Category: Sciences 2502

Poincaré was one of the greatest mathematicians, who made significant contributions in serval fields. This scientist was considered the last polymath, discovering the mathematical issues of the 20th century. Over the years of his career, Poincaré has written more than 500 scientific papers. These works were devoted to algebraic topology, the number theory, hyperbolic geometry, a special theory of relativity, and many other areas. Among his interests and contributions, there is also mathematical physics and applied mathematics.

For Poincaré, the initial problem was the awareness of the consequences for the scientific picture of the world. Namely, the scholar created another positivistic philosophy for natural scientists. He argued that science can comprehend not the essence of things in itself, as naive dogmatists think, but only the relations between things (Walter, 2017). The experience was noted as the only source of truth: only experience can teach something new and provide reliability. The scholar contributed to algebraic topology by focusing on manifolds, also known as mathematical spaces, which were not previously studied extensively. The Poincaré conjecture is the problem that is still not resolved.

A significant number of Poincarés work in mathematics is connected to the solution of the problems of celestial mechanics, in particular, the problems of three bodies. Pursuing its solution, the scientist developed the theory of integral invariants. The key achievement in mathematics was related to elaborating the theories of Hertz, Lorentz, and Helmholtz on electromagnetism (Safranek, 2018). In his works, Poincaré was close to the discovery of special relativity theory that was formulated later by Einstein. Poincaré used the methods of mathematical physics to solve problems of heat conduction, electromagnetism, hydrodynamics, and the theory of elasticity. He framed the principle of relativity and showed that it is impossible to detect absolute motion on the basis of ideas about the ether and Maxwell  Lorentz equations.

The topics discussed by Poincaré resulted in the creation of new fields of mathematics, which are actively researched by modern scholars. In todays world that focuses on applicable mathematics, the findings of this scientist serve as the basis for deeper and detailed studies (Safranek, 2018). For example, his conventionalism and relativity theories received great attention at the end of the 20th century. The critics of logicism use the works on mathematical philosophy as a source of inspiration. It is especially valuable that the ideas of Poincaré are properly explained and linked to each other, which allows modern mathematicians to use them in practice (Walter, 2017). Even though the evidence shows no historical events that were impacted by his works, this scientist has numerous awards. Oscar II, King of Swedens mathematical competition (1887), Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of London (1900), Foreign mMemberof the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1897), and others can be mentioned.

Modernsociety endowed with the powerful potential of scientific and technical progress, in which science, knowledge, technology, and education play a great role. The study of mathematics advances logical thinking and accustoms a person to accuracy, providing the necessary information to understand the complex problems that arise in different fields of activity. Many major economists, social researchers, and healthcare providers consider that the further development of their professions is related to the wider application of mathematics. Problems, the solutions to which were earlier thought of as impossible, are successfully resolved through the use of mathematical methods, which expand the potential of scientific knowledge.

References

Safranek, J. (2018). Science and hypothesis by Henri Poincare. The Review of Metaphysics, 72(2), 398-399.

Walter, S. A. (2017). Henri Poincarés life, science, and life in science. Historia Mathematica, 44(4), 425-435.

Introduction

The term magnesium was derived from the word magnesia which is the district in Greece from which magnesium was first mined. The importance of magnesium in plants was discovered by scientists such as Mayer, Knop, Sachs, and Salm-Horstmar; and then in 1904-1902, Willstarter identified magnesium to be part of chlorophyll. Research has also shown that magnesium is a cofactor in the enzymatic processes associated with phosphorylation and dephosphorylation and in the hydrolysis of various compounds and it has also been shown to act as a structural stabilizer in various nucleotides.

Magnesium deficiency may suppress the increase in plant mass or a decrease in shoot growth, the extent of the shoot or root growth inhibition is dependent on the stage of the plant development, the plant type, environmental conditions, and the general nutrition of the plant. High levels or low levels of magnesium concentration may decrease fruit yield and quality. For example, in observation of cultivations of apples, magnesium fruit concentration had a negative correlation to the fruit color while potassium concentration on the fruit had a positive correlation to the fruit color. The effect of magnesium was shown to have resulted from the antagonistic effects of potassium concentration (Allen, Barker, and Pilbeam2007).

Why Do Plants Require Magnesium for Growth?

Magnesium deficiency affects plant growth by interfering with chlorophyll formation thereby leading to a reduction in the number of nutrients produced by the plant for its use and as a result, an overall rate of growth is affected.

Hypothesis

Plants require magnesium for the synthesis of chlorophyll that is normally needed in the process of photosynthesis to provide nutrients for the plant.

Prediction

If the amount of magnesium supply to a plant is increased to an optimum level, then the rate of plant growth will increase, while a decrease in the magnesium concentration will lead to lowered growth rates (Norman and Ulrich, 1973).

Controlled Experiments and Methods

In the experiment, two cultures were prepared; one without magnesium added to it whiles the other had magnesium added to it. At the same time, the other factors such as light, oxygen, and substrate concentration were kept constant. In the beginning, the amount of oxygen gas being produced will be equal in both cultures but after some time the amount in the culture lacking magnesium will start reducing.

The reduction in the amount of oxygen being produced from the experiment lacking magnesium meant that there was a reduction in the rate of photosynthesis while in the other experiment, the volume of oxygen rose steadily as there was enough chlorophyll to trap the light energy from the sun required for photosynthesis. In the experiment, the volume of oxygen will be collected at an interval of thirty minutes for each of the experiments. The data will be recorded for the two sets of the experiment against each of the time intervals.

The Results

Conclusion /Discussion

The hypothesis that magnesium is essential for photosynthesis is supported. Magnesium is essential for the manufacture of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll traps light energy from the sun and uses it to split the water molecule. The oxygen atom split from the water molecule combines with the carbon dioxide molecule to form glucose. A molecule of oxygen is released in the process according to the following equation:

Carbon dioxide + Water molecule=Glucose + Oxygen

A decrease in the amount of magnesium or a complete lack of it will mean very little chlorophyll is available to trap the light energy needed for splitting the water molecule. The rate of photosynthesis will therefore be reduced as a result of this. Magnesium availability is therefore essential for photosynthesis and lack of its results in reduced rates of photosynthesis which may consequently result in necrosis.

Practical Application

Its therefore important to ensure an optimum supply of magnesium to the plants as they grow in if good returns are to be realized. This can be through the provision of magnesium-containing fertilizers and manures. In an experiment done to compare the effectiveness of the organic and inorganic fertilizers, it was noted that there appeared to be no long-term benefit of using organic amendments, as organic fertilizers did not improve residue conditions (organic matter content, pH, electrical conductivity, activity of Na⁺ ions) compared with the inorganic fertilizer. It was concluded that inorganic fertilizer could provide a suitable, cost-effective alternative to poultry manure (Eastham, Morald, and Aylmore, 2006).

References

Allen V. et al. (2007). Hand book on plant Nutrition. Illustrated. CRC Press. Web.

Eastham, J. et al. (2006). Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Effective Nutrient Sources for Plant Growth on Bauxite, Residue, Comparing Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers. Web.

Norman T. and Ulrich A. (1973). Effects of Potassium Deficiency on the Photosynthesis and Respiration of Leaves of Sugar Beet. Web.

Introduction

In the field of sociology, the research of human dependencies on civilization benefits of society is widely popular. In this context, the critical question is related to determining the degree of interconnection between an individuals social behavior and tools of interaction with the environment. In other words, the paramount importance of sociological research in this direction is to clarify how inseparable is the connection of an individual as a unit of society and the material environment. The author of this essay has decided to conduct his experiment and to abandon any use of electricity during the 16 hours. The central result of the study was the recognition of the fact that the refusal to use electricity significantly affects the psychological context of the individual. The purpose of this paper is to describe changes in the authors usual behavioral patterns under new experimental conditions.

Determining the degree of dependence

The result of the social experiment was to determine the degree of the authors dependence on electricity: it was found out that absolute isolation from voltage networks creates serious problems both in everyday life and in the context of psychological self-perception. Initially, it should be recognized that a complete 16-hour power outage does not seem as significant as what happens in natural disasters. Human history knows many cases when the loss of electricity for an even more extended period for entire settlements was caused by a catastrophe (Castañeda-Garza et al. 119). For this reason, although 16 hours of failure is a sufficient period for the experiment, the real isolation from the grid for days and weeks causes a sense of fear and uncertainty, as the authors life seems too much tied up in the use of electrical appliances. It was found that most of the psychological problems come in the middle of the day, while in the initial stages, deprivation of electricity is not a severe difficulty. Human consciousness is a surprisingly adaptive phenomenon, so the survival of the experiment was realized through raw food and water, candles, and reading books as elements of leisure (Gray). In other words, although the author managed to abandon electricity for a set period completely, psychological stress and lack of emotional support received became a serious challenge.

Scaling to the USA

The involuntary abandonment of power systems seems to be even more frightening since, unlike a controlled experiment, a grid break caused by a disaster cannot be paused or restored instantly. As a result, if a natural disaster occurs in the US tomorrow, tens of millions of citizens will be without electricity for an indefinite period (Härö). Indeed, at first, this situation will seem destructive because most peoples lives are tied up in comfort provided by the availability of electricity systems. Thus, people will have to restrain their needs and find alternative cooking methods, water, or transport (Gray). Most likely, people will have hope for the rapid restoration of electricity supply, which will become a social benchmark for the entire period of energy deprivation. For this reason, it would be a mistake to believe that the abandonment of electricity will benefit humanity and make life better. Undoubtedly, although the environment will indeed be modified and humans will have to adapt, it is unlikely that this will be the best way since a century of scientific experience on electricity use will eventually prove unjustified. In other words, too much in an individuals life is tied to the use of energy systems, so the prolonged abandonment of them will begin to inhibit life satisfaction and comfort.

Conclusion

Although it is possible to physically survive a few hours of abandonment of electrical systems, psychologically, this environment causes severe stress. This effect is due to a strong connection between the individuals behavior and electrical devices. For this reason, the scale of the problem across the country and lack of control over the situation causes a severe sociological crisis in which people can find the means to survive but can not get used to the changed living conditions. Stresses, dissatisfaction with life, and hopelessness can be factors that significantly reduce Americans quality of life in natural disasters. This means that it is of paramount importance to restore power supply systems as quickly as possible in times of natural disasters.

Works Cited

Castañeda-Garza, Gerardo, et al. Visual Narrative of the Loss of Energy after Natural Disasters. Climate, vol. 7, no. 10, 2019, pp. 118-132.

Gray, Richard. What Would Happen in an Apocalyptic Blackout? BBC Future, 2019, Web.

Härö, Erkki. Electricity: How Long Could We Survive without it? Urban Insight, 2019, Web.

The purpose of this work is to analyze the nature and behavior of cochlear nonlinearity and two-tone suppression under different conditions and at different levels. These processes may happen in the inner ear and cause certain problems with the perception of information by people and other human beings; this is why the analysis of these phenomena becomes crucially important for our study.

Another purpose of this work is to define the main concepts, which become crucially important for two-tone suppression and cochlear nonlinearity, such as the suppressed, the suppressor, and the pulsation threshold. And the final aim of this work is to find out the investigations by Duifhuis, Javel, Ravindran, and some other researchers, which have been already conducted on the same issues, clear up their strengths and weaknesses and point out the differences in these investigations and their impact on suppressive interactions.

The study under consideration is devoted to numerous methods, which help to analyze the phenomenon of cochlear nonlinearity and two-tone suppression, this is why the pulsation threshold method is considered to be the most effective one. This method is regarded as the preferred one in comparison to the masking method, because it helps to organize the information, gathered from past methods by Duifhuis and Javel, facilitates investigators understanding of the results, and provides the researchers with a chance to continue the investigation from many other perspectives.

The chosen pulsation threshold method has much in common with the research, conducted by Duifhuis and Houtgast, who attempted to present a suppressor and suppressed at the same me and analyze their influence on pulsation threshold. This method is also helpful due to its credibility while determining suppression effects and abilities to take into consideration different aspects and present clear results.

The results of the investigation proved that non-linear suppression was individual for each participant, this is why it was necessary to find out common characteristics of each respondent and unite them by conditions, time limitations, and surroundings. With the help of clear tables, it is possible to notice that the results, achieved in this research, are a bit similar to those, achieved by Duifhuis and Javel because they also depend on the level of the suppressor and the suppressed.

However, it is also necessary to take into consideration the fact that the suppressor frequency, used in this current research, is more accurate and used at really high levels. Duifhuis failed to use the same high levels, this is why the main purpose is not to compare past and present results, but to unite them and create another ground to continue investigating the same issue and the phenomena of two-tone suppression and cochlear nonlinearity from other perspectives.

In general, the current studies of two-tone suppression and cochlear nonlinearity were investigated and analyzed at a proper level. With the help of past researches, conducted by Houtgast, Duifhuis, and some other sophisticated scientists, their analyses and results, it was easier to start an investigation, choose proper conditions, and levels. The achieved results and authors comments prove the possibility to continue investigating the topic of two-tone suppression and its influence on the respondents at higher levels of suppressor and under other conditions. It will create another reliable background for the analysis of problems with hearing and prevent possible damage of the cochlea and even hearing loss.

To identify the best way to educate elementary-age children in mathematics, a researcher decides to conduct a pilot study among fifth-grade children throughout a school district. The researcher thinks that fifth-grade girls do better in small class sizes while boys perform well in larger classes. The pilot study involves classroom sizes that have been reduced into three groups. The first group is made of no more than 10 children; the second group has 11 to 19 children while the third group is made of 20 or more children. Using data collected from the pilot study, factorial ANOVA analysis on the data has been performed and presented in this paper. In addition, this paper presents a hypothetical ANCOVA based on variables that can help determine whether one will become delinquent.

Exploratory data analysis

The mean math score for girls learning in classes of 10 or fewer children is 93.80, N = 10 whereas the standard deviation is 3.94 (Table 1). Table 1 also indicates that the minimum math score for girls in classes of 10 or fewer children is 88.00 while the maximum score is 98.00. The skewness is -.250 while the kurtosis is -1.688 (Table 1).

For male children studying in classes of 10 or fewer children, the mean math score is 92.70, N = 10 while the standard deviation is 3.43 and a variance of 11.79. The minimum math score is 87.00 and the maximum score for the same class is 99.00. From the same table, it is evident that the skewness is.195 whereas the kurtosis is.331. Figure 1shows a visual display of the mean math scores for children learning in a class of 10 or fewer children and it is evident that the mean math score for girls is only slightly higher than that of boys.

From Table 3, the mean math score for girls learning in classes of 11-19 children is 88.50, N = 10 and a standard deviation of 3.98 with a variance of 15.83. The minimum math score for this group is 82.00 and the maximum score is 95.00. The table also indicates the skewness for this data as -.026 and a negative kurtosis value of.670.

The mean math score for boys learning in classes of 11-19 children is 89.70, N = 10 and the standard deviation is 2.41 with a variance of 5.79. The maximum math score for this group of children is 93.00 and the minimum score is 86.00. The kurtosis is -1.269 and the skewness value of -.278. For children studying in classes of 11-19 children, it is clear from Figure 2 that the mean math score for boys is slightly higher than that of girls.

When learning in classes of 20 or more girls, the mean math score is 79.20, N = 10 and a standard deviation of 4.184 with a variance of 17.511. The maximum score attained by girls in classes of 20 or more children is 86.00 while the minimum score is 72.00. The skewness and kurtosis are negative values of.335 and.207 respectively.

Table 6 indicates that the mean math score for boys in classes of 20 or more children is 91.20, N = 10 and the standard deviation is 3.22 while the variance is 10.40. The minimum math score in this group is 87.00 and the maximum score is 98.00. The skewness and kurtosis are positive values of.918 and 1.016 respectively. A visual display of math scores for children in classes of 20 or more children in Figure 3 shows that the mean math score for males is distinctively higher than that of girls.

In summary, the math performance of girls declines as the class size increases whereas it is clear that the math performance of boys in small classes is almost the same as in large classes.

Factorial ANOVA

From the output in Table 9, it is evident that there is a main effect of gender. In other words, the main effect of gender was significant, F(1, 54) = 19.06, p<.05, indicating that when classroom size is ignored, math performance differs depending on whether the class is made of girls or boys. In this case, there is no need to use post-hoc tests to explain the effect since post hoc tests are not performed for variables that have fewer than three groups (Field, 2009). Table 8 shows that Levenes test is not significant p =.539 and this is greater than .05 implying that homogeneity of variance can be assumed.

According to Tukey HSD test in Table 10, there is a significant difference in math performance when comparing a class size of 10 or fewer children with a class of 11-19 children (p =. 002). Similarly, Table 10 shows that there is a significant difference in math performance considering a class of 10 or less against a class of 20 or more students (p =. 000). Tukey test also shows that a significant difference (p =. 003) exists when comparing math performance between a class size of 11-19 children and that of 20 or more children. Games-Howells test also indicates that there is a significant difference (p =. 001) in exam performance when the class size is 10 or fewer children against a class size of 11-19 children.

Games-Howell test (Table 10) shows that there is no significant difference in exam performance when comparing a class size of 11-19 children against that of 20 or more children (p =. 086 which is greater than.05). Dunnetts test however shows a significant difference in math performance (.002) comparing a class size of 11-19 children against 20 or more when the class of 10 or less is the control. When the class size of 11-19 children is the control, the difference between math performance in a class of 10 or less against a class of 20 or more children is significant (p =. 000).

There exists a main effect of classroom size as indicated in Table 9. To be precise, the main effect of classroom size is significant, F(2, 54) = 25.31, p<.05, indicating that math performance (ignoring the gender of the child) changes depending on whether the child is in a class of 10 or less, 11-19 or 20 or more children. Since classrooms have been grouped into three groups, post-hoc tests are necessary to explain the effect of classroom size.

There is an interaction between gender*classroom size and this interaction is significant, F(2, 54) = 19.10, p<.05. This indicates that the gender of the child combines with classroom size to affect math performance. Post-hoc tests indicate that for female children, math performance becomes poorer as the size of the class increases. The performance is best in classes of 10 or fewer children and worst in classes of 20 or more children.

For boys, the performance is best when the class size is both classes of 10 or fewer children and 20 or more children. It is for this reason that the researchers hypothesis (girls would do better than boys in classrooms with fewer students) has been rejected. Instead, the performance of girls in small classrooms is almost equal to that of boys in small classrooms. However, boys would indeed perform better in larger classes compared to girls performance in larger classrooms.

Research in My Area of Interest

I have an interest in working as an International Police Advisor (IPA) for the benefit of our Homeland Security. As an International Police Advisor, there are several responsibilities that I will be required to handle. Partnering with the U.S. military personnel to provide skilled persons in civilian law enforcement will be one of the main responsibilities. International Police Advisors can serve in Border and Point of Entry to enhance law at the borders and particularly prevent the entry of illegal persons, drugs, and weapons among other crimes. A great concern to the United States Homeland Security has been the identification of persons who are likely to engage in acts of terrorism or general crime.

Positive identification of likely criminals requires a thorough understanding of human behavior. In specific, an understanding of past criminal activities can be used to predict the likelihood of engaging in unlawful practices. In relation to my area of interest as an IPA, I would suggest conducting research to identify whether there is any relationship between prior engagement in misconduct, past experiences and delinquency and the likelihood of engaging in serious criminal activities.

This can form a concrete and dependable ground for criminal investigations. In this study, it would be advisable to examine an individuals prior marriage relationships in order to predict involvement in crime. This is based on Sampson and Laub (1993) argument that if persons who are in the verge of entering adulthood get involved in marriage relationships, their likelihood in engaging in crime is significantly reduced. As such, persons with unstable or no marriage relationships in the transitory period are more likely to engage in criminal activities.

Xu (2006) observes that there is tendency of having persistent antisocial behaviors in the entire life of a person. In that case, it is possible to study the existence of juvenile delinquency as a predictor of adulthood delinquency. On the same aspect, identifying various social factors such as social networks as well as social capital would help predict involvement in criminal behaviors. In addition, this study would look into whether gender influences involvement in antisocial activities. From the understanding of the above questions, it would be possible to prevent criminals from perpetrating their heinous acts thus proving beneficial to the Department of Homeland Security

Analysis of Covariance

In a mock ANCOVA, we can consider level of education as the independent variable, adult delinquency record as the dependent variable and marital status during transition to adulthood as a covariate. It is hypothesized that the level of education determines adult delinquency record with persons having below college education being more likely to become adult delinquents. Marital status is the covariate since it has the capacity to affect adult delinquency record; with persons who are not married or in a stable marriage relationship during the transition period being most likely to become delinquent. In this relationship, it is expected that a low level of education in addition to being in an unstable marriage relationship (or not married at all) would result to an increase in the level of adult delinquency records. The following data can be used to come up with a mock ANCOVA output Table 11.

Mock ANCOVA

From the mock Table 11, the effect of education level on adult criminal records is significant F(3, 68 ) = 19.66, p<.05, indicating that holding marital status constant, the number of adult criminal records will be affected by a persons level of education depending on whether the person has schooled below college level, up to college, undergraduate or postgraduate level. However, the effect of marital status on adult criminal records is not significant, F(3, 68 ) = 1.026, p>.05, indicating that when education level is held constant, the number of adult delinquency would remain fairly equal regardless of whether the person is married or not during transition to adulthood.

References

Field, A. (2009) Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage. Web.

Sampson, R. J., and Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Xu, Q. (2006). From juvenile delinquency to adult criminal behavior: expanding the state dependence perspective on persistent criminal behavior. Not Published. Web.

Appendix

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Girls Learning in Classes of 10 or Less Children.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for Boys Learning in Classes of 10 or Less Children.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for Girls Learning in Classes of 11-19 Children.

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for Boys Learning in Classes of 11-19 Children.

Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for Girls Learning in Classes of 20 or more Children.

Table 6: Descriptive Statistics for Boys Learning in Classes of 20 or More Children.

Table 7: Descriptive Statistics for Math Performance as per Gender and Classroom Size.

Table 8: Levenes Test of Homogeneity of Variances.

Table 9: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects (Gender and Classroom Size effect on Math Performance).

Table 10: Post-hoc Tests for Classroom Size (Tukey HSD, Games-Howell and Dunnetts Test).

Table 11: Mock ANCOVA Output.

Introduction

One of the areas of polyoxometalate (POM) chemistry that has had very little research is the solution chemistry of polyoxotantalates. One of the main chemical components in this area comprises the hexatantalates. The chemical species [Ta₆O₁₉]^8, which is a positively charged ion, has immense stability in elevated pH. The hexatantalates of several cationic compositions including Na₈[Ta₆O₁₉]·24.5H₂O and (NBu₄)₆[H₂Ta₆O₁₉]·10H₂O are known. Recent studies have seen the synthesis of a number of compounds by blending various complexes to form POM complexes. For example, {(p-cym)Ru}2 and the negatively charged ion [Nb₆O₁₉]^8 have been blended to form Ru/POM ratios ranging from 1:1 to 4:1.6. Combinations of POM with {(arene)Ru}²⁺ have numerous applications including the synthesis of organometals containing POM. Such compounds find use as catalysts in chemical reactions involving various organic compounds.

The authors in this experiment sought to establish the coordination of the reaction between [(C₆H₆) RuCl₂] ₂ and [Ta₆O₁₉]^8.

Methods

Sodium hexatantalate was prepared by reacting Ta₂O₅ with molten sodium hydroxide. The compound was then extracted from the reaction mixture using water. [(C₆H₆)RuCl₂] ₂ was made using pre-established protocols. TG experiments were performed in an aluminum oxide crucible at temperatures ranging from 22 to 300^oC. Thereafter, infra-red spectra data was obtained at wavelengths ranging from 4000 to 400 cm^-1. Capillary electrophoresis was performed in fused silica capillary tubes with a borate buffer at a pH of 9.18, and ultraviolet visualization was done at 254nm. Electrospray ionization mass spectra data was obtained using a quadrupole-T-wave-time-of-flight. A solution of sodium iodide dissolved in propanol was mixed with water in the ratio of 1:1 and used to calibrate the instrument.

The nuclear magnetic resonance data of carbon 13 and hydrogen were obtained at room temperature after which apparent diffusion coefficients were found using modified algorithms founded on the highest entropy and Laplace change. Direct techniques were used to elucidate the structures of Na₁₀-1 and Na₄-2, which were then distinguished using the SHEXTL programs. Density maps were used to trace the locations of the disordered atoms, which were then distinguished using isotropic methods. However, Ru atoms were not refined. Anisotropic means were utilized in the processing of all hydrogen atoms present in Na_4-2. Geometric arrangements of the benzene hydrogen atoms in Na₁₀-1 and Na₄-2 were made thereby enabling the enhancing of the hydrogen atoms as they lay on central carbon atoms. The TOPOS 4.0 professional set was employed in the evaluation of the crystal arrangement patterns.

Na₁₀ [{(C₆H₆)RuTa₆O₁₈}2(¼-O)]·39.4H₂O (Na₄-1) was then synthesized by a precipitation reaction between Na₈[Ta₆O₁₉]·24.5H₂O and [(C₆H₆)RuCl₂] ₂. The mixture was kept at 80^oC for eight hours with frequent stirring after which the precipitate was filtered off. Na₄-2 was also synthesized in the same manner as Na₄-1, but using different concentrations of Na₈[Ta₆O₁₉]·24.5H₂O and [(C₆H₆)RuCl₂] ₂ (0.025mmol and 0.014mmol instead of 0.074mmol and 0.08mmol respectively). The resulting solution was left to crystallize at room temperature for 48 hours. The ensuing compounds were analyzed using infrared spectroscopy and NMR.

Results and Discussion

It was observed that the pH of the newly constituted solution of Na₈[Ta₆O₁₉]·24.5H₂O in water had a pH value of 11.5. The pH was attributed to the relocation of protons from water. Synchronization of {(C₆H₆)Ru}²⁺ to [Ta₆O₁₉]^8 diminished the elevated negative charge of hexatantalate thereby lowering the extent of protonation. Consequently, the pH value lessened as the reaction progressed. Heating a blend of Na₈[Ta₆O₁₉]·24.5H₂O and [(C₆H₆)RuCl₂] ₂ in equal proportions in the presence of water molecules yielded a yellow-colored solution that matched a [(C₆H₆)RuTa₆O₁₉]^{6 } (1a^6) anion with one cap. Electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy was a useful tool in keeping an eye on the advancement of the reaction. In addition, there was a vibrant equilibrium of [{(C₆H₆)Ru}₂Ta₆O₁₉]^4 and [Ta₆O₁₉]^8 anions in solution because both moieties were evident in unadulterated samples of Na₁₀-1. Therefore, the creation of [{(C₆H₆) RuTa₆O₁₈}₂(¼-O)]^10 could be categorized as coordination-triggered joining of two hexatantalate ions because the blending was absent in noncoordinated hexatantalate. The interaction of the two negatively charged species was attributed to a reduction in the overall charge due to the ratios of the constituents (1:1). In addition, the coordination of the electron-tolerant portion had an influence on the electronic intensity over the oxygen atoms of the POM section. The ESI-MS evaluation of the reconstituted Na₁₀-1 consistently showed the monomeric 1a^6 anion only. That observation confirmed that the previous dimerization was a reversible process. In contrast, lowering the POM/Ru ratio to 1:2 caused the formation of [{(C₆H₆)Ru}₂Ta₆O₁₉]^4, which was separated as Na4(trans-[{(C₆H₆)Ru}₂Ta₆O₁₉]·20H₂O (Na₄-2).

Conclusion

It was concluded that the stability between hexanuclear and oxo-bridged dodecanuclear chemical groups were common attributes of the Lindqvist anions provided that they constituted a transition metal from group 4 or 5. It was also observed that only the heterometals took part in the creation of the M2OM2 link in diverse combinations. Additionally, the outcomes of capillary electrophoresis confirmed the unprompted decomposition of Na₁₀-1 in aqueous solutions. Overall, the experiment confirmed that that the dimer [{(C₆H₆)RuTa₆O₁₈}2(¼-O)]^10 could not be found in aqueous solutions because it was broken down to form [(C₆H₆)RuTa ₆O₁₉]^6(1a^6) as the prevailing moiety. In addition, the singly substituted 1a^6 anion existed in equal proportions in cis and trans varieties with the doubly substituted anion [{(C₆H₆)Ru}₂Ta₆O₁₉]^4 anion. Therefore, the steadiness of the hexatantalate component in pH ranges that exceeded the alkaline extent was attributed to the coordination of the {(C₆H₆)Ru}²⁺ part. Further elevations of pH with the addition of sodium hydroxide led to an intense ion containment.

References

Abramov, P. A., Sokolov, M. N., Floquet, S., Haouas, M., Taulelle, F., Cadot, E.,

Peresypkina, E. V., Virovets, A. V., Vicent, C., Kompankov, N. B., Zhdanov, A. A., Shuvaeva, O. V. & Fedin, V. P. (2014). Coordination-induced condensation of [Ta₆O₁₉]^8: synthesis and structure of [{(C₆H₆)Ru}2Ta₆O₁₉]^{4 } and [{(C₆H₆)RuTa₆O₁₈}2(¼-O)]^10. Inorganic Chemistry. Web.

Introduction

The United States (U.S.) and Mexico are two large countries in North America, which shares several similarities and differences in various aspects. Geographically, both countries border each other; that is, U. S borders Mexico on the North. In the basis of security and criminology, corrections systems in U. S and Mexico are characterized by several similarities as well as various differences. Correction systems entail the correctional facilities in a state, such as prisons, and the correctional processes and practices applied against criminals (Kurian, 2006). This paper will be aimed at exploring the correction systems in U. S and Mexico, but first is a general background of Mexico, to help in understanding the country and its correctional systems.

Mexico

Demography

According to reports from the latest official census, the Mexican country has a population of about 111 million people. The country witnessed a decrease in population growth rate, from 3.5% in the year 1965 to 0.99% in 2005. The countrys life expectancy in 2006 was estimated at 74.5 years in 2006. The Mexican population is highly urbanized, with close to 75 percent of the population living in the cities. Among the urbanized areas in the country are the greater Mexico City, greater Monterrey, greater Puebla and greater Guadalajara (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2009). These areas host 30 percent of the countrys population. Mexican migration patterns show that the south eastern and north western states of the country receives a considerable number of migrants annually.

However the countrys net migration has been observed to be negative, as a result of emigration of rural population to the United States. Mexico offers basic social services to its population, such as the universal free primary education. Socially the country is composed of Mayas, Olmecs, Toltecs and Aztecs cultures which have been highly developed in the recent past. On the religious perspective, Mexico accounts for no official religion. Reports indicate that the country is dominated by Christians, who accounts for 95% of the Mexican population (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2009).

Roman Catholics accounts for 89% of the population, making it to host the second largest number of Roman Catholics, after Brazil. Mexican economy rides on a GDP of 1.143, according to 2008 estimates, whose annual growth rates was 1.4% as estimated in 2008. The economy relies on Natural resources such as petroleum and natural gas, agricultural products, industry, services and trade. Its main recipient of exports is the US, which reports indicate that in 2007, the US imported 82% of Mexican exports. Mexico is a member of the World Trade Union as well as the North American Free Trade Agreement (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2009).

Corrections system Processes and Policy: Mexico vs. U. S.

The correction systems of countries differ in various aspects as illustrated by the British Journal of Criminology (Norman, 1962). For instance, the sentencing of the prisoners as conducted by the judges is not the same. Probation is another aspect used in scaling the correction system of a country. For instance, the ratio of probationers to that of prisoners, the quality of the officers conducting the probation, in terms of experience and training as well as the caseloads carried in the probations.

The architecture of the correctional facilities such as the size of the prisons and other facilities are used in the exploration of countrys correctional systems. Other important factors of consideration for a correctional system are how the correctional personnel is trained and selected, maternal and childcare for pregnant women prisoners and work by prisoners (Norman, 1962). Unlike in the US, order in the prisons is maintained through the daily decision of the officers in charge and common sense.

Amongst all the western nations, the United States is ranked as one of the countries with the highest per capita rates of incarceration. At the start of 2008 for example, more than 2.3 individual within the United States were incarcerated. For last 10 years, the population in the United States prisons has increased more than tree-folds (Kurian, 2006). Compulsory laws of sentencing policies, increased prison periods, along with a reliance on the prison system as the fundamental defense mechanisms against the committing of crime, have all acted to bring into being a prison system that was estimated to have costs the tax-payers a massive $ 49 billion, at the close of 2007.

A project on the performance of public safety that was commissioned by PEW, which is a charitable organization, indicated that increased growth of the prisons system is anticipated to require an extra $ 25 billion at the end of 2011. At the moment, a majority of the states utilize more of the public resources on prisons facilities, when compared with such other sectors as education, health, as well as housing programs (Kurian, 2006). Currently, one in every 25 male citizens within the United States has been shown to be on parole, incarcerated, or even on probation, meaning that they are constantly under the watchful eye of the criminal justice system

In Mexico, the judiciary system is made up of the state as well as the federal system, and this bears a resemblance with a similar arrangement in the United States (Glaze & Bonczar, 2006). The jurisdiction of the federal courts entails a majority of the major felonies, such as the trafficking of drugs. Mexicos penal system is made up of the state as well as the federal correction institutions. The federal districts penitentiary happens to be the biggest federal prison in Mexico, with each of the countrys states boasting of an individual penitentiary.

The prisons in Mexico are characterized by chronic overcrowding of the inmates. The absences of enough trained guards, coupled with a mistreatment of prisoners have only made the situation worse. There is also the issue of sanitary facilities that are quite inadequate, further compounding an already bad situation (Glaze & Bonczar, 2006).

One of the reasons that have been given as to why there are many inmates in the prisons in Mexico is as a result of the hard stance that this country has, with regard to drugs.

Further, there is also a difference with respect to the penal philosophies that are exhibited by the prisons systems in the United States on the one hand, and that of Mexico, on the other hand (The Pew Centre, 2008). For one, an invariable exchange is present between the community and the prisoners. In addition, the functionality of the prison systems in Mexico is such that they lack either policy systems or programs, unlike their United States counterparts. Also, the prisons in Mexico do not have in place classification committee, operations memoranda, or even institutional disciplinary committees.

In these overcrowded prison that now characterize the correctional system in Mexico, the maintenance of order is achieved, thanks to the combinations of common sense, customs, as well as the everyday decisions that are arrived at by the prisons authorities. Prisoners in Mexico are often left alone to both conduct and organize their individual lives (Barak, 2000), unlike the situation in the United States, where counseling sessions and therapy are a part of the rehabilitations program.

Prisoners within Mexico are not coerced to work, to surrender personal possession, or even made to work. This is contrary to the correction systems in the United States, whereby the prisons have to surrender their individual possession once they have been incarcerated (Barak, 2000). A recording of their possession is then taken, and they are usually refunded once their term in prison is over, or once they have been paroled. Cases of violence in Mexican prisons are also not as violent, as those reported in the United States, with a majority of these normally being restricted to only several fistfights.

1. Cases of homosexuality are also not to the levels that are reported in the United States. In addition, there have also been reported cases of mutual trust that has over the years developed between on the one hand, the guards and on the other hand, the inmates. Hostility, apathy, and alienation, which are more common within the corrections facilities in the United States, are extremely rare in the prisons within Mexico (Stirewalt, 2001). More often than not, the experience that prison gains while incarcerated ends up improving their conduct as well.
2. In recent years however, the prison facilities in Mexico have appeared to fall short of the human rights conditions, as per the requirements of CNDH (National Commission for Human Rights). In a report that was concerned with prison supervision, and which was released by the organization in November, 2008, the report noted, for the third consecutive year Chiapas, along with 7 other states, has failed [to meet] conditions (p. 1), as regards human rights. Further, the CNDH also opined that the dysfunctional prison system in the majority of the country is one of the weakest parts of public security (p. 1).
3. The Chiapas prison for instance, was once again in February this year characterized by hunger strikes, from prisoners who ran into several dozens. The hunger strike came into being over what the inmates termed as gross abuse of human rights conditions. This resulted in the Mexican government having to release a total of 300 prisoners, 41 of which were among those that went on the hunger strike (Gibbs, 2009).

The story of the conditions in Mexican prison is perhaps best exemplified by the ordeal that Terry Kennedy, who together with Dawn Marie Wilson, were released in December 2004, having spent 18 months incarcerated in a Mexican prison. According to Wilson, who had been incarcerated at Ojos Negros prison facility, located just outside of Ensenada, in Mexico, It was an incredibly painful experience, (San Diego News (2009). His fiancé, on the other hand, had been charged and imprisoned for being in possession of prescription drugs that were not authorized.

Wilson notes that inside the prisons where she was to serve her five-year jail term, prostitutions was rampant, in addition to poor sanitation, for example, showers were lacking, and toilets would not flush. Besides, the facility lacked running water, and cockroaches were in large number (San Diego News (2009). By contrast, the prison facilities in the United States are a lot cleaner, with much improved sanitation conditions.

In the United States, incarceration appears to be more of a concurrent power, usually safeguarded by the countrys constitution. The implication then is that the operation of the prisons is under the close scrutiny of state and federal governments. According to (Glaze & Bonczar, 2006), the United States at the moment ranks as the leading country with the largest number of incarcerations rates that have thus far been documented. This is in addition to the number of inmates that have also been documented worldwide.

By the end of 2007, a total of 7.2 million individual are believed to have been in prison, on parole, or on probation (The Pew Centre, 2008).There is a striking similarity of the prisons conditions in the United States, with those in Mexico, such as the type of medical care that the inmates usually receives (The Pew Centre, 2008), and which is usually pathetic. Human Rights Watch, a non-governmental organization, has voiced its concern regarding this issue, along with increased cases of rape in prisons.

Prison Journal undertook a survey that involved a total of 1,788 male inmates, from a number of prisons within the prisons located in the Midwestern region. 21 percent of the respondents to this research study reported that their had either been pressured or forced to engaging in sexual activities during their incarceration period., with a further 7 percent of the respondents asserting that even in new facilities, they had also been raped.

Prison Management/Administration

The correction systems has lately been faced with tough decisions to make, as regards the issue of prisons management, while at the same time also ensuring that the inmates, the public, and also the members of staff at the various prisons facilities, remains safe. One of the greatest challenges that now face the corrections systems in Mexico is a burgeoning in the number of inmates (Barak, 2000). Consequently, this has resulted in an increase in the budget for running the prison system, even as the available resources continue to dwindle.

Furthermore, a limited in terms of the available facilities for the prisoners, such as beds, is also an added burden. It is now estimated that out of very 100,000 members of the general population, this accounts for a total of 191 inmates (The Pew Center, 2008). What this means is that the mental facilities in Mexico are now at the moment overstretched, at more than 125 percent of their normal capacity (Gibbs, 2009).

This is a clear indication of poor and skewed, with the result that those Mexicans that are marginalized ends up as the major culprits. The congestion on Mexicans prisons is so bad that prisons cells that are normally meant to house only 5 inmates, ends up taking as amnesty as 20 (Gibbs, 2009). Consequently, prisons in Mexico have now turned into breeding grounds, literary, of many of the civic abuses, such as ethics discrimination, and sexual outrages.

Punishment and Corrections Foundation and Background

For a United States citizen who is in a foreign land, they are often subjected to the regulations and laws of their mother country. Usually, such rules and regulations will vary greatly from the one to be found in the United States. On the other hand, Mexican trial processes of offenders differ from that of the United States. In addition, the correction systems procedures shall also differ from one state to the next. Penalties that accompany the breaking of the law by citizens of the United States may very well become extremely severe, for those offenses that are related (Glaze & Bonczar, 2006).

For those individuals that usually violate the laws of Mexico, even when this happens without their knowledge, the result is that they may be arrested, or even incarcerated. Possession of, along with the trafficking of drugs that have been labeled illegal is an offense that is perceived as extremely severe, in Mexico, culminating in prolonged jails terms, if not heavy fines (Starke, 2006).

The facilities that are found in Mexican prisons could be tremendously poor. Amongst a majority of the prison facilities in the county, the quality of foods given to the inmates is inadequate, both in terms of quality as well as quantity. Additionally, prisoners are usually forced to pay using their personal finances, in order that they may have access to an adequate nutrition (Starke, 2006).

The type of medical care that is provided by a majority of the prisons facilities in Mexico is extremely poor. In addition, even those prisoners in a dire need of either constant or urgent medical care, ends up receiving just the basic minimum forms of medical care. Citizens of the United States that are usually incarcerated within the prison facilities in Mexico have no choice but to pay a heavy price, financing, usually in the form of protection money (The Pew Centre, 2008), so that they do not face the wrath of fellow prisoners. This is not the case with the Mexican prisoners in the United States prison facilities.

Death penalty

Currently, the congress within Mexico has reached a unanimous decision to address the possibility if capital punishment for some of the crimes, being reinstated (Gibbs 2009). This has been occasioned by a rise in kidnappings and murder cases within the country, a majority of which bears a connection with organized crime and drug cartels. In 205, capital punishment was abolished in Mexico, although recent surveys indicate that more than two thirds of Mexicans (70 percent) still prefer the death penalty being reinstated.

Nevertheless the amendment of the constitution to make an allowance for capital; punishment being reinstated, seems rather remote. The government, human rights groups and the church as well, are all opposed to the reinstatement of the death penalty, in a strong way (Gibbs 2009). For a long time now, Mexico has voiced its concern at international forums, that capital punishment be abolished. In effect, no single execution has been carried out in Mexico, since 1961 (Gibbs 2009).

However, a lot of Mexicans are horrified at the escalation in the levels of insecurity within the country, forcing the government to think about possible ways of attempting to control these. In contrast, at total of 37 states in the United States had authorized the Death Penalty, by April 1, 2008, while 13 states are amongst the jurisdictions that are yet to authorize capital punishment (Gibbs, 2009).

Contemporary Issues in Punishment and Corrections

What this contemporary research indicates that there are similarities that are commons between the corrections system in the United States, and those in the Mexican prisons. In addition, studies have also indicated that the corrections system in Mexico is not in favor of the death penalty, although an increasing number of Mexicans prefer it, owing to the rise in crime levels. On the other hand, there are a total of 37 states in the United States that have authorized the death penalty, while the rest are yet to authorize it (Glaze & Bonczar, 2006).

There is a need for the justice system Mexico to address the high level of congestions that characterizes the prisons. One way of doing this is by way of embracing community service, in which minor offenders undertake community service for a given number of hours, instead of being imprisoned. Another way is to have less serious offenders put on probation. The encouragement of a social bond between inmates and the guards in the correction facilities in Mexico is beneficial, in that the inmates do not view the guards as their enemies, but helpers rather, and whose intention is to facilitate their smooth transition in the corrections facility. Another benefit of the corrections system in Mexico is the fact that the prisoner and the community share a positive relationship (Barak, 2000). This is important, in order to build trust amongst the members of the community that indeed, the inmates have a chance to reform.

References

Barak, G. (2000). Crime and crime control: a global view. London: Sage.

Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs. (2009). Applying for presidential permits for border crossing facilities (Mexico). Fact Sheet. Web.

Gibbs, S. (2009). Mexico to rethink death penalty. BBC News, Mexico City Friday, 23.

Glaze, L. E., & Bonczar, T. P. (2006). Probation and parole in the United States. U. S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Kurian, G. T. (2006). World encyclopedia of police forces and correctional systems. (2^nd Ed). New York: Thomson Gale.

Norman, S. H. (1962). Correctional Systems and National Values. British Journal of Criminology, 1962 3: 163.

The Pew Centre (2008). One in 100: behind bars in America 2008.

San Diego News (2009). San Diegan Describes Mexican Prison Experience. Web.

Starke, S. (2006). COHAs Report on Mexicos Prison System: Yet Another Blemished Aspect of Foxs Failed Presidency. Web.

Stirewalt, W. T. (2001). Mexicos Prisons Deserve Emulation. Journal of corrections, 7(6): 45-48.

Introduction

The term Kinesin refers to any motor protein that is often found in eukaryotic cells. The term defines a broad class of motor proteins which move along microtubule cables powered by the hydrolysis of ATP. (Rogers 2010) This active movement of Kinesins supports several cellular functions which include mitosis, meiosis, and transport of other materials such as axonal transport. (Takemura 2004) The proteins provide homodimeric catastrophe factors in which the kinesin motor domain, which contains the MT- and ATP binding sites, lies in the middle of the amino acid sequence. (Berriman et al., 2002 ) Kinesin 45 is thought to play a role in the chromosome segregation in Trypanosoma brucei, an African trypanosome which infects a wide range of mammals including humans. (Moores 2006) This study aims to localize Kinesin 45 within a trypanosome cell and identify its role during the mitotic process.

Trypanosoma brucei is an extracellular parasite, it inhabits the intercellular space and in the bloodstream of its mammalian host. Its genome consists of three chromosome types which are characterized by their sizes. There are 11 pairs of large (1 to >6Mbp) megabase sized chromosomes (MBCs, a variable number (1 to 5) of intermediate (200 to 900 Kb) sized chromosomes (ICs) and a population in the order of approximately 100 minichromosomes (50 to 150 Kb, MCs) (Berriman et al., 2002) The trypanosomes show several differences from the metazoan kind of mitosis. They do not go through the observable chromosome condensation during the mitotic phase. Similar to yeast, they perform a closed mitosis where the mitotic spindle forms within the nucleus without the breakdown of its nuclear envelope. (Takemura 2004)The T. brucei possesses about 120 chromosomes, for these chromosomes to segregate, the spindles in the mitotic phase should have at least 240 microtubules. (Ogbadoyi et al., 2000) However, previous studies indicate that the number of microtubules present during mitosis does not exceed 100 which is well below the minimum requirement. (Ogbadoyi et al., 2000)) Thus trypanosomes should be having an alternative method of chromosome segregation. Several theoretical models have been suggested to explain the possible methods of chromosome segregation in the T. brucei. A model of minichromosome segregation called the lateral stacking in which the MBCs and ICs are segregated conventionally while the associate laterally pole-to-pole microtubules of the mitotic spindle. (Rogers 2010) This model gives a possible explanation for the chromosome segregation in the trypanosomes; it however gives little indication of the molecular mechanisms involved. This study partly aims at revealing the role played by members of the kinesin-13 family, particularly Kinesin 45 in the chromosome segregation in T. brucei. (Moores 2006) These kinesins have previously been associated with mitotic functions as they are microtube deployments. T. brucei posses 7 kinesins 13 family members, Kinesin 45 (kif45) do not possess a positively charged neck domain and its isoelectric point has been calculated to 4.61, thus it may have a different mitotic function compared to other members even though this characteristic can be seen in other members such as kif24. (Vanstraelen et al., 2006)

Materials and Methods

The kinesin 45 genes and the resultant protein sequences will be sourced from the Trypanosoma brucei gene database. The sequences will be verified by the presence of kinesin motor domain as predicted by protein database. (Letunic et al., 2006)

T. brucei culture

The procyclic strains of T. brucei (427, 449, and 29-13) will be maintained using the SDM-79 medium at 28 degrees Celsius. The bloodstream strain 442 will be grown in the HMI-9 medium at 37 degrees Celsius. Hygromycin, phleomycin, and blasticidin antibiotics will be used in the preservation and selection of the cell lines. (Wirtz et al., 1999) Transfection will be performed on the procyclic strains which will then be allowed to recuperate in SDM- 79 at 28 degrees Celsius.

Generation of 29-13/p2T7-TbKif45 RNAi cell lines

The vector p2T7-177 will be used to make the kinesin 45 constructs to allow inducible production of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) from opposing T7 promoters within the vector. (Inoue et al., 1990) The targeted Tbkif45 genes will be amplified using a standard PCR. After suitable cloning, the cells will be transformed into competent E. coli XLI-Blue cells for amplification. (Takemura 2004) After overnight incubation at 37 degrees Celsius using the Luria-Bertani media the positive colonies will be selected and the DNA harvested via alkaline lysis. (Inoue et al., 1990) This will be followed by digestion using the restriction enzymes HindIII and BamHI and separation by agarose gel.

Making polyclonal antibody of Tbkif45

Protein expression vectors will be constructed using the pTrcHisC vector which adds a polyhistidine tag at the N-terminus of the inserted gene fragment. (wickstead et al., 2002) The DNA coding region for the kinesin 45 will be amplified using standard PCR using strain 427 as the template. The correct reading frame will be verified by sequencing the 100 bp upstream from the point of insertion of the PCR fragment. After the verification, the constructs will be used to express recombinant kinesin 45 fragments in the E.coli BL21 cell line. The transformed cells will be grown in a prewarmed LB medium at 37 degrees Celsius. Isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) will be added to the culture to induce the production of recombinant proteins. (wickstead et al., 2002) The cells will be harvested and lysed via passaging through the French pressure cell; the resulting lysate will be centrifuged to separate the soluble from the insoluble fraction of the lysate. (wickstead et al., 2002) For the soluble fraction, the recombinant proteins were collected by purification. While for the insoluble fraction the recombinant protein will be collected by discarding the supernatant, resuspending the pellet in a denaturing lysis buffer to solubilize. This will be followed by centrifugation to remove any particles.

SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blotting

The entire procedure will be carried out at room temperature. The cells will be washed first once with PBS before being dissolved in hot SDS PAGE loading buffer (0.045 M tris-Cl, pH 6.8, 10% glycerol, 1% SDS, 0.02% bromophenol blue, 2.5%beta-mercaptoethanol). The sample will then be loaded onto a 10% Tris/Glycine SDS-Polyacrylamide gel for protein separation. (Sambrook 1989) The gel will then be transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane in a NUpage buffer for one hour at 30 V. The membranes will be blocked using BSA or skimmed milk at 7% (w/v) and diluted in Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% tween-20 (TBS-T) for about 30 minutes at room temperature while shaking. (wickstead et al., 2002)The antibodies will be incubated at 7% (w/v) milk TBS-, the membrane will be incubated first with the primary antibody for 1 hour, followed by washes with TBS-T before proceeding to incubation with a corresponding conjugated antibody for 1 hour. (Moores 2006) The membrane will then be washed and processed using a chemiluminescence reagent and finally detected by wrapping the blots to a light-sensitive film for approximately 5 minutes.

Cloning of TbKif45 and construction of Tbkif45myc cell line

This is the final step and will be done using tetracycline-inducible expression plasmids. The open reading frames for the kinesin 45 genes will be amplified using the proofreading Accusure Taq polymerase on genomic DNA from a suitable trypanosome strain. (Sambrook 1989)

Reference list

Berriman, M., Hall, N., Sheader, K., Bringuad, F., and G. Rudenko. (2002) The architecture of variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites in Trypanasoma brucei. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 122:131-40

Inoue, H., Nojima, H., and Okayama, H. (1990) High efficiency transformation of the Escherichia coli with plasmids. Gene. 96:23-8

Letunic, I., Copley, R., Pils, B., and Bork, P. (2006) SMART 5: domains in the context of genomes and networks. Nucleic Acids Res. 34: D257-60

Moores, C. (2006). Microtube depolymerisation by kinesin-13 motors. London: The Scripps Research institute.

Ogbadoyi, E., Ersfeld, K., Robinson, D., Sherwin, T., and Gull, K. (2000) Architecture of Trypanosoma Brucei nucleus during interphase and mitosis. Chromosoma. 108:501-13.

Rogers, D. S. (2010). Microtubule motors in mitosis. California: University of California.

Sambrook, J., fritsch, E and Maniatis, T. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A laboratory Manual

Takemura, N. H. (2004). Kinesin superfamily proteins and their various functions and dynamics. Web.

Vanstraelen, M., Inze, D., and Geelen, D. (2006) Mitosis-specific Kinesins in Arabidopsis. Trends Plants Sci. 11: 167-75.

Wickstead, B., Ersfeld, K., and Gull, K. (2002) Targeting of tetracycline-inducible expression system to the transcriptionally silent minichromosomes of Trypanosoma brucei. Mol biochem Parasitol. 125: 211-6

Wirtz, E., Leal, C., Ochart, C., and Cross, G. (1999) A tightly regulated inducible expression system for conditional gene Knock-outs and dominant-negative genetics in Trypanosoma Brucei. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 99:89-101

Introduction

The aim of this experiment was to prepare a stereoisomeric mixture of secondary alcohols from the reaction of cis and trans 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone with sodium borohydride. 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone is a mixture of cis and trans isomers each containing a ketone functional group. The cis:trans ratio of 2,6-dimethylcyclohexanone used in this experiment was 80:20(cis:trans). The trans isomer has two distinct enantiomers while the cis isomer is a meso compound as shown in the diagrams below:

Nucleophilic attack of the H^ ion(from NaBH₄) on the electrophilic carbon atom of 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone can occur either from front face or from the back face. This result to the reduction of the ketone carbonyl group (sp²) to a secondary alcohol in which the carbonyl carbon is sp³ hybridized (Hathaway 1623). The reaction mechanism is as shown in the diagram below.

The products of this nucleophilic acyl addition reaction are 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanol isomers. Each product contains two chiral centers at C2 and C6 and as shown by the spiral lines draw in the structures above. Depending on the configuration of the atoms/group of atoms attached to chiral center, we get either R- or S-diastereomer.

Since diastereomers have distinct free energies associated with them, they can be separated and characterized experimentally by chromatographic techniques i.e. gas chromatography and spectroscopic methods i.e. IR, NMR. On the other hand, enantiomers have identical free energies and cannot be separated by ordinary means (Hathaway 1624).

The products were analyzed using IR spectroscopy method to determine the functional group transformation that occurred (from ketone to alcohol). Gas chromatography analysis was done to examine the stereochemical distribution of the products i.e. cis versus trans resulting from the reaction.

Procedure

Synthesis of 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanol

10ml of methanol and 0.5g of 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone (80:20 cis: trans mixture) were added to 50ml Erlenmeyer flask containing a magnetic stirrer bar. The stirrer was placed in the hood with two ring stands positioned on either side. An ice bath (~½  ¾ full) was placed on the stirrer and the flasks were inserted in it and clamped on the ring stands. The stirrer/hot plate was then turned on (not heat).

100mg of sodium borohydride was added in 2,50mg portions to the flasks as the stirring continued. After adding all the NaBH_4, the reaction was allowed to subside for approximately 5-10 minutes before removing the flasks from the ice bath. The mixture was then stirred for another 15minutes at room temperature. 5ml of 10% NaOH, 5ml of de-ionized water and 15ml of hexane were then added to the flask. The contents were stirred for 3-5 minutes. The stirrer was then removed and the contents were transferred into a 125ml separation funnel clamped on a stand. The organic layer containing the products was separated from the aqueous layer in clearly labeled 50ml flasks.

The aqueous layer was returned into the separatory funnel and 10ml of hexane was added. The funnel was stoppered and the contents were shaken for 1-2 minutes and then allowed to stand. The organic layer was dispensed into flask labeled organic layer. This washing was repeated once more and the remaining aqueous layer was drained into the flask labeled water layer. 100mg of magnesium sulfate (drying agent) was then added to the beaker labeled organic layer and the contents swirled. The mixture was then filtered into a pre-weighed, clean, dry 125ml Erlenmeyer flask, separating the drying agent from the organic layer.

A water bath (~½  ¾) full of tap water was then placed on the stirrer/ hot plate. The flask containing the organic layer was clamped in to the water bath. The hot plate was switched on and the contents heated gently until all the hexane evaporated, leaving a clear to slightly yellow oil as the product. The flask was then removed from the water bath and wiped to dry. It was then weighed to determine the mass of the product and therefore the percent yield.

Analysis of 2, 6-dimethylcylohexanol

An infrared (IR) spectrum of both the product and 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone was run to determine the functional group transformation. Further, a gas chromatography analysis was done determine the products of the reaction as well as their stability.

Test of alcohols (Jones Oxidation)

Four clean and dry test tubes (75mm X 12mm) were set on the test tube rack and labeled # 1-4. In test tube #1,2 drops of cyclohexanol (+control) were added, test tube #2,2 drops cyclohexanone(-control) were added, test tube #3,approximately 10mg of 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone were added and in test tube #4,10mg of the product were added. 1ml of acetone was added to each test tube and the mixture swirled to dissolve the compounds. One drop of the Jones reagent was then added to each test tube and the color change observed after about 1 minute.

Bradys test for ketones

Eight clean and dry test tubes (75mm X 12mm) were placed in test tube rack in the hood. The test tubes were labeled #1-8 and reagents were added as follows:

In test tube #1, 2 drops of cyclohexanone (+ control), test tube #2, two drops of cyclohexanol (- control), test tube # 3,10mg of 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone and in test tube #4,10mg of the product was added. 2ml of ethanol were added to each test tube and the contents swirled to dissolve the compounds. 2ml of the Bradys reagent were added to test tubes #5-8. The contents of tube #1were added to tube #5, tube #2 to tube #6, tube #3 to tube #7 and tube #4 to tube #8 respectively. The contents were swirled to mix and the color of the precipitate noted.

Results/observations

Mass of the product=0.34g

Table 1; Test for alcohol (Jones oxidation)

Table 2; Bradys test for ketones.

Table 3; Major IR spectrum peaks for 2, 6-dimethylhexanone

Table 4; Major IR spectrum peaks for 2, 6-dimethylhexanol

Discussion

Color changed from orange to blue in both test tube #1 and #4 confirming the presence of alcohol functional groups (positive test to Jones oxidation test). The color change in test tube #4 confirmed that the ketone functional group in 2, 6-dimethylhexanone was transformed to an alcohol in course of the reaction. Test tube #2 and #3 tested negative because they contained ketones. In the Bradys test for ketones, a yellow precipitate was observed in both test tube #5 and #7 indicating the presence of ketone functional groups. A negative test in test tube #8 confirmed that the transformation of the ketone to an alcohol.

The IR spectra of 2, 6-dimethylhexanone shows strong absorption peak between 1710-1720 cm^-1due to C=O stretching characteristic for ketones. The weak peaks around 1350-1360 cm^-1are due to strong CH₃ bending and the C-C-C bending give rise to the peaks at 1100 cm^-1 region.

The IR spectra for 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanol shows a strong broad peak at around 3450 cm^-1due to stretching of hydrogen bonded O-H bond characteristic of alcohol functional group. In the region between 980-1200 cm^-1 sharp peaks resulting from C-O stretching was observed. Other medium peaks in 1330-1430 cm^-1region result from O-H bending (in-plane bending) in 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanol. The strong peak at around 2800-2975 cm^-1 results from stretching of C-H bonds.

From the calculated values of the steric strain energy, D and E (0 Kcal) are the most stable conformers while F and H (2.4Kcal) are the least stable. The highest peak on the chromatogram corresponds to the most stable conformers.

Conclusion

The Jones test, Bradys test and the IR spectrum confirm that 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanone was reduced to 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanol. A yield of 66.93% of the product was obtained showing that the method was effective. The IR spectrum of the product shows strong peaks resulting from OH functional groups illustrating functional group transformation. Conformational analysis shows that the cis isomer of 2, 6-dimethylcyclohexanol (D and E) are the most stable (0Kcal steric strain energy) while F the least stable (2.4Kcal steric strain energy). Conformer has a distribution of 54.17% and corresponds to the

Work Cited

Hathaway, Bruce. Reduction of 2, 6-dimethlcyclohexanone with sodium borohydride revisited. Journal of Chemistry Education 75.12 (1998): 1623-1624.

Research Area

My main area of research will be in the analysis of the performance of the various features of business organizations in a selected area. This entails the use of data from the field to produce results and consequently, carry out analysis on the same to make conclusions and recommendations.

In this area of study, SPSS will be highly applicable in the analysis of the quantitative data collected from the sample. This software helps in reducing the time spent in the analysis of the data and presents the data in a clear and precise manner. It also forms the basis of qualitative analysis since it is from the graphical representation that the quality of a given phenomenon can be ascertained. This research test will be aimed at determining the various case scenarios and therefore, form a clear rationale in judging the profitability of the business or the sample space. It is, therefore, important to note that the variables which are to be significant in this research have to be well defined and entered in the data set of the SPSS before analysis (Douglas, 2007).

From the above research area, the hypothesis statement could be,

Null hypothesis: The firm is not performing well as expected.

Alternative hypothesis: The firm is performing well as expected.

The following is some of the possible variables, which can be used in the research study

1. Name
2. Number of departments
3. Type of the business
4. Products
5. Level of business
6. Number of clients
7. Expenses
8. Income
9. No of employees
10. Expansion
11. Presence of competitors

Activity #2

Box plot for DownloadFestival

Clustered Bar chart for Chick flick

Exploratory analysis

Exploratory data analysis is the process done to the data collected before any other analysis is done. This is the exploration of the data gathered and entails processes such as descriptive studies comprising of computation of medians, mode, mean, and frequencies among others. This first step is normally interested in the establishment of the normality of the databasing on the assumptions made while collecting and recording data.

This forms the basis for the rationale of carrying out other studies such as parametric analysis. The exploratory analysis also helps in the establishment of various characteristics of the data such as symmetry, skew and scatter of the data. Further, the analysis helps in determining whether the data portray a normal distribution or not and thus forms a basis for deciding either to use parametric or non-parametric techniques to analyze data.

It is evident, therefore, that exploratory analysis is very significant, and hence it is important to perform it before the actual analysis to establish trends and correct errors. The main reason for exploratory analysis is to prepare data for subsequent analysis.

Reference

Douglas, J. (2007). Basic Research Methods and Statistical Concepts. New York: McGraw-Hill.