rewards. Dembo and Seli (2016) also note that factors that influence motivation are separated into three categories, namely sociocultural, internal, and classroom environment factors. The first category includes education, culture, and family, the second consists of the students beliefs, and the third group is teaching methods and conditions. The same factors can be interpreted in understanding the context of learning. For example, the desire to impress parents refers to sociocultural factors, while attending Spanish classes instead of self-study is a classroom environment factfactorerefore, the use of executive functions of the brain for learning is determined by motivation.

In addition, another similar point of the chapter and Doebels speech is the level of focus on the assignment. At the very beginning of her performance, Doebel (2019) says that she was exhausted after driving lessons because she involved a lot of executive functions of her brain. She did this because driving is a difficult skill, and also because it is important to her. Dembo and Seli (2016) also talk about the level of engagement and effort to explain motivated behavior. Doebel describes her experience by the concept of context that is more complex and important for her than any everyday activities, which led to more intensive use of executive functions. Dembo and Seli (2016) say that student engagement, as well as a desire to overcome difficulties, is part of the motivation. Therefore, scientists actuaibe the same phenomenon by using different definitions.

In conclusion, the book by Dembo and Seli and Doebels talk have significant similarities. The executive functions depend on the context in which they are applied, and one can note that context and motivation are the same concepts by considering them as a means for learning. A student or child who does not have the motivation to complete the task will not be able to concentrate and direct his or her thoughts and actions to achieve the goal. Therefore, although Dembo does not address the topic of motivation in her speech, she implies it by considering the importance of context.

References

1. Dembo, M. H., & Seli, H. (2016). Understanding motivation. In Motivation and learning strategies for college success: a focus on self-regulated learning. Routledge.
2. Doebel, S. (2019, May 30). How your brains executive function works  and how to improve it. YouTube.

Introduction

We may lack a universally accepted definition of validity but the concept that comes out from most of the definitions is the degree to which a concept under study is justifiable. According to the American Educational Research Association Psychological Association and National Council on Measurement in Education (1999), measurement validity is the extent to which the evidence available is sufficient to support the final reading of the test scores.

Levels of measurement

The measurement of data revolves around four main types of data (Nachmias & Chava 2007). Nominal data is where we have numbers only representing their respective labels. For instance, we might have a set of data in which we have five students, three professors and ten parents. The second type is the ordinal data. This type of data allows for ranking or determining of intensity. An example is a list of ones priorities or a students score board. Thirdly, we have interval data. Ideally, it has continuums that have equally spaced intervals. This data also lacks a true zero point. An example of this would be the scores of an IQ test on a 5-point likert scale. Last but not least, we have ratios. This data has continuums that include absolute zero points. An example is the number of questions a student answers correctly in an exam.

The levels of measurement of data have little to do with establishing whether the data is continuous or discreet (Creswell, 2003). Levels of data measurement will dictate the statistics that can be computed and the statistical procedures that can be employed on the data. The process of transforming data ranges from taking physical logs to allow for normal distribution to recording of the data in order to pave way for easier data entry and analysis (Lewin & Somekh 2005). A practical example is a weather man on a news channel who might report, last week it was an average of 35 but this week its an average of 70- twice as hot In the example, the data has been transformed by multiplying the former value by two. This multiplication by two jeopardizes the relationship between 35 and 70.

Validity and reliability

What makes validity of data hard to establish is the fact that it is often limited to the accuracy and reliability of the data. Ideally, if the measurements presented are reliable, the data will probably be valid (Creswell, 2003). If the measurements are however not reliable, then validity of the data can not suffice. As Miller (2009) explains, if a measurement has high reliability, then the observed scores will be very close to their true scores. For one to be able to determine how reliable data is he/she will need to have a look at the variance of the scores in question. The variance from the true scores plus the variance from the measurement error will give us the total variance in the set of scores.

Conclusion

There is nothing half as important as realizing the measurement level of the data when one wants to make a right decision in statistical science. The individual usually holds the information concerning the relationship of the data and the property that he/she is interested in. In as much as statistical software like SPSS will readily compute a standard deviation on the ordinal data, the conclusions that will be arrived at after looking at the numbers might be bogus and this could ultimately result in making of wrong decisions.

References

American Educational Research Association, Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: Sage Publications.

Lewin, C., & Somekh, B., (2005). Research methods in the social sciences. London: Sage Publications.

Nachmias, D., & Chava, F. (2007). Research methods in the social sciences. New York: Worth Publishers.

Problem

The study was conducted to investigate the experiences of the old groups who are mentally challenged (Schroeder, 2013). The pains and discomforts in the relationship with the healthcare providers are thus the problems that are being explored by this research.

Research conducted by other scholars in the past has failed to explore the relationship of the old mentally challenged patients and has generalized their findings irrespective of the age groups (Bartels, Miles, Dums, & Levine, 2003). They have ignored the fact that the old sufferings from the condition are the most affected since everyone neglects them including their family members, a situation that worsens the problem (Linkins, Lucca, Housman, & Smith, 2006). Establishing a good relationship between nurses and patients would thus be of great significance in containing the problems brought about by such neglect.

Study Purpose

The study aims at investigating the experiences of old persons living with mental disorders (Schroeder, 2013).

Research Questions

The main question in this research is whether old people with chronic mental disorders receive proper attention from their health givers.

The research question given is broadly enough for a qualitative study because it targets a broad group of participants (old people with chronic mental disorders).

Study Design

A qualitative hermeneutic phenomenological methodology has been applied in this research.

This is a qualitative research methodology that is often used in research in medical fields. It involves collecting data from first-hand informers (Kafle, 2011). The data is then recorded and stored in the form of video clips awaiting analysis. The collected data is analyzed in processes and the evident main theme is identified.

In what way is the method used an appropriate one for this study? Clearly justify your answer. In the description given above, this method produces useful results in studies involving human experiences, especially in the medical field. The study could only be conducted using this method since it involved conducting direct interviews with patients with the aim of obtaining their experiences with their respective healthcare providers.

Philosophical/Theoretical Basis of the Study

There is an unprecedented rise in the number of people living with serious mental illness (SMI).

Numerous references were cited to support the theoretical approach used. The references were used to emphasize the cases of rising numbers of old people living with SMI and the need to be taken care of in healthcare centers.

The theoretical basis of the study was clearly linked to the studys assumptions, data collection procedures and analytical approach as it indicates cases of elderly SMIs in society, which is the interest of this study.

The framework is based on the findings of earlier research on the same aspect. The study as a whole only expounds what other researchers have earlier reported

Review of the Related Literature

Previous researchers have identified an enhanced relationship between patients and nurses as a solution to the problem in question. This study agrees with this fact and affirms other researchers findings on neglect and stigmatization of mentally challenged individuals.

The author has used both current and past references in his support of his work. 30 of the references fall in the bracket of the past 10 years while 8 of them fall in the bracket of the past 5 years.

The knowledge that is currently available in the available literature has supported the need for a good relationship between the health providers and the patients (Corrigan, 2004). However, the literature is not age-sensitive and it does not describe the severity of the condition depending on age.

Previous research has failed to focus on the old people in society suffering from a mental disorder. Instead, they have generalized their findings without considering that the condition is more severe in the old than it is amongst the youth. The gap in research on this issue has necessitated further research that focuses exclusively on the old people suffering from the condition.

Subjects and Setting

The setting of the study was a mental healthcare hospital in the United States. This setting probably was the most appropriate to carry out the study since expert nurses in the hospital would help in identifying the required sample. The hospital would provide the patients diagnosis history for researchers to pick the correct group, thus reducing the chances of engaging a wrong sample.

To be included in the study, a participant had to have had an earlier experience with a healthcare provider. Only those who had personal contact with medical providers were allowed to participate in the study. The participants were required to have chronic mental challenges. All participants had to have attained a minimum age of 55 years with a chronic mental disorder. The patients included in the study had to have been diagnosed with the ailment for a period of more than a year.

The sample size used was not adequate. 8 participants were not enough for a qualitative study. However, Gender equality was considered when selecting the sample, and thus the sample was composed of 4 participants from both genders.

This setting probably was the most appropriate to carry out the study since expert nurses in the hospital would help in identifying the required sample. In addition, the hospital would provide the patients diagnosis history for researchers to pick the correct group, thus reducing the chances of engaging a wrong sample.

The participants in the study had to provide written consent of their acceptance to be part of the study. Before a participant could be asked to append his/her signature as a sign of acceptance to participate in the study, the team offered some kind of education on the risks and benefits of the study. The study was conducted in one of the nursing homes in the United States. For researchers to be allowed to conduct such research on the group there had to be approval from the institution heads.

Firstly, the participants were educated on their rights and obligations during the study before they were required to submit their consent. Secondly, the participants names were not disclosed.

Data Collection Procedure and Appropriateness of Data Analysis Methods

Questionnaires were used for data collection. The participants were first required to fill in their personal information in a questionnaire prepared in advance. The other process that followed the questionnaire was the interview where each participant was interviewed by a panel of nurses. The interviews were recorded in the form of video clips and transcend for analysis later on.

The aim of the research was to determine the individual feeling and attitude of the patient towards the health providers. Recording each patients statements was important as it provided a good way in which the panel would later revisit the statements, conduct peer reviews, and subsequent analysis of the data to provide useful information.

Data saturation underscores the point at which the participants do not give new information concerning the given questions (Guest, Bunce & Johnson, 2006).

Data saturation was evidenced in analysis where repetitive information was noted.

Specific Data Analysis Procedures Used

The qualitative data analysis procedure used in the study was the thematic analysis and hermeneutic phenomenological procedure.

Thematic analysis is a method used in the analyses of collected data in the view of extracting the major themes in research. It involves identifying the major themes and analyzing the patterns thereon. A qualitative hermeneutic phenomenological procedure is used in data collection where the participants were engaged in an interview to provide their experiences with the nurses.

Thematic and qualitative hermeneutic phenomenological data analysis procedures are appropriate for interviews where major themes are extracted to establish patterns from the participants responses.

As aforementioned, these data analysis procedures fit the qualitative method used, which depended on responses from interviews.

Evidence of Auditability/Decision Trail/Member checks

The decision trail is a phenomenon used to allow other researchers to use the logic developed in certain research in future studies (Koch, 1994).

A decision trail was developed and reported sufficiently as the researchers developed their logic and explained it in detail such that another researcher can follow the same,

Specific Results Obtained

The results of the study identified 7 themes that were then reduced into two classes, viz. the good provider and the uncertain provider. The patients insisted on the establishment of mutual relations between them and nurses.

Strengths and Limitations

The study can be said to be strong in two areas. Firstly, the method used to collect data was the most appropriate since it involved interviewing each participant, which is the best way of collecting data in a medical study designed to extract information from patients. Secondly, the study was peer-reviewed and analyzed statistically to reduce inaccuracy and errors.

The study involved interviewing mentally ill patients. Given that the reliability of the data collected solely depends on the memory, the data may thus be inaccurate and biased due to poor memory by the patients. The second limitation evident in this study is the sample size. The researchers used a sample of 8 people, which is too small to represent the actual experiences of mentally ill persons.

The findings of the study were valid as they answered the research question sufficiently.

Implications/Recommendations

The research found 8 themes that were integrated to come up with 2 themes, viz. the good provider and the uncertain provider. The results obtained from the sample were then generalized for all the old patients with mental disorders.

Data collected from the good provider was regarded as relevant, while data from the uncertain providers was regarded as being biased and irrelevant.

The research did not answer the question of how healthcare providers can actually meet the relationship demands of the old mentally challenged individuals. Future research should thus seek to answer this important question.

The findings of the study are well explained and understandable. The discussion is clear and it connects to the purpose of the study. It is thus right to conclude that the description is clear and can be replicated.

Reflection

Qualitative research denotes the process of collecting data from a targeted group and then converting the data into a numerical form for statistical analysis (Hoe & Hoare, 2012a). The researchers must have in place the theory or a problem that they want to research (Bronson, 2013). Study instruments underscore the other common feature in qualitative research and a plan for the research is usually prepared in advance.

Research based on the qualitative method is one in which the researcher invokes post-positivist assertions to develop facts about a certain problem (Sokal et al., 2004). It involves identifying a problem and the use of suitable data collection instruments to investigate the set variables (Hoe & Hoare, 2012b). Qualitative research is best applied in the nursing and medical fields to acquire information regarding patients feelings and attitudes through interviews.

My understanding of qualitative skills will help me improve my skills in nursing. Nursing today is based on evidence-based treatment. Therefore, the skills acquired here will change my view of nursing from a theoretical practice perspective to an evidence-based approach. Understanding the method will enhance my skills in analyzing problems in nursing to better the profession. Most researches in the nursing field involve interrogations with patients, thus qualitative skills are important to enhance better interviews with the patients especially when gathering information on the history of patients.

References

Bartels, J., Miles, M., Dums, R., & Levine, J. (2003). Are nursing homes appropriate for older adults with severe mental illness? Conflicting consumer and clinician views and implications for the Olmstead decision. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 51(11), 1571-1579.

Bronson, C. (2013). Understanding Quantitative Design: A Resource for Qualitative Researchers. The Qualitative Design, 18(28), 1-3.

Corrigan, P. (2004). How stigma interferes with mental health care. American Psychologist, 59(7), 614.

Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods, 18(1), 59-82.

Kafle, P. (2011). Hermeneutic phenomenological research method simplified. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 181-200.

Koch, T. (1994). Establishing rigor in qualitative research: the decision trail. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 19(5), 976-86.

Linkins, K., Lucca, A., Housman, M., & Smith, A. (2006). Use of PASRR Programs to Assess Serious Mental Illness and Service Access in Nursing Homes. Psychiatric Services, 57(3), 325-332.

Schroeder, R. (2013). The Seriously Mentally Ill Older Adult: Perceptions of the Patient-Provider Relationship. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 49, 3040.

Sokal, J., Messias, E., Dickerson, B., Kreyenbuhl, J., Brown, H., Goldberg, W., & Dixon, L (2004). Comorbidity of medical illnesses among adults with serious mental illness who are receiving community psychiatric services. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 192(6), 421-427.

Introduction

When a person thinks about archeological discoveries and how humanity understands its past, he probably references archeological findings like the Great Pyramids of Giza. Items that a person is most likely to find displayed in a museum portray a portion of the past that people experienced. However, they substitute a small part of how and why historians know so much about the predecessors communities, their way of living, customs, and traditions. Another significant aspect of archeological findings is waste, the things humans mindlessly leave behind as they continue their everyday life. While current researchers were able to identify the routine life of the past, it remains a question of what future archeologists will conclude about contemporary humanity. This paper will attempt to observe and predict what future archaeologists would say about the current society based on the trash people leave behind.

Observational Analysis

Methods

To meet the research goal and discover the needed insight into how waste can reflect our reality for future scientists, three locations were chosen: a college campus, a local park, and a household. It is important to note that numerous waste receptacles were found throughout the aforementioned locations, and their contents reflect different functions and needs of the people who use them. Thus, different conclusions might be drawn from various types of containers. The three locations were chosen to cover three significant parts of the modern individuals life: studying on campus, living in a house, and leisure in park spaces. The receptacles locations were found on the corners of the sites along the sidewalks for the by-passers to easily access them, as well as behind the buildings to maintain the seclusion of the containers. For authenticity, goals of observation, and safety reasons, the trash containers were observed and recorded without any interaction with the objects to maintain their integrity and the arrangement of contents of the receptacles.

Observations

Firstly, as per the park, many items associated with modern leisure were found. For instance, food items with plastic wrapping and cups for beverages with plastic tops were thrown away, as well as single-use utensils that might indicate picnics (See Appendix). As per leisure-related trash, a worn-down leash and presumably a biodegradable bag for pet waste were found in the container (See Appendix). For a better understanding, they can be categorized as food and occupation-related waste.

Secondly, as it concerns the campus, its waste composition was highly influenced by peoples activities. For instance, pens, pencils, stacks of printed and handwritten papers indicate the educational purpose of the site (See Appendix). Additionally, items related to smoking and technology like headphones and electronic cigarette parts were spotted (See Appendix). The findings lead to the conclusion that younger people regularly use the space, as well as utilize technological advances.

Thirdly, the household receptacle showed items that are prone to be used in a specific location. More precisely, for example, fewer single-use objects and more long-term ones were found in the bin: clothes and organic, not pre-made food waste (See Appendix). The presence of separation of trash, like glass in a separate plastic bag, showed a peculiar difference in an attempt to separate the waste.

As for the patterns found throughout the locations, a dominance of plastic and non-reusable or hardly reusable items was spotted. For instance, plastic bags, bottles, and wrapping for food and non-food items are primary sources of waste both on campus and in-park locations. However, as it concerns differences, as opposed to two communal spaces of the campus and park, a housing community has more organic trash with less plastic but more food waste like banana peels, apples, etc. (See Appendix). Thus, it can be concluded that single-use rubbish is dominant in functional areas. At the same time, living spaces like houses and apartments use and cook more organic food that needs preparations.

Predictions

Based on the trash current society leaves behind, future archeologists would assume that we were an early technological society highly reliant on plastic, with high consumption and low recycling tendencies. Technical use is apparent in the use of devices in various locations, like a keyboard in a house waste, headphones and electronic cigarettes on campus (See Appendix). Also, they would guess that we are reliant on plastic as it is a resource that many of our items are composed of, like food wrappings. They would also find out that single-use objects are dominant in functional spaces and are hardly recyclable, indicating low investment in environmental issues of contemporary humanity. If campus receptacles would be contained, the researchers would also discover that the society we live in currently still relies on handwritten and printed sources of information and is not completely technological.

Reflection

This assignment made me realize that people rarely understand how their everyday habits and routines reflect their nature. The exercise helped to understand that even though museums and textbooks rarely show it, trash and waste are significant indicators of human activity and are substantial for day-to-day archeology. Although vital in a historical and archeological sense, the garbage I discovered through this analysis made me recognize how far humanity is from sustaining the planets ecosystem. Single-use plastic objects can be easily reduced and replaced, yet they still dominate occupational spaces like parks and campuses, and people exercise eco-consciousness solely at home. If this trend progresses, future archeology might be primarily concerned with the question of why past humanity harmed the planet in such a substantial way.

Appendix

Trash Disposal Log

Table 1. Waste items are found in the trash receptacles according to their location and date.

Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular bacterium and pathogen closely related to Rickettsia bacteria, but distinguished from them by multiple extraordinary characteristics. Those characteristics include the presence of small and large cell variants with differing structures, strong resistance to adverse environmental conditions, variable reactions to Gram staining, and airborne transmission capability. The peculiarities of Coxiella burnetii are probably connected and show through in the bacteriums life cycle and behavior as a pathogen.

The existence of two cell variants presents the key to understanding this bacteriums unusual nature. Whereas the small cell variant (SCV) has no periplasm but possesses a dense peptidoglycan layer, the large cell variant (LCV) has low peptidoglycan and a periplasm with an area containing DNA and ribosomes. SCVs are more resistant to adverse conditions and can invade hosts. Once they enter a more favorable environment inside host cells, SCVs transform into LCVs, which are less resilient but more reproductively active. After dividing, the new cells can spread throughout the organism and infiltrate other hosts. The differences in cell structures likely account for the discrepancy in Gram stain results. Nevertheless, it seems appropriate to classify Coxiella burnetii as a Gram-negative bacterium because its reproducing form possesses the characteristics of such organisms, such as a periplasm and a thin peptidoglycan layer. Coxiella burnetii is known to cause Q fever in humans (Kudva et al., 2020). Unlike similar diseases, Q fever can spread through the air thanks to the resilience of SCVs, which do not require a host carrier. This versatility is what makes Coxiella burnetii such a dangerous pathogen.

The life cycle of Coxiella burnetii is based on the collaboration of two cell variants. While the highly resilient SCV is well-suited for survival in adverse environments, it has a low reproductive capability. However, by infiltrating a host body and entering a suitable environment, it could transition into a reproductively active LCV. The variance in forms causes discrepant Gram stain results, though LCV exhibits a Gram-negative bacteriums characteristics. The heightened environmental resistance of SCV enables airborne transmission.

References

Kudva, I. T., Cornick, N. A., Plummer, P. J., Zhang, Q., Nicholson, T. L., Bannantine, J. P., & Bellaire, B. H. (Eds.). (2020). Virulence mechanisms of bacterial pathogens. (5^th ed.) John Wiley & Sons.

Introduction

A thermodynamic process is defined by thermal heat transfer between bodies according to the principles of physics. Thermodynamic processes initiate energy changes and transfer within systems. The basic elements of thermodynamic processes include internal temperature changes, volume changes, and pressure variations. Thermodynamic processes fall into specific categories. In an adiabatic process, there is no movement of heat from a system or into a system, thus temperature remains constant. On the other hand, volume remains constant in isochoric processes when other factors vary accordingly. This thermodynamic process is ideal but does hard work. Isobaric processes do not undergo pressure changes while isothermal processes are characterized by constant temperatures.

Several thermodynamic laws define the equilibrium condition of heat transfer within and outside of a system. Ideally, there are four thermodynamic laws namely, the zeroth law, the first law, the second law, and the third law. Heat transformations take place according to the first law of thermodynamics but can neither be created nor destroyed. Other thermodynamic processes such as thermal nuclear processes are defined by Einsteins equation which relates the speed of light and the mass of a body in the equation, E = mc2 (where E is the amount of energy released from a body whose mass is m. c is the speed of light) to the internal energy in a system.

Considering the above overview, the following discussion will focus on thermodynamic processes in a specific state characterized by specific parameters including volume, pressure, and temperature. Other factors related to heat transfer in a thermodynamic process include enthalpy and entropy of heat and the corresponding work done through a system and the relationship with its surrounding. In addition to that, the case study illustrates how internal energy works in a thermodynamic process. In particular, the study will concentrate on heat transfer from one point in the system to another.

The above illustration shows how heat is transferred from fuel in a thermodynamic process in a thermal reactor. More particularly, the following discussion will focus on thermodynamic processes encountered in the boiler.

The Thermal Process

The second law of thermodynamics provides that when two bodies make a thermodynamic contact, a heat gradient causes the flow of heat from a higher to a lower temperature. In the above case study, heat flows from the coolant in the reactor to the boiler water. There is a corresponding decrease in the enthalpy of the coolant while the enthalpy of the boiler water increases correspondingly. As a matter of interest, U bundles in the reactor have to be completely submerged to ensure efficient heat transfer and minimal heat losses. The boilers water level must be maintained to achieve the latter.

Once boiling has commenced, vapour bubbles rise to the top of the boiler when they are formed in the process. Pressure and volume changes occur according to the laws of thermodynamics. At this point, steam occupies 40 times more space than the same volume of water in the liquid phase. The boiler level increases increasing the thermal efficiency of energy transfer. This is commonly referred to as boiler swell, though there is boiler shrink. Boiler shrink occurs when the boiler level drops significantly.

Steady-State and Shrinks Swell

According to the laws of thermodynamics, the internal energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be transferred when thermal contact is established between two bodies creating an equilibrium condition in the process. Thus, a steady state is established in a thermal reactor creating thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is a state reached when the rate of heat transfer and heat generation are equal. However, when the load range is constant and boiling starts, bubbles are created from below the boiler displacing water to the top increasing the water levels. A constant load range is a situation where the same amount or volume of water with the same weight is used in the thermodynamic process. Full load condition is achieved when the water level is at a maximum. A steady swell state is achieved when a full reactors thermal power is achieved. On the other hand, if a decrease is experienced below the reactors thermal state, then a steady state shrink is achieved in the process. As the water level is increased or decreased, a corresponding state is achieved according to the laws of thermodynamics. Thermal transfers sometimes lead to transient shrinks and thermal swells.

Transient Shrink and Swell

Transient shrinks and swells are thermodynamic conditions experienced in a boiler during loading and unloading conditions. During a steady-state, certain thermal equilibrium conditions prevail, but when they temporarily increase, then a condition defined as thermal swell occurs. Alternatively, when a temporary thermal drop is experienced in a boiler, the condition defined as thermal shrink occurs. Volume is one of the elements considered in the study of thermodynamics. These conditions occur due to temporary and rapid changes in the volume of steam bubbles in the boiler. Drastic changes in reactor power also influence transient shrink and swell within a thermal reactor. Thus, the dynamics of both transient shrink and swell are vital in controlling the thermal behavior of a thermal reactor.

Pressure

Another thermodynamic aspect is boiler pressure. Factors such as gravitational force, steam pressure, steam quality and liquid water help regulate the flow of water within the boiler. Thus, re-circulation is achieved in the process and the re-circulation ratio can be determined by the rate at which water is transformed into steam. As pressure increases less and less amount of heat is required to change liquid water into steam. Thermal transfer in this process is defined in the following equation, Q = mÅ lv. Q signifies the heat transfer rate, m is the mass of water circulating, and lv is the latent heat of vaporization for steam. Recirculation level reaches its normal value when the rate of flow of feed water and steam are constant, and pressure has reached its normal value (Science and Reactor Fundamentals, 85).

The above discussion briefly focused on the laws of thermodynamics as applied in a thermal reactor for the transfer of heat from the reactor fuel to the boiler. A state of equilibrium is achieved in the process. The laws of thermodynamics with the basic elements of heat transfer, volume, pressure, and internal energy are critical in analyzing the case study. Internal energy is a vital component in thermodynamic processes although the complete transformation of internal energy cannot be attained under normal circumstances. One assumption made in the case study is that heat transfer is uniform. Other issues that affect heat transfer in the above case include the fuel profile and coolant boiling among others.

Work Cited

Science and Reactor Fundamentals. Heat &Thermodynamics 1 CNSC Policy Planning and Learning Revision 1. 2003. Web.

Geographic Description

• location in the south-eastern part of Florida (Miami, Florida, 2017)
• location of the city on the Atlantic coast
• the territory is dominated by flat terrain
• Gulf Stream flows nearly the coast
• height above sea averages 4.5 m

Miamis location on the ocean coast, elevation above sea level, and the proximity of the Gulf Stream are factors which determine a soft and warm climate, which positively affects the health of residents.

Geopolitical Description

• considered as the gateway to Latin America (Miami, Florida, 2017)
• presence of headquarters of international companies
• many international banks on the territory
• characterized by a developed level of tourism
• airport is the busiest in the state

Miamis geopolitical characteristics suggest a close engagement with Latin America in terms of business and trade. Simultaneously, tourism and transnational commercial activity are an essential part of the economy.

Financial Level

• significant financial center of the USA
• gap between the financial situation of residents
• low unemployment rate among the population (Miami, FL, n.d.)
• high level of low-income areas and families
• lack of health insurance for many people

Although Miami is one of the most significant economic centers in the United States, there is a problem of the gap between residents financial situation and the presence of low-income families.

Educational Level

• secondary education has 75% of the community (Miami, Florida Education Data, n.d.)
• 25% has at least a bachelors degree
• the amount of school dropouts is 23%
• availability of the best schools and colleges
• high percentage of the reading population

Most of the community in Miami has a secondary education level, but only 25% of the population received higher education, which may be due to the presence of low-income families.

Ethnic and Phenomenological Features, Types of Social Interactions

• the ethnic composition includes mostly Hispanic population (Miami, Florida, 2017)
• percentage of Blacks and Whites is equal
• most of the community are foreigners
• there are refugees from Central America
• presence of social cooperation and accommodation

Ethnic and phenomenological features include a high percentage of Hispanic and foreign populations; thus, cooperation and accommodation prevail among types of social interactions.

Common Goals and Interests

• sports activities, including football, volleyball, and others
• water activities such as scuba diving, surfing
• scientific performance, in particular, marine research
• practice related to tourism and international trade
• the common goal is to enjoy life

The coastal areas location determines the communitys goals and interests related to water activities, tourism, and others, which positively affect its health.

Barriers, and Challenges, Including Social Determinates Of Health

• lack of funds for medical insurance
• the shortage of receiving higher medical education
• multilingual population through a many of foreigners
• absence of access to prevention of diseases
• poor nutrition of residents of low-income areas

Mainly the presence of low-income areas and families creates barriers and challenges to improve the social determinates of the communitys health and the provision of medical care.

Funding Sources and Partnerships

• Catalyst Miami, dedicated to improving health determinates (Miami, Florida, 2017)
• Business Assistance Center Funding Corporation & Affiliates
• Partnerships to Improve Community Health (PICH)
• Haitian American Community Development Corporation (HACDC)
• Miami Beach Community Development Corporation (MBCDC)

All of these organizations and partnerships represent funding sources for creating efforts to improve conditions associated with social determinates of community health.

Opportunity for Health Promotion

• assistance to uninsured residents in obtaining medication
• solving the shortage of medical workers
• training in the treatment of the multicultural population
• promoting the economic development of all residents
• provision of increased scholarships for students

Among the opportunities for health promotion, it is possible to distinguish the buildup of accessible education, contributing to increased general economic well-being and medical care for a multicultural population.

Conclusion Summarizing Key Findings and Impressions of the General Health

• a favorable climate for general health
• the economic gap between the population
• low level of receiving higher education
• goals and interests contribute to strengthening health
• high number of funding sources and partnerships

Geographic conditions and common goals and interests contribute to creating a strengthening of the communitys general health. Moreover, many funding sources and partnerships aim to prevent an economic gap and a low level of higher education.

References

Miami, FL (n.d.). The Urban Institute.

Miami, Florida (2017). Community-Wealth.org.

Miami, Florida Education Data (n.d.). Towncharts.

Introduction

When starting work on a study, it is necessary to choose the appropriate method of statistical data analysis. Unfortunately, scientists often consider some essential elements and concepts of statistical analysis as interchangeable. This paper aims to discuss the fundamental statistical issues and present at least five typical examples applying statistical knowledge and comment on approaches that permit progress from a simple correlation to actual causal interpretation.

Basic statistical issues 

Correlation is synchronicity suggesting a possible but not inevitable interdependence between phenomena. This synchronicity is often called association, and it is believed that such associations can become the basis or prerequisite for scientific research. According to Didelez², correlation is often regarded as an association that describes situations where phenomena occur more often together (or not together) than would be expected under independence. The scholar mentions that in a purely statistical sense, associations do not need to be meaningful since they only express the expectation that they reflect a causal relation.² The existing correlation usually motivates scientists to find and prove a causal connection between the given events. Further, causation means there is a causal connection between the issues, which can be determined in the research process.

A confounding factor is another essential statistical concept. It is a factor common for two cases between which a correlation exists. The search for the confounding factor is critical when conducting observational scientific researches because its character usually determines the existence of a causal connection between phenomena.³ Hence, the confounding factor can prove or disprove the presence of the causal connection. Interestingly, when conducting experiments, scientists sometimes pre-determine the confounding factor in particular variables to exclude them from the study. Researchers can also use the confounding factor to include certain variables.³ A few examples will illustrate the basic statistical concepts outlined above.

Typical examples 

Firstly, the role of correlation, causation, and confounding factors should be considered. To explain what does correlation mean, Didelez² chooses an example, where the scientists are comparing a relatively large number of newborns and storks in the same area. These two phenomena are correlated and, despite the absence of a causal connection between a more significant amount of storks and newborns, have a confounding factor  the size of the communities. In particular, the higher number of newborns is explained by the vast population of the village. The higher population density also means there are more roofs, where storks usually nest.

Another example mentioned by Didelez² is the correlation between the rising tides in Venice and the prices for bread in the UK. In this example, the phenomena under consideration are not connected; therefore, scientists say that these trends are unrelated. Didelez² also provides an example of the correlation between atmospheric emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and ozone hole growth. Here, two phenomena are interconnected and there is a proven causal connection between them.

Causation interpretation 

It is imperative to use fundamental statistical concepts accurately when moving from a simple correlation to actual causal interpretation. In particular, causal interpretation implies the proper understanding of the differences between the concepts predictor and determinant. This difference can be illustrated with the following typical example. There is a study in which scientists examined the correlation between the conceptions and the abundance of light.¹ It was found that women who participated in the experiment and were exposed to artificial light daily became more fertile. However, this factor did not have a decisive influence on the statistics of conceptions, since most impregnations in the US occur in the fall, the season of the light day reduction. Therefore, in this example, light is a predictor, not a determinant of the outcome.

In another study, scientists were exploring the correlation between IQ and myopia in children. According to the study, children who read more books were more likely to have myopia.t At the same time, a more significant number of books read, implied higher performance with IQ tests. Thus, a higher IQ was recognized as a risk factor for myopia, whereas a more substantial amount of time spent on reading was detected as a confounding factor for this correlation.

Most scientists agree that there is a need for the correct use of statistical concepts when conducting causal interpretation. In particular, Kramer³ notes that many researchers confuse basic statistical concepts such as predictor, risk factor, determinant, and cause and use them interchangeably. For example, a predictor can be confused with a determinant in the first stages of the study. The use of causal interpretation allows drawing significant conclusions when conducting experimental or observational studies. Therefore, it is essential to understand the differences between its components.

Thus, a discussion regarding the fundamental statistical issues was provided, the typical examples were presented, and the approaches used to progress from correlation to causal interpretation were commented. To summarize, when conducting research, it is necessary to understand the difference between correlation and causation. Besides, when performing a causal interpretation, it is essential to correctly distinguish statistical concepts since this allows drawing correct and more thorough conclusions.

References

1. Cummings DR. Human birth seasonality and sunshine. American Journal of Human Biology. 2010;22(3):316-324.
2. Didelez V. Statistical causality. Consilience Interdisciplinary Communications. 2005;2996:114-120.
3. Kramer MS. Uses and misuses of causal language. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 2015;122(4):462-463.
4. Saw SM, Tan SB, Fung D, et al. IQ and the association with myopia in children. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2004;45(9):2943-2948.